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Realis mood

The realis mood is a grammatical category in linguistics that expresses events, states, or propositions that are factual, actualized, or asserted as real, typically contrasting with the irrealis mood, which marks hypothetical, potential, or unreal scenarios.^[1]^[2] In many languages, realis aligns closely with the indicative mood, indicating propositions that the speaker presents as true or realized, such as declarative statements about past or present events (e.g., "She walks to the store").^[1]^[3] As part of the broader inflectional system of mood, which grammaticalizes aspects of modality within verbal morphology, the realis mood often employs affixes, suppletion, or cumulative markers shared with tense and aspect to convey its meanings.^[1] This distinction is particularly prominent in languages of the Americas, Papua New Guinea, and Austronesian families, where realis markers may appear in main clauses for asserted facts, while irrealis forms handle futures, conditionals, or negations.^[3] For instance, in the Papuan language Amele, realis forms denote completed actions, whereas irrealis is required for future-oriented events like "They will kill the pig."^[3] Scholars note that while realis typically represents "real" events, its precise semantics can vary, sometimes overlapping with evidentiality or aspectual completedness across languages.^[1]^[2] The realis-irrealis binary serves as a typological tool for analyzing modal systems, though it is not universal and differs from Indo-European moods like the subjunctive, which often emphasizes syntactic subordination rather than pure reality status.^[1]^[3] In descriptive linguistics, realis markers can function jointly with other categories or independently, highlighting its role in clause chaining and information structure in diverse grammatical contexts.^[3]

Overview and Definition

Core Definition

The realis mood (abbreviated REAL) is a grammatical mood used principally to indicate that a proposition expresses a statement of fact, reality, or known event, in contrast to hypothetical, potential, or uncertain scenarios. It typically marks assertions concerning actual occurrences, completed actions, or verifiable truths within a language's verbal system. In tense-aspect-mood (TAM) systems, the realis mood plays a fundamental semantic role by anchoring propositions to empirical reality, thereby distinguishing factual assertions from non-factual or counterfactual ones. The term "realis" derives from the Late Latin realis, meaning "actual" or "pertaining to things," and was introduced in modern linguistics to categorize this mood distinction, particularly in cross-linguistic studies of modality.^[4] In many languages, the indicative mood functions as the prototypical expression of realis.

Distinction from Irrealis Mood

The realis and irrealis moods form a binary grammatical opposition that distinguishes between events perceived as actualized or occurring in the speaker's believed reality and those situated outside it, such as hypotheticals, futures, or counterfactuals. Realis typically encodes factual or realized situations, as in declarative statements about past or present events (e.g., "She ate the apple"), whereas irrealis covers non-actualized scenarios, including possibilities, desires, or unknowns (e.g., "She might eat the apple"). This contrast underscores their complementary roles: realis asserts certainty in the real world, while irrealis signals uncertainty or alternative realities, often aligning with the speaker's epistemic stance.^[5]^[6] In tense-aspect-mood (TAM) systems, the realis-irrealis distinction operates as a core category of reality status, frequently grammaticalized through verbal inflections, affixes, auxiliaries, or portmanteau morphemes that encode mood alongside other features like subject agreement. These markers allow languages to categorize predicates based on their alignment with actual versus imagined domains, influencing clause structure and semantic interpretation across diverse linguistic families. For instance, realis forms may default in assertive contexts, while irrealis triggers specialized morphology for non-factual expressions, integrating with evidentiality to indicate the source or reliability of information about events.^[6]^[7] The theoretical foundations of this distinction trace back to early 20th-century observations but gained prominence in functionalist and typological linguistics from the late 20th century onward, particularly through cross-linguistic surveys emphasizing its role in modality and event conceptualization. Influential works, such as those examining grammaticalization paths, highlighted how realis-irrealis emerges as a unified opposition in languages where it serves as the primary mood category, often interacting with temporal and evidential systems to encode speaker commitment to event reality. This framework has been central to debates on the universality of mood categories, with typologists noting its binary nature in select languages despite variations in semantic scope.^[8]

Realis in English

Modern English Indicative

In modern English, the indicative mood serves as the primary grammatical category for expressing realis propositions, functioning as the default form for statements of fact, reality, or high probability. It is used to convey asserted events or states that the speaker presents as actual or true, such as in declarative sentences like "He runs every morning," which asserts a habitual fact. This mood also extends to interrogative and negative constructions, enabling inquiries about reality, as in "Does he run every morning?" or denials like "He does not run every morning." A key syntactic feature of the indicative in modern English is the use of auxiliary verbs, particularly the do-support construction with "do," "does," or "did," which is obligatory for emphasis, subject-auxiliary inversion in questions, and negation in non-past tenses.^[9] For instance, emphatic affirmatives employ it as in "He does run every morning," while questions and negations require it to maintain the indicative form, such as "Did he run?" or "He didn't run."^[10] This mechanism supports the mood's role in realis contexts by facilitating structural variations without altering the verb's core tense or aspect. The indicative mood conveys a sense of certainty or factual grounding, distinguishing it from modal verbs like "might" or "could," which introduce irrealis elements of possibility or hypotheticality. For example, "He runs" implies direct reality, whereas "He might run" shifts toward uncertainty. In terms of morphology, modern English exhibits reduced inflectional marking for the indicative, limited primarily to the third-person singular present tense ending "-s" (e.g., "he runs") and the regular past tense suffix "-ed" (e.g., "he walked," though irregular forms vary).^[10] Beyond these, there are no dedicated realis-specific affixes; the mood is largely realized through tense and auxiliary systems rather than distinct morphological markers.

