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Retable

A retable is a decorative structure or raised shelf positioned behind and above the altar in a Christian church, typically used to hold items such as the altar cross, candles, flowers, or a tabernacle, and often serving as a frame for religious artwork like paintings, carvings, or bas-reliefs.^[1]^[2] In its more elaborate form, it functions as an altarpiece, enhancing the liturgical space with ornamental panels or screens that depict biblical scenes or saints.^[3] The term originates from the French "retable," derived from Medieval Latin "retrōtabulum," combining "retro" (behind) and "tabula" (board or tablet), reflecting its placement at the rear of the altar.^[3] Historically, retables date back to the medieval period, with notable examples including the 13th-century Westminster Retable in England, considered the country's oldest surviving altarpiece, which features painted scenes of Christ and saints on oak panels.^[4] These structures, sometimes interchangeable with terms like "reredos" or "gradine" for the shelf aspect.^[2]^[5]

Definition and Terminology

Core Definition

A retable is a raised shelf, ledge, or ornamental panel positioned directly behind and above the altar or communion table in a church, primarily designed to support liturgical items such as the crucifix, candlesticks, and floral arrangements.^[1]^[2] The term originates from the Latin retro tabula, meaning "behind the board" or "behind the table," which underscores its fixed placement relative to the altar.^[1] In its simplest form, a retable functions as a gradine, a plain shelf attached to the rear of the altar for practical purposes.^[6] More elaborate versions incorporate decorative elements, such as frames for paintings or sculptures, enhancing the visual and symbolic aspects of the space without altering its core positional role.^[7] Retables are predominantly found in Christian ecclesiastical settings, with particular prevalence in Catholic and Anglican traditions where they contribute to the liturgical environment by providing a dedicated area for sacred objects.^[2]^[8] The retable is distinguished from the reredos primarily by its scale and positioning: while a retable functions as a shelf or low panel placed immediately above or on the back of the altar to support liturgical items, a reredos is a taller screen or structure that rises from the floor behind the altar, often integrating more elaborate wall-mounted elements.^[9]^[10] This structural difference ensures the retable remains closely tied to the altar table itself, whereas the reredos serves as a broader decorative backdrop.^[10] In contrast to the gradine, which refers to the basic raised ledge or shelf directly behind the altar for holding candles, reliquaries, or other objects, the retable typically encompasses a more developed structure placed upon or incorporating the gradine, often with added decorative or artistic features that elevate its role beyond mere utility.^[8] The gradine thus represents the foundational component, while the retable implies an enhanced, ornamental assembly.^[8] A retable often refers to an ornamental structure that incorporates painted, sculpted, or other artwork, in which case it functions as an altarpiece; the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in art historical contexts, though a retable emphasizes the supporting framework behind the altar, distinct from purely artistic elements like a dossal (a hanging cloth or painted panel) or standalone polyptych.^[11]^[10] For instance, a dossal often overlaps terminologically as a cloth or painted element but lacks the retable's emphasis on structural support.^[10] Terminology for the retable varies regionally and historically; in English contexts, it contrasts with the more fixed "reredos," while in Italy it aligns with "tavole d’altare" for painted versions, and in Spain with "retablo" for sculptural ensembles.^[8] Early texts sometimes employ Latin phrases like "super-altare" to describe elements positioned above the altar, reflecting a broader medieval usage for shelf-like supports akin to the retable.

Historical Development

Origins in Early Christianity

The adoption of Roman basilica layouts for Christian churches in the 4th and 5th centuries AD marked the initial emergence of proto-retables as rear supports for altars, adapting secular architectural forms to accommodate the central Eucharistic rite. These early structures provided a stable backdrop for the altar mensa, often a simple stone slab, positioned within the apse to facilitate liturgical celebrations facing the congregation. Constantine's church-building program, including major basilicas like Old St. Peter's in Rome (constructed c. 324 AD), exemplified this shift, where altars required elevated or supported rear elements to honor the growing emphasis on sacramental worship.^[12] Influences from Jewish synagogue traditions, such as the Torah ark as a sacred focal point behind the reading platform, and pagan temple furnishings like decorative rear screens or niches for offerings, were adapted to Christian needs, transforming these elements to support the Eucharist as the new paschal mystery. Early Christians, many of whom were converts from Judaism, integrated synagogue-style communal gatherings with basilica scale, while incorporating Roman imperial motifs to legitimize the faith under Constantine. This synthesis allowed rear altar supports to evolve from functional ledges to symbolic backdrops aligned with emerging doctrines on the Real Presence.^[13]^[14] Archaeological evidence reveals simple stone ledges in Roman catacombs, dating to the 3rd-4th centuries, serving as impromptu altar supports for memorial Masses atop martyrs' tombs, prefiguring basilica designs. In Old St. Peter's, excavations uncover the Constantinian memoria—a shrine over St. Peter's tomb—with an overlying altar and ciborium canopy, where rear wall elements or ledges held liturgical items, as described in contemporary accounts. Similar setups appear in other post-persecution sites, like the Basilica of Santa Sabina (c. 432 AD), underscoring the transition from hidden worship to public basilical liturgy.^[12] In post-Constantinian architecture, these early retable forms facilitated the display of relics beneath or behind altars, embedding saintly remains into the church's fabric to invoke divine presence during the Eucharist, while shelves or niches accommodated vessels like chalices and patens. This practice, formalized by the 5th century, elevated the altar area as a sacred enclosure, distinct from the nave, and laid groundwork for later ornamental developments without altering the core functional role.^[15]

