Resolute Support Mission
The Resolute Support Mission (RSM) was a NATO-led, non-combat mission in Afghanistan that operated from 1 January 2015 until early September 2021, succeeding the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and focusing exclusively on training, advising, and assisting the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) as well as relevant government institutions.[1] Established at the invitation of the Afghan government and in coordination with the United States' Operation Freedom's Sentinel, RSM sought to foster self-sustaining Afghan security capabilities capable of independently defending the country and safeguarding its population against internal threats.[1] The mission involved contributions from NATO Allies and operational partners, maintaining approximately 13,000 to 16,000 personnel primarily based in Kabul and regional training centers.[1] RSM emphasized capacity-building in areas such as strategic planning, budgeting, transparency, rule of law, and force generation for the ANDSF, which included the Afghan National Army and Afghan National Police, with the goal of transitioning full security responsibility to Afghan forces.[1] While official NATO reports highlighted progress in these domains, independent U.S. government assessments, including those from the Government Accountability Office, documented some improvements in fundamental capabilities but underscored ongoing deficiencies in logistics, sustainment, and overall effectiveness that hindered long-term viability.[2] The mission's termination stemmed from NATO Allies' April 2021 decision to withdraw forces by 1 May, aligned with the U.S.-Taliban Doha Agreement of February 2020 and a consensus that no purely military solution existed, though this withdrawal precipitated the swift disintegration of the ANDSF and the Afghan government's collapse in August 2021, revealing the fragility of the trained forces absent continued external support.[1][3]Establishment
Legal and Political Basis
The Resolute Support Mission (RSM) was established as a non-combat NATO-led operation following the conclusion of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) mandate on 31 December 2014, with political endorsement formalized at the NATO Wales Summit on 4-5 September 2014. At the summit, NATO heads of state and government, in consultation with the Afghan government, agreed to transition to a train, advise, and assist (TAA) mission aimed at enabling Afghan National Defence and Security Forces (ANDSF) self-sufficiency, reversing prior defense spending declines and committing to sustained alliance support for Afghanistan's stability.[4][5] This decision built on earlier planning from the 2012 Chicago Summit, reflecting a U.S.-led shift under President Obama from direct combat operations to advisory roles, while securing commitments from 39 allies and partners for over 11,000 troops to sustain the mission post-2016.[6][7] Legally, RSM operated under a bilateral Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) signed between NATO and the Afghan government in Kabul on 30 September 2014, which provided the framework for troop presence, operational authority, and immunity provisions, ratified by Afghanistan's parliament thereafter.[1] The United Nations Security Council further endorsed this arrangement through Resolution 2189, unanimously adopted on 12 December 2014, which welcomed the NATO-Afghanistan agreement, authorized RSM's TAA activities in coordination with Afghan authorities, and emphasized the mission's role in supporting Afghan sovereignty without direct combat engagement.[8][9] The mission launched on 1 January 2015 at the explicit invitation of the Afghan government, underscoring its consensual political foundation amid ongoing Taliban threats.[1]Transition from ISAF
The transition from the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to the Resolute Support Mission (RSM) was outlined in the NATO Wales Summit Declaration on September 4, 2014, where Allied heads of state and government committed to establishing a non-combat mission focused on training, advising, and assisting Afghan national defense and security institutions to enable long-term self-sufficiency.[10] [6] This agreement followed the 2012 Chicago Summit's framework for gradually transferring security lead to Afghan forces, culminating in the full transition of responsibilities by December 2014.[11] ISAF's mandate, which had encompassed combat operations since 2001, formally concluded on December 28, 2014, with a handover ceremony at the Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan headquarters in Kabul, attended by representatives from NATO Allies and Afghan officials.