Historical Evolution in English

In Old English, the indicative mood served as the primary grammatical category for expressing realis assertions, such as statements of fact or questions about actual events, through a rich system of inflections that marked person, number, and tense. Verbs were divided into strong and weak paradigms, with strong verbs altering the stem vowel for past tense (e.g., singan "to sing" became sang in the past indicative singular) and weak verbs adding a dental suffix (e.g., hieran "to hear" became hierde). In the present indicative, endings included -e for first person singular and -eþ for third person singular (e.g., ic hier-e "I hear," hē hier-eþ "he hears"), -est for second person singular (þū hier-est "you hear"), and -aþ for plural (wē hier-aþ "we hear"). These forms, inherited from Proto-Germanic, ensured clear morphological distinction for realis contexts, contrasting with the subjunctive's more uniform endings like -e across singular persons for hypothetical or non-factual uses.^[11]^[12] The transition to Middle English, particularly after the Norman Conquest of 1066, accelerated the simplification of these inflections due to bilingual contact with French and the reduction of unstressed final vowels, shifting English toward analytic structures reliant on auxiliaries and word order rather than synthetic endings. Verb paradigms lost much of their person-number distinctions; for instance, present indicative plural forms reduced to -e(n) or -eþ regionally, while third singular varied between -eþ (southern) and -es (northern), and second singular -est persisted but weakened. Weak verbs standardized past endings to -ed(e), but overall, the indicative's realis function became less morphologically overt, with auxiliaries like do- and will- emerging to support assertions. This erosion, influenced by Norman French's analytic tendencies, reduced Old English's seven strong and three weak classes to simpler patterns, though regional dialects like those in the North retained more inflectional vitality longer.^[13]^[14] By Early Modern English (c. 1500–1700), the indicative mood solidified as the unmarked realis form through standardization efforts, including the adoption of -s for third person singular present (e.g., he hears, replacing variable -eth forms like heareth) and -ed for past tense weak verbs (e.g., walked), driven by printing and southern dialect prestige. Strong verbs retained irregular pasts (e.g., sang, went), but the system's simplicity emphasized factual assertions without the elaborate paradigms of Old English. The Germanic roots contributed to the indicative's stability as the default realis mood, while the subjunctive (irrealis) increasingly diverged through remnant forms like be/were in counterfactuals (e.g., if I were), as phonological leveling eroded shared inflections and favored analytic periphrases for non-realis. Modern indicative forms, such as the uniform present plural without endings, represent these simplified descendants.^[15]^[16]

Realis Across Languages

Indo-European Examples

In the Indo-European language family, the indicative mood commonly serves as the default realis form, expressing factual assertions and real events, often distinguished through its opposition to the subjunctive mood rather than via dedicated realis affixes. This pattern is evident across branches, where the indicative encodes propositions assumed to be true or actualized. In Latin, the indicative mood conveys factual statements across six tenses: present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect.^[17] For example, the first-person singular present tense of amō ("I love") ends in -ō, as in amō ("I love"), used for direct assertions of ongoing reality.^[17] Ancient Greek employs the indicative for realis contexts, incorporating aspects such as the aorist (for completed, punctual actions) and perfect (for states resulting from past actions).^[18] The imperfect indicative, a past continuous form, expresses ongoing facts, as in ἔλυον ("I was loosing") from the verb λύω ("to loose").^[18] Among Germanic languages, such as German, the preterite (Präteritum) functions as the indicative past tense for realis narration of actual events, without a separate realis marker beyond the indicative paradigm itself.^[19] For instance, ich ging ("I went") from gehen ("to go") states a completed factual occurrence.^[19] In Slavic languages like Russian, the indicative mood asserts real propositions and integrates with the perfective-imperfective aspectual system to specify completion or ongoing nature of events.^[20] An example is я иду ("I am going"), the imperfective present indicative of идти ("to go"), denoting a current factual process.^[21] The perfective counterpart, such as я пойду ("I will go"), conveys a bounded future action as realis when used in indicative form.^[20]