Evolution in the Medieval Period

During the 11th and 12th centuries, retables evolved from simple shelves or basic screens into more elaborate painted or sculpted panels, aligning with the Romanesque style's emphasis on relic veneration in monastic and pilgrimage churches. This shift was driven by the growing cult of relics, where altars increasingly housed sacred remains, prompting the addition of decorative elements to honor and protect them, as seen in early examples like the golden reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy on a gradine at Conques Abbey in France.^[8] The Romanesque focus on solidity and narrative reliefs transformed retables into focal points for devotion, particularly in sites like Santiago de Compostela, where they enhanced the liturgical experience for pilgrims.^[8] In the Gothic period from the 13th to 15th centuries, retables underwent significant innovations, integrating polyptychs—multi-paneled structures often with hinged wings that could open to reveal interior scenes—and architectural motifs like tracery that echoed the pointed arches and vaults of cathedrals. These winged retables, prominent in regions like Germany and France, allowed for dynamic displays during feasts, with exteriors showing saints and interiors depicting cycles such as the Passion, as exemplified by the Altenberger Altar around 1330.^[16] Tracery and simulated stained glass elements in the frames further blurred the boundary between sculpture and architecture, heightening the sense of divine light and elevation in larger cathedral settings.^[16] Monastic reforms, such as those of the Cluniac order, and the Crusades profoundly influenced this evolution by promoting relic cults and introducing Eastern motifs like Byzantine iconography, which enriched retable designs with gold-ground panels and increased scale to accommodate grand cathedrals. The addition of predella panels at the base, featuring narrative scenes of saints' lives or biblical events, became a key development, providing educational depth for illiterate worshippers at pilgrimage sites.^[8] This functional advancement underscored retables' role in fostering communal piety and visual storytelling amid the era's spiritual fervor.^[16]

Changes in the Renaissance and Later Periods

During the Renaissance, retables underwent significant stylistic transformations influenced by humanistic ideals and advances in artistic techniques, shifting from the vertical, narrative-driven designs of the medieval period to more balanced compositions emphasizing proportion and spatial depth. Artists incorporated linear perspective and naturalistic figures into painted panels, creating illusionistic depth that drew worshippers into sacred scenes, as seen in Italian examples where central figures adopted classical poses and balanced proportions reflective of ancient Roman statuary. In Spanish and colonial contexts, the Plateresque style emerged, characterized by intricate silver-like ornamentation, foliage motifs, and grotesque elements framing the retablo as a triumphal arch, integrating it seamlessly with church architecture to enhance spatial harmony.^[16]^[17]^[18] In the Baroque period of the 17th century, retables evolved into elaborate, dynamic ensembles that emphasized emotional intensity and sensory engagement, aligning with Counter-Reformation efforts to reaffirm Catholic doctrine through visual spectacle. Designs featured dramatic gilding, twisted Solomonic columns, undulating friezes, and illusionistic effects that simulated movement and depth, often combining painted panels with sculpted figures to create theatrical focal points behind the altar. These retables, particularly in Spain and its colonies, symbolized the Eucharist's centrality, using florid ornamentation and manipulated lighting to evoke awe and devotion during worship.^[19]^[20] The 19th and 20th centuries saw revivals and adaptations of retable forms amid broader liturgical and architectural shifts, including Neo-Gothic restorations that revived medieval-inspired tracery, pinnacles, and narrative reliefs in new church constructions to evoke historical continuity. In Protestant traditions, minimalist adaptations emerged, favoring simplified wooden or stone screens without excessive decoration to prioritize scriptural focus over iconography. The Second Vatican Council's liturgical reforms in the 1960s further influenced Catholic practices, promoting freestanding altars and "noble simplicity," which led to the removal or repurposing of many ornate retables in favor of open sanctuary designs, though some were preserved or restored in revivalist efforts.^[21]^[22]

