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Revolving door

A revolving door is a type of entrance consisting of two, three, or four rigid panels (known as wings) attached to a central vertical shaft, which rotates within a cylindrical enclosure or wall opening, allowing multiple users to pass through simultaneously while functioning as a partial airlock to reduce air exchange between interior and exterior spaces.^[1] This design minimizes drafts, wind, noise, and weather intrusion compared to traditional swinging doors, enabling noiseless operation and bidirectional flow without the need for manual opening.^[2] The earliest known patent for a revolving door was granted to H. Bockhacker in Germany on December 22, 1881, for a "door without draft of air" (Tür ohne Luftzug), featuring a rotating cylindrical structure to block airflow.^[3] In the United States, Theophilus Van Kannel of Philadelphia received U.S. Patent No. 387,571 on August 7, 1888, for a "storm-door structure" with three snug-fitting wings on a pivoted central post enclosed in a fixed casing, specifically designed to address issues like wind pressure, rain, snow, and dust in high-traffic buildings.^[2] Van Kannel's invention received the John Scott Legacy Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1889.^[1] The first commercial installation occurred in 1899 at Rector's restaurant in Times Square, Manhattan.^[4] Revolving doors offer significant advantages in modern applications, particularly in commercial, hospitality, and public buildings where high foot traffic is common. They enhance energy efficiency by limiting air infiltration—losing up to eight times less conditioned air than swinging doors—and can reduce annual heating and cooling costs by over 75% while lowering greenhouse gas emissions.^[5]^[6] Additionally, they improve security by restricting access to one compartment at a time, control crowd flow for safer pedestrian movement, and can be configured as manual, motorized, or even energy-generating models that harness rotational kinetic energy.^[1] Over time, variations have evolved to include security features like locking mechanisms and hinged wings for emergency egress, adapting the original design to contemporary building codes and sustainability goals.^[2]

Design and Construction

Components and Materials

The core structure of a revolving door centers on a vertical shaft, serving as the pivot axis around which the door panels rotate, typically constructed from durable materials such as steel or aluminum to ensure stability and longevity under continuous use.^[7] This central shaft is engineered to support the rotational load while maintaining alignment, often integrated with machined steel hardware for secure attachment of components.^[7] The panels, also known as wings, form the primary rotating elements, usually consisting of three or four rigid sections that extend from the central shaft. These panels are commonly made of tempered or laminated glass for transparency and safety, with thicknesses around ½ inch (12.7 mm), or alternatives like acrylic for cost-effective applications; dimensions typically reach up to 10 feet (3 m) in height and 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) in width per panel to accommodate standard pedestrian traffic.^[8]^[9] Modern variants incorporate polycarbonate for lightweight, shatter-resistant properties, often clad with stainless steel channels to enhance structural integrity.^[10] The enclosure provides the outer framework, forming a cylindrical structure with top and bottom housings that guide the panels' movement, typically fabricated from aluminum extrusions for corrosion resistance and ease of assembly.^[7] To minimize air leakage and maintain the airlock function, the enclosure includes rubber seals or brush strips along the edges, often using materials like EPDM rubber or horsehair brushes for effective weatherproofing without impeding rotation.^[8]^[11] Heavy-duty bearings are positioned at the top (ceiling-mounted) and bottom (floor-mounted) of the central shaft to facilitate smooth, low-friction rotation, supporting weights that can exceed 2,000 pounds (900 kg) in larger installations while distributing load evenly to prevent wobbling.^[12] Floor guides or tracks further enhance stability by aligning the panels during operation.^[8] For safety and structural reliability, weight distribution is carefully managed through a reinforced base anchored directly to concrete floors using embedded bolts, preventing tipping under dynamic loads from pedestrian or motorized use. This anchoring ensures the entire assembly remains secure, with modern designs favoring lightweight yet robust materials like polycarbonate panels to reduce overall mass without compromising performance.^[12]