[12] [13] At that point, ISAF's troop strength had drawn down from a peak of approximately 130,000 in 2012 to around 13,000, reflecting the phased reduction in direct engagement.[14] RSM launched on January 1, 2015, as the successor operation, operating under a United Nations Security Council mandate renewed annually and emphasizing institutional capacity-building over combat roles.[1] [15] The shift prioritized advising at corps level and above, alongside support for Afghan security force logistics and sustainment, with initial troop commitments from 28 NATO Allies and partners totaling about 12,000 personnel.[1] This reconfiguration aimed to address persistent insurgent threats while avoiding indefinite foreign combat presence, though it faced challenges from ongoing Taliban attacks that tested Afghan forces' nascent independence.[14]Mandate and Objectives
Core Training, Advising, and Assistance Roles
The Resolute Support Mission (RSM) primarily conducted non-combat operations centered on training, advising, and assisting the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF), including the Afghan National Army (ANA) and Afghan National Police (ANP), to enable them to independently maintain security against insurgent threats.[16] These roles were executed through NATO-led structures such as the Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan (CSTC-A) for institutional capacity building and eight regional Train, Advise, and Assist Commands (TAACs) embedded with Afghan units to deliver on-the-ground support.[17] The mission's advising efforts targeted leadership development, operational planning, and sustainment capabilities without direct involvement in combat operations.[1] Training initiatives under RSM focused on professionalizing ANDSF personnel through formal instruction in tactics, leadership, and specialized skills, often delivered at Afghan military academies, training centers, and in-unit sessions led by coalition advisors.[18] Advisors emphasized building capabilities in areas such as counter-improvised explosive device measures, medical evacuation, and aviation maintenance to reduce reliance on foreign support.[19] By 2017, RSM had trained thousands of Afghan special operations forces, enhancing their regional effectiveness through partnered exercises and equipment familiarization.[20] Advising roles involved embedding coalition personnel at multiple echelons to mentor Afghan commanders on decision-making, intelligence analysis, and force integration, with a shift toward higher-level institutional advising at the Ministries of Defense and Interior for policy and resource management.[19] Operational advising occurred at corps and zone levels via TAACs, where advisors facilitated joint planning and logistics coordination, while tactical advising supported brigade and kandak (battalion-equivalent) units in executing missions.[17] This layered approach aimed to foster independent command structures, though challenges in advisor alignment persisted into 2020. Assistance components provided material and logistical support, including equipment sustainment and infrastructure development, to bolster ANDSF operational readiness without assuming combat functions.[1] RSM advisors assisted in reforming procurement processes and air support integration, contributing to ANDSF capabilities like the 17,000-strong special forces by mid-decade.[20] These efforts were coordinated to align with Afghan-led operations, emphasizing long-term self-sufficiency over direct intervention.[7]Strategic Goals for Afghan Self-Sufficiency
The Resolute Support Mission (RSM), established in 2015, pursued strategic goals aimed at fostering Afghan self-sufficiency primarily through non-combat training, advising, and assistance to the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) and key institutions. The core objective was to develop capable, sustainable ANDSF units and ministries capable of independently securing the country against internal threats, thereby enabling a transition from coalition dependency to Afghan-led security operations.[1][2] This entailed building professional forces with effective command structures, logistics sustainment, and operational readiness, without direct NATO involvement in combat roles.[21] A primary focus was institutional capacity-building within the Afghan Ministries of Defense (MOD) and Interior (MOI), targeting "decisive enablers" such as leadership training, financial management, human resources, and equipment maintenance systems to achieve long-term self-reliance.[22] Advisors worked to align these efforts with Afghanistan's 2017 four-year roadmap for security and defense sector reforms, emphasizing affordable, sustainable force development that could operate with reduced international financial support—projected to cover up to 80% of ANDSF sustainment costs by 2024 under initial plans.