Design and Construction

Materials and Techniques

Retables were primarily constructed using wood as the foundational material, with oak, walnut, poplar, and fir being common choices due to their workability, availability, and resistance to environmental stresses in ecclesiastical settings.^[23] Oak provided durability for structural elements in northern European examples, while poplar was favored in Italy for its lightweight properties suitable for carved panels.^[23] Stone, particularly marble, was employed for bases or shelves to enhance stability and integrate with altar architecture, offering a solid, non-combustible support that contrasted with the organic wood components. Precious metals, such as gold leaf, were applied for ornamental surfaces to evoke divine radiance, often over a prepared gesso ground.^[24] Craftsmanship techniques varied by era but centered on panel painting, gilding, and sculptural reliefs to achieve intricate detailing. In the medieval period, egg tempera was the predominant painting medium, mixed with pigments and applied in thin layers over a gesso-primed wood surface for vibrant, matte finishes on flat panels.^[25] By the Renaissance, oil paints supplemented tempera, allowing for richer glazing and depth in polychrome elements. Gilding involved water gilding for burnished gold effects, where bole clay and animal glue were used to adhere gold leaf, followed by burnishing for luster, or mordant gilding for matte textures over painted areas.^[26] Sculptural reliefs were created through chiseling or molding techniques on wood, with tools like adzes and planes shaping three-dimensional figures, often combined with incised designs for added texture before polychromy.^[23] Construction methods emphasized modular assembly and robust joinery to ensure portability and longevity. Panels were joined using butt joints reinforced with dowels or splines of harder woods like oak, glued with animal-based adhesives for stability against warping.^[23] Hinged wings, common in polyptych retables, allowed folding for protection during transport or non-liturgical times, achieved through iron or wooden hinges embedded in frames. Retables were often intimately associated with the architectural space of the church, forming nearly independent spatial units. Preservation of retables faces challenges from biological and environmental degradation, notably woodworm infestations and pigment fading. Wood-boring insects like Anobium punctatum tunnel through sapwood, compromising structural integrity and requiring treatments such as nitrogen atmospheres or insecticides like cypermethrin to eradicate active infestations without further damage.^[27] Pigment fading occurs due to exposure to light, humidity fluctuations, and fungal growth, leading to discoloration and flaking of tempera or oil layers, exacerbated by inadequate gesso grounds that allow moisture ingress.^[27] Restoration techniques include X-ray radiography to map insect damage, joinery alterations, and underdrawings, guiding targeted consolidations with synthetic resins like Paraloid B-72 to stabilize wood and paint without altering aesthetics.^[27]

Structural Variations

Retables display a spectrum of structural forms, tailored to the scale, setting, and artistic priorities of their commissions, ranging from minimalist designs to architecturally ambitious ensembles. Simple types, such as flat gradines or single-panel retables, serve modest chapels by providing a basic platform or focal element behind the altar. A gradine functions as a low shelf-like structure, often transversely rectangular and constructed from stone, metal, or wood, to support candles, crucifixes, or reliquaries without dominating the space. Single-panel variants, exemplified by early painted retables like the Soest Retable (c. 1230), feature a solitary rectangular panel with relief or painted imagery, emphasizing restraint and direct visual impact in smaller ecclesiastical environments.^[8]^[28] More elaborate retables incorporate complex, multi-tiered frameworks that elevate the structure into a sculptural and architectural statement, often integrating pinnacles, canopies, and movable components for dynamic presentation. Multi-tiered designs divide imagery across horizontal registers, with upper levels crowned by pinnacles—tapered stone or wooden finials—and openwork canopies that mimic Gothic tracery, as seen in fifteenth-century Aragonese examples where colonnettes separate scenes and support arched hoods. Folding wings add versatility, particularly in triptych retables, which consist of a fixed central panel flanked by two hinged side panels that can close to protect the interior or open to reveal narrative sequences, a format prevalent in Northern European workshops from the fourteenth century onward. Polyptych extensions amplify this complexity, expanding to four or more panels per tier for comprehensive storytelling.^[29]^[30] Regional stylistic differences manifest in the degree of elaboration and compositional balance, with Spanish retables favoring ornate complexity and Italian ones emphasizing proportional harmony. In Spain, Plateresque retables of the sixteenth century adopt a densely wrought aesthetic, layering intricate sculptural motifs across tiers in a manner evocative of silversmith filigree, as evident in colonial Yucatán examples like the Retablo of San Antonio de Padua, which employs caryatid frames and triumphal arches for heightened decorative intensity. Italian Renaissance retables, by contrast, prioritize symmetry through balanced panel arrangements and integrated architectural framing, such as columnar facades and perspectival backdrops in works like Mantegna's San Zeno Altarpiece (1456), creating a sense of ordered spatial recession.^[17]^[31] Spatial adaptations ensure retables fit diverse architectural contexts, with options for attachment or independence influencing overall form and relief treatment. Wall-mounted retables, common in apse-integrated designs like those in Spanish cathedrals, affix directly to the rear wall for stability and to maximize vertical height, often reaching the full interior scale. Freestanding variants, typically placed on a gradine behind the altar, allow for ambulatory access and modular arrangement, as in medieval high altar setups. Relief variations further accommodate space: low-relief carvings, where figures project minimally from the background, suit compact or planar surfaces for subtle integration, while high-relief designs, with pronounced depth exceeding half the figure's profile, enhance dimensionality in expansive freestanding structures, often carved from wood for finer detail.^[8]^[28]

