Qipao
The qipao (Chinese: 旗袍; pinyin: qípáo), also known as the cheongsam, is a one-piece women's garment originating from the loose, long robes known as qizhuang worn by Manchu women as formal attire during China's Qing dynasty (1644–1912).[1][2] It features a high mandarin collar, frog fastenings, and originally full-length coverage, reflecting Manchu ethnic influences imposed on Han Chinese society under Qing rule.[1] Following the 1911 Revolution that ended imperial rule, the qipao evolved in Republican-era urban centers, particularly Shanghai, into a more form-fitting silhouette with shortened hemlines and high side slits by the 1920s and 1930s, incorporating Western tailoring techniques to symbolize women's social emancipation and modern aesthetics amid rapid industrialization and cultural shifts.[3][4] This transformation elevated it from ethnic minority dress to a national emblem of Chinese femininity and elegance, popularized among the emerging middle class and exported via film, literature, and diaspora communities.[2] Peaking in popularity from the 1920s to the 1940s before wartime and communist policies curtailed its extravagance, the qipao persists today as a high-fashion staple for formal occasions, weddings, and cultural festivals worldwide, often customized with silk embroidery or modern fabrics while retaining its core structure as a marker of refined heritage.[1][3] Its global adaptations have sparked debates over cultural appropriation, though empirical adoption patterns show it as a voluntarily embraced fusion rather than imposed exoticism.[5]Terminology
Etymology and Regional Names
The term qipao (旗袍) derives from Mandarin Chinese, where qí (旗) refers to the "banners" of the Manchu Eight Banners military and administrative system established during the early Qing Dynasty in 1644, and páo (袍) means "robe" or "gown," thus literally translating to "banner gown" or "Manchu gown."[6][7] This nomenclature originally denoted the loose-fitting, one-piece robes worn by Manchu women as part of ethnic dress mandated under Qing sumptuary laws, distinguishing them from Han Chinese attire.[1] In Cantonese-speaking regions, the garment is commonly called cheongsam (長衫 or 長袍), a romanization of chēung sām, meaning "long robe" or "long gown," reflecting a broader description of its form rather than ethnic origin.[8][9] The term gained prominence in Hong Kong, Guangdong Province, and overseas Chinese diaspora communities during the 20th century, particularly after the 1920s when the dress evolved into its fitted, modern silhouette in Shanghai and spread via film and fashion.[10] While qipao and cheongsam are often used interchangeably in English to describe the same garment, qipao predominates in Mandarin contexts like mainland China and Taiwan, whereas cheongsam prevails in Cantonese-influenced areas such as Hong Kong and Singapore.[11] Other regional variations include sāamfuk (衫褲) in some Cantonese dialects for two-piece ensembles resembling early qipao styles, though these are less common today and typically distinguish separates from the signature one-piece form.[12] The adoption of these names underscores the garment's adaptation from Qing-era Manchu origins to a Republican-period (1912–1949) symbol of Han Chinese modernity, with terminology reflecting linguistic and cultural divides rather than substantive design differences.[1]Historical Origins
Manchu Foundations in the Qing Dynasty
The qipao originated as the traditional one-piece robe worn by Manchu women during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), established after the Manchu conquest of Ming China in 1644. Known as the "banner gown" (旗袍, qípáo), the term derives from the Manchu Eight Banners military and administrative system, under which the conquering ethnic group was organized, with women of banner households required to wear this garment as a marker of identity.[6][13] The robe's design reflected Manchu nomadic heritage, prioritizing practicality for equestrian activities, featuring a straight silhouette, high stand-up collar, side slits for mobility, and closure on the right side with looped fabric fastenings and knotted buttons.[13][14] Early Qing emperors, starting with the Shunzhi Emperor (r. 1644–1661), enforced Manchu dress codes on bannermen to preserve ethnic distinctions, mandating the qipao for women in official and daily contexts within banner communities, while Han Chinese women faced pressure to adopt it publicly but often retained their ruqun (short jacket over skirt) ensembles privately.[15][14] The garment was typically constructed from silk, sometimes embroidered with motifs symbolizing status, and extended to floor length, though looser and less body-conforming than later iterations, allowing layering underneath.[13] Informal variants like the changyi and chenyi emerged prominently during the Qianlong Emperor's reign (1736–1795), incorporating subtle Han influences such as wider sleeves while maintaining core Manchu elements like the lack of trousers beneath to signify non-laboring status.[14][16] This foundational attire underscored Manchu cultural dominance, with the qipao serving as both everyday wear for all social strata within banner families and ceremonial dress for nobility, often paired with elaborate hairstyles like the dual-wing chignon.[15] Despite gradual sinicization—evident in mid-Qing adoptions of Han-style embroidery and colors—the robe retained its distinct one-piece form, distinguishing it from Han multi-piece ensembles and laying the structural basis for subsequent evolutions.[17][16]