[23] At operational levels, goals included advising corps and brigade commanders on planning, intelligence sharing, and counterinsurgency tactics to enhance ANDSF effectiveness in contested areas.[24] These objectives were framed as prerequisites for broader Afghan self-sufficiency, including governance stability and economic viability, with NATO committing to conditions-based withdrawal tied to verifiable progress in ANDSF autonomy.[1] However, official assessments from the U.S. Government Accountability Office emphasized that self-sustainability required addressing systemic challenges like corruption and attrition, which RSM sought to mitigate through targeted advisory programs rather than direct intervention.[2]Operational Framework
Deployment Scale and Locations
The Resolute Support Mission (RSM) began with approximately 13,000 personnel deployed in Afghanistan as of January 2015, drawn from NATO Allies and partner nations focused on non-combat training, advising, and assistance roles.[1] This force level increased to around 16,000 troops by 2017, following pledges from contributing countries to bolster capacity-building efforts for Afghan security forces.[1] The United States accounted for the majority of troops, contributing roughly 12,000 at the mission's start, which declined to about 8,500 by February 2020 in line with U.S. policy shifts toward reduced presence.[25] Further U.S. adjustments reduced personnel to approximately 8,600 by mid-2020, reflecting ongoing transitions amid negotiations with the Taliban.[22] RSM's deployments followed a hub-and-spokes operational framework to enable efficient advising across Afghanistan, with the central hub headquartered at Camp Resolute Support in Kabul and supported by Bagram Airfield.[1] Four regional spokes extended this structure: Mazar-e Sharif in the north for northern command support, Herat in the west, Kandahar in the south, and Laghman in the east, targeting key population centers and security zones.[1] Advisors and trainers were embedded with Afghan National Defense and Security Forces units at various levels, including provincial and district sites, though concentrations remained at secure bases to minimize risks while maximizing institutional training in urban and regional hubs.[1] This dispersed yet centralized model facilitated coverage of Afghanistan's diverse terrain without large-scale combat patrols, adapting to the mission's advisory mandate until the withdrawal in July 2021.[1]Contributing Nations and Force Contributions
The Resolute Support Mission drew contributions from 36 NATO Allies and partner nations, with troop levels varying over the mission's duration from an initial approximately 13,000 personnel in 2015 to a peak of around 16,000 by 2017 before drawing down to roughly 9,500 by early 2021 amid U.S.-led reductions.[1][16] The United States maintained the largest overall presence, though its RSM-specific commitment stood at 2,500 troops as of February 2021, reflecting a shift toward bilateral advisory roles outside the NATO framework.[16] Other major NATO contributors included Germany (1,300 troops), Italy (895), the United Kingdom (750), and Turkey (600), while partners like Georgia (860) and Romania (619) provided significant numbers relative to their size.[16] These forces were primarily focused on training, advising, and assisting Afghan National Defense and Security Forces, with contributions encompassing staff officers, trainers, logistics support, and force protection units rather than combat roles.[16] Troop numbers reported reflect each nation's total presence in Afghanistan supporting RSM objectives, based on self-reported data from contributing countries, and fluctuated due to national commitments, rotations, and security conditions.[16] Smaller contributors, such as Albania (99 troops) and Denmark (135), emphasized specialized advisory roles.[16]| Nation | Troops (as of February 2021) |
|---|---|
| Albania | 99 |
| Armenia | 121 |
| Australia | 80 |
| Austria | 16 |
| Azerbaijan | 120 |
| Belgium | 72 |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 66 |
| Bulgaria | 117 |
| Czech Republic | 52 |
| Denmark | 135 |
| Estonia | 45 |
| Finland | 20 |
| Georgia | 860 |
| Germany | 1,300 |
| Greece | 11 |
| Hungary | 8 |
| Italy | 895 |
| Latvia | 2 |
| Lithuania | 40 |
| Luxembourg | 2 |
| Mongolia | 233 |
| Netherlands | 160 |
| New Zealand | 6 |
| North Macedonia | 17 |
| Norway | 101 |
| Poland | 290 |
| Portugal | 174 |
| Romania | 619 |
| Slovakia | 25 |
| Slovenia | 6 |
| Spain | 24 |
| Sweden | 16 |
| Turkey | 600 |
| Ukraine | 10 |
| United Kingdom | 750 |
| United States | 2,500 |
| Total | 9,592 |