Artistic and Religious Role

Liturgical Function

Retables serve a primary liturgical function by providing a stable platform for the placement of essential sacred objects during Christian worship services. Positioned directly behind or upon the altar, they support the altar cross, symbolizing Christ's sacrifice, while the celebrant elevates the host during the consecration in the Mass.^[8] Candlesticks placed on the retable offer illumination, signifying Christ as the light of the world and aiding visibility for the rites, while reliquaries containing saints' relics are housed or displayed upon it to facilitate veneration and invoke intercession.^[32] This arrangement ensures these items are prominently accessible, integrating them seamlessly into the ritual flow without obstructing the altar's surface.^[33] In enhancing the sacraments, particularly the Eucharist, retables frame the consecrated host to direct the congregation's attention and devotion toward the central mystery of transubstantiation. During elevations or processions, the retable's elevation above the altar level draws the gaze upward, reinforcing the sacred drama and fostering communal participation in the sacrificial act.^[8] This visual framing amplifies the performative aspects of the liturgy, where the host's display aligns with scriptural invocations, heightening the sense of divine presence.^[34] Liturgical uses of retables vary significantly by denomination, with Catholic traditions employing elaborate designs to underscore the high drama of Masses, where multiple elevations and relic expositions demand robust support.^[8] In contrast, Reformed and other Protestant traditions often favor subdued or absent retables, prioritizing simplicity in worship to emphasize preaching and communal meals over visual or relic-centered rituals.^[8]

Iconographic Elements

Retables in Christian art prominently feature Christocentric motifs, such as depictions of the Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Last Supper, which emphasize the central theological narrative of salvation through Christ's sacrifice.^[16] Marian imagery, including the Annunciation and Virgin enthroned with the Child, often serves as a complementary focus, symbolizing divine incarnation and maternal intercession.^[35] Saintly intercessors, portrayed as patrons or martyrs, flank these scenes to invoke protection and local devotion, reinforcing the retable's role in communal worship.^[36] Narrative structures on retables typically employ hierarchical compositions, with a dominant central panel depicting deity figures like Christ or the Virgin elevated above subsidiary elements to signify spiritual primacy.^[16] Donor portraits, often kneeling in prayer alongside their patron saints, appear in side panels or borders to personalize the offering and seek heavenly favor.^[16] Predella panels at the base narrate sequential stories, such as cycles from saints' lives or the Passion, providing didactic layers for the illiterate faithful.^[16] Symbolic colors and attributes enhance the retable's theological depth, with gold backgrounds and halos denoting divinity and eternal light.^[37] Red robes or accents represent martyrdom and Christ's blood, evoking passion and sacrifice, while blue signifies heavenly purity, particularly in Marian depictions.^[38] Integrated relics, such as bone fragments of saints embedded within or behind the panels, authenticate the sacred content and bridge the earthly and divine realms.^[39] The evolution of retable iconography reflects broader artistic shifts, originating from Byzantine influences with stylized figures, gold fields, and symbolic abstraction to convey otherworldly transcendence.^[35] In the medieval period, narratives expanded into multi-panel cycles with increased emotional expressiveness, while Renaissance developments introduced naturalistic poses and localized saints, adapting universal themes to regional identities and patrons.^[35]