Austronesian and Papuan Examples

In Tukang Besi, an Austronesian language spoken in southeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia, the realis mood is morphologically distinct through a set of subject prefixes that indicate completed or factual events, contrasting with irrealis forms for potential or unrealized actions. The realis prefix mo- marks first-person singular subjects in such contexts, as in mo-ala ('I took it' or 'he took it', depending on context), where the action is presented as actualized. This prefix alternates with the irrealis ma-, highlighting a binary opposition tied to event realization.^[22] Tagalog, a Central Philippine Austronesian language, employs realis affixes within its focus and aspect system to denote factual or completed events, particularly reinforcing the indicative mood for real-world occurrences. The infix -um- serves as a key realis marker in actor-focus constructions, emphasizing the subject's role in a realized action, as in tumakbo ('[he] ran'), which conveys a completed event without ongoing or hypothetical nuance.^[23] Completed aspect further solidifies the realis interpretation, distinguishing it from irrealis forms that lack such markers or use reduplication for incompletion.^[24] Across Austronesian languages, realis morphology commonly encodes past and present facts, frequently overlapping with aspectual or evidential distinctions to affirm the speaker's commitment to the event's reality. In Malagasy, another Austronesian language spoken in Madagascar, the infix -n- functions as a realis marker in verbal forms, linking the predicate to completed actions, as in past-tense constructions like n- + verb + -n- for realized events.^[25] This pattern underscores evidential overtones, where realis forms imply direct knowledge or observation of the fact.^[26] Typologically, Austronesian and Papuan languages often manifest realis more overtly than in Indo-European families, relying on dedicated prefixes, infixes, or suffixes to enforce the realis-irrealis binary, which integrates mood with aspect and evidentiality for precise event status encoding.^[26]

Declarative and Energetic Moods

The declarative mood, a specialized realis form, is employed in certain languages to mark direct assertions of fact, distinguishing them from interrogative or other non-assertive structures. In Quechua, the enclitic suffix -mi functions as a direct evidential marker indicating that the speaker has the best possible grounds for the statement, often based on personal observation or reliable firsthand access. For instance, in Cuzco Quechua, the sentence "Pilar-mi pan-ta mikhu-sqa" translates to "Pilar ate the bread," where -mi asserts the event as a confirmed truth derived from the speaker's direct evidence, such as visual confirmation. This suffix integrates into assertive contexts, reinforcing the realis nature of the utterance by encoding evidential certainty and sincerity.^[27]^[28] The energetic mood represents an intensified variant of realis, adding emphasis or a sense of obligation to factual statements, thereby heightening their vigor without shifting to irrealis territory. In Arabic, a Semitic language, the energetic mood is formed by appending suffixes such as -anna (long form) or -an (short form) to the imperfect verb, often in conjunction with emphatic particles like lā or inna to underscore certainty or insistence. An example is "la-ya'tiyanna" ("He will truly come"), which conveys a strongly affirmed future fact with emphatic force, akin to English "He is surely coming." This mood overlaps with the indicative but differs by amplifying the speaker's commitment to the proposition's reality.^[29]^[30] These moods extend the basic realis category—encompassing factual, non-hypothetical assertions—by incorporating additional layers of nuance: the declarative mood bolsters evidential reliability to affirm truths with heightened authority, while the energetic mood infuses vigor or emphatic obligation into realis declarations. Such forms occur prominently in Semitic languages like Arabic, where the energetic enhances indicative expressions, and in Native American languages such as Quechua, where the -mi solidifies assertive realis through evidential grounding, though they remain distinct from broader indicative uses by their specialized emphatic or certainty-focused roles.^[27]^[29]

Generic and Factual Moods

The generic mood represents a subtype of the realis mood dedicated to expressing habitual actions, universal truths, or generalizations about classes of entities, rather than specific events. For instance, statements like "Birds fly" convey a general fact about the category of birds, not a particular occurrence. In many languages, including English, this mood lacks dedicated morphological marking and relies on contextual cues, such as the absence of definite articles, to indicate genericity. However, in Turkish, the verbal aorist suffix -(V)r serves as a dedicated marker for characterizing genericity, introducing a generic operator that applies to predicates describing inherent properties or habits.^[31] Linguists debate whether the generic mood constitutes a true grammatical mood or is more appropriately categorized as an aspect, particularly the gnomic aspect, which encodes timeless or universal propositions. This discussion highlights its close semantic ties to tense, aspect, and modality systems, as noted in analyses of genericity across languages. Ultimately, it is often treated as a realis subtype focused on non-episodic truths, distinguishing it from realis forms that describe concrete, time-bound events. In some languages with evidential systems, factual markers within realis encode reported or inferred realities based on indirect evidence, contrasting with direct eyewitness accounts. In Zaiwa, a Tibeto-Burman language, the indicative mood is used for factual assertions supported by evidence or common knowledge, while the factitive marker indicates factuality in subordinated or nominalized clauses, often implying verified or assumed truths rather than unverified claims. This allows speakers to convey evidential nuances within realis assertions, emphasizing reliability derived from various sources.^[32]^[33]

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