Notable Examples

Medieval Retables

The Westminster Retable, dating to approximately 1260–1280, is England's oldest surviving altarpiece and exemplifies early English panel painting with its painted wooden panels constructed from English and north European oak using linseed oil on a gesso ground.^[4]^[40] The central scene depicts Christ in Majesty holding a globe, flanked by the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Evangelist, with additional figures of Saints Peter and Paul, and four circular medallions illustrating miracles such as the Feeding of the Five Thousand.^[40] Measuring about 97 cm high by 333 cm wide, it was likely commissioned for the high altar of Westminster Abbey during the reign of Henry III, showcasing the sophisticated use of gilding, imitation gems, and vibrant colors that reflect the period's emerging Gothic naturalism in religious art.^[4] Currently preserved and displayed in the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Galleries at Westminster Abbey following extensive conservation from 1993 to 2005 at the Hamilton Kerr Institute, which involved stabilizing flaking paint and documenting over 5,000 surface elements via X-radiography and photogrammetry, the retable remains a key artifact of 13th-century English ecclesiastical decoration.^[40] In the Crown of Aragon, the Retable of the True Cross (c. 1485–1487), painted by Miguel Jiménez and Martín Bernat, represents a prominent example of late medieval Spanish polyptychs incorporating eschatological themes amid the region's evolving Gothic styles.^[41] This large altarpiece features narrative panels on the Passion, including the Last Supper and scenes alluding to eucharistic miracles with anti-Jewish motifs such as the Host Libel, emphasizing end-times judgment and redemption central to Iberian religious fervor during the late 15th century.^[42] Produced in Zaragoza, it highlights the integration of relic veneration and didactic imagery typical of Aragonese workshops, where painted panels served to reinforce liturgical and moral teachings.^[41] Well-preserved and now housed in the Museo de Zaragoza, the retable underscores the artistic exchanges within the Crown of Aragon, blending local traditions with broader European influences on apocalyptic iconography.^[41]

Renaissance and Baroque Examples

One of the most iconic Renaissance retables is the Ghent Altarpiece, completed in 1432 by Jan van Eyck for the Cathedral of Saint Bavo in Ghent, Belgium. This polyptych features twelve oak panels when closed and twenty when open, showcasing meticulous oil paintings that pioneered naturalistic detail, atmospheric perspective, and luminous color effects. The central open panel depicts the Adoration of the Mystic Lamb, portraying a sacrificial lamb on an altar amid worshippers in a paradisiacal landscape, symbolizing divine redemption through intricate symbolism and hyper-realistic rendering of textures like fur, jewels, and foliage. An integrated lower shelf, or predella, extends the narrative with scenes of the Annunciation, enhancing the retable's vertical cohesion and immersive quality.^[43] German Renaissance retables often emphasized intricate carved details in their bases and shrines, as seen in the Isenheim Altarpiece (1512–1516), where the sculpted predella and frame by Nikolaus Hagenauer provide a foundational retable structure supporting Matthias Grünewald's painted wings.^[44] Though primarily a polyptych designed for the Antonite monastery hospital in Isenheim, Alsace, its carved elements—including wooden figures of saints, elaborate tracery, and symbolic motifs like budding vines and acorns—enhance the altarpiece's role in evoking suffering and salvation, with eschatological undertones in scenes of the Crucifixion and Resurrection.^[45]^[46] The work's carved base, executed in limewood with polychrome finishes, exemplifies the late Gothic preference for sculptural depth to complement painted narratives, fostering immersive devotion for hospital patients afflicted by ergotism and plague.^[44] Exceptionally preserved due to its relocation during the French Revolution and subsequent museum care, it is displayed at the Musée Unterlinden in Colmar, France, serving as a testament to the technical mastery of German wood carving in religious contexts.^[46] A prime Spanish Golden Age example is the Retablo Mayor in Toledo Cathedral's Capilla Mayor, constructed between 1498 and 1540 during the cathedral's late Gothic phase with Renaissance influences. This monumental gilded wooden altarpiece spans five vertical streets across three levels, topped by a Calvary attic and supported by a predella, featuring over fifty sculptures and paintings in opulent Plateresque style—intricate silver-gilt ornamentation evoking lace-like filigree and shell motifs. Key artists included designer Alonso de Covarrubias, sculptor Felipe Vigarny for figural groups like the Crucifixion and Last Supper, and painter Juan de Borgoña for narrative panels, resulting in a lavish display of polychromed saints, apostles, and Christological scenes that overwhelm with golden extravagance and hierarchical depth.^[47]^[48] Modern scholarship continues to debate attributions and restorations for these retables, reflecting evolving techniques in art historical analysis. For the Ghent Altarpiece, infrared reflectography during 2010s restorations confirmed Hubert van Eyck's foundational underdrawings in the lower register, resolving long-standing questions about the brothers' division of labor while uncovering original details obscured by overpainting, such as the Mystic Lamb's more anthropomorphic face, sparking discussions on intentional symbolism versus later alterations.^[49]^[50] In Toledo's Retablo Mayor, debates center on the interplay of Gothic persistence and Renaissance novelty in Vigarny's sculptures, with recent conservation efforts revealing original gilding layers and polychromy, prompting reevaluations of its role in transitioning Spanish altarpiece design toward Mannerist complexity.^[51] These discussions underscore the Renaissance shift toward humanism and realism in retable design, as seen in van Eyck's optical innovations.^[43]

References

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[41]
Relics and Reliquaries in Medieval Christianity
Apr 1, 2011 · All relics bestowed honor and privileges upon the possessor, and monasteries and cathedrals sought to hold the most prestigious.Missing: retables evolution 11th
[42]
The Westminster Retable | Hamilton Kerr Institute
Conservation background The Retable is Britain's oldest surviving altarpiece on panel and has spent most of its 750 years in and around Westminster Abbey.Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
[43]
[PDF] JEWS AND ALTARPIECES IN MEDIEVAL SPAIN
The Creation of Adam and Eve and the Fall was a popular theme in medieval. Spanish art. In a Commentary on the Apocalypse of Beatus of Liébana dated 1000 is ...Missing: eschatological | Show results with:eschatological
[44]
https://www.musee-unterlinden.com/en/oeuvres/the-isenheim-altarpiece/
[45]
The Isenheim altarpiece - Colmar - Musée Unterlinden
This celebrated altarpiece for the Antonite order's monastic complex at Isenheim, a village about 15 miles south of Colmar.
[46]
[PDF] The Exuding Wood of the Cross at Isenheim - Columbia University
Jul 16, 2018 · On the reverse side of that altarpiece and in the Isenheim Crucifixion, the prophesied tree shows the trauma from blows to it, in a way that ...
[47]
Matthias Grünewald, Isenheim Altarpiece - Smarthistory
Harris: [0:41] This altarpiece once stood in a church that was part of a monastery dedicated to St. Anthony, whose relics had recently been brought to this area ...
[48]
Jan Van Eyck, The Ghent Altarpiece - Smarthistory
Jan van Eyck, The Ghent Altarpiece (closed), completed 1432, oil on wood, 11 feet 5 inches x 7 feet 6 inches (Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium)Missing: retable integrated
[49]
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino, Saint Peter's - Smarthistory
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino, 1624-33, 100′ high, gilded bronze (Saint Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, Rome)<|separator|>
[50]
The Main Chaple - Chapels - Primate Cathedral Toledo
The Main Chapel has one of the most sumptuous craftsmanship grilles from the Spanish Renaissance, made by Francisco de Villalpando and it took more than 10 ...Missing: century extravagance sources
[51]
[PDF] Toledo Cathedral - Art History Publication Initiative
For José. Amador de los Ríos, author of the first truly art-historical study of Toledo, Toledo pintoresca. (1845), the cathedral encompassed “the whole history ...
[52]
The mystery of Hubert van Eyck and the Ghent Altarpiece solved
This discovery was a new impulsion to unravel the precise contribution of Hubert and Jan van Eyck to the Mystic Lamb. The current breakthrough is based on ...Missing: retable integrated shelf
[53]
New Research on the Ghent Altarpiece Validates Restorers ...
Dec 23, 2019 · New research on the Ghent altarpiece Validates Restorers' rendering of the Mystic Lamb's alarmingly humanoid face.Missing: Modern debates attributions Retablo Mayor Toledo Peter's retables
[54]
(PDF) Minor or Major? Castilian Tabernacle-altarpieces and the ...
May 22, 2020 · PDF | This article explores the origin and distinctive features of Castilian tabernacle-altarpieces. Less attention will be paid to the ...
[55]
Bernini's Baldacchino shines again at St. Peter's - The History Blog
Nov 11, 2024 · The Baldacchino, the great canopy above the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica designed by Baroque master architect and sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini, has been ...Missing: Retable motion light