Types and Variations

Revolving doors are primarily categorized by the number of panels or wings, which influences their capacity, balance, and suitability for different environments. Standard configurations feature three or four panels, providing balanced rotation essential for high-traffic areas such as hotels and office buildings. Three-panel doors facilitate faster pedestrian flow due to larger compartment sizes, accommodating up to 30 people per minute in automatic models, while four-panel designs offer greater stability and a smoother operation for moderate to high volumes.^[13]^[14] Two-wing revolving doors represent a compact variation ideal for narrower entrances, often employed in retail or institutional settings where space is limited but traffic remains steady. These designs, typically automatic, create spacious compartments that support higher throughput—up to 60 people per minute—while maintaining energy efficiency through a secure seal. Unlike multi-panel models, two-wing doors emphasize versatility, sometimes integrating central sliding or swinging elements for peak-hour surges.^[15]^[16] One-way revolving doors incorporate security features to restrict movement in a single direction, commonly used in controlled environments like secure facilities or airports to manage ingress while allowing free egress. These variations employ electronic braking systems to lock rotation against unauthorized flow, ensuring directional control without impeding emergency exits. Configurations can be three- or four-wing, with sensors enforcing one-way operation.^[17]^[18] Oversized revolving doors, with diameters reaching up to 12 feet (3.68 meters), cater to accessibility needs, providing ample space for wheelchairs, luggage carts, or stretchers in public venues like hospitals and transportation hubs. These larger models often combine low-energy swing door integrations alongside rotating panels to enhance usability for individuals with mobility impairments, maintaining a diameter that exceeds standard 8- to 10-foot installations. Breakout designs in these variations allow panels to fold outward under pressure, adapting to diverse architectural demands.^[19]^[20]^[21] Distinctions between automated and manual operations further vary revolving door applications, with manual versions relying on user-push mechanisms for low- to medium-traffic scenarios in elegant, narrow passages, and automated ones using sensors for seamless, high-frequency use in busy public spaces. Glass panels, often frameless in modern iterations, are common across these types for aesthetic transparency.^[21]

Operation and Uses

Everyday Functionality

Revolving doors operate through a simple yet effective rotation mechanism where users interact directly with the door panels to facilitate entry and exit. In manual revolving doors, individuals push against the panels, causing the entire assembly to rotate around a central vertical axis at a speed determined by the applied force, typically limited to safe levels by built-in controls.^[8] This user-initiated motion allows for smooth passage, with the door's design ensuring continuous availability without the need to hold doors open. Automatic revolving doors, by contrast, employ sensors to detect approaching pedestrians, activating a motor to rotate the door at a consistent pace, often around 4 to 7 revolutions per minute depending on the door's diameter, thereby minimizing physical effort from users.^[22] The rotation is governed by speed control mechanisms, known as governors, which are either mechanical or electronic devices integrated into the door's structure to restrict excessive velocity and ensure safe passage. These governors engage automatically if the rotation exceeds predetermined limits—such as a maximum of 12 revolutions per minute for doors with an 84-inch diameter—preventing hazardous spins that could endanger users.^[23] By maintaining controlled speeds, typically translating to peripheral velocities of approximately 30 to 40 inches per second for standard installations, the governors promote orderly flow and reduce the risk of collisions within the compartments.^[24] Central to the everyday functionality is the airlock principle, where the rotating panels divide the interior into sealed compartments that trap and isolate outside air from the building's conditioned environment. As users enter a compartment from the exterior, the panel seals prevent significant airflow exchange, effectively reducing drafts and maintaining internal climate stability during routine use.^[25] This compartmentalization supports efficient handling of groups, with each segment generally accommodating 1 to 2 people in standard configurations, allowing for 24 to 48 passages per minute in high-traffic settings without compromising the air barrier.^[26] Smooth rotation in daily operation relies on low-friction panel materials, such as glass or metal with lubricated bearings, enabling effortless pushing or automated movement.^[27]

Architectural and Environmental Benefits

Revolving doors are strategically integrated into the architecture of high-rise buildings, particularly in lobbies, to counteract the stack effect, where pressure differentials caused by temperature variations drive air movement through the structure. This placement helps maintain stable internal air pressure, preventing excessive drafts and facilitating smoother elevator operations in tall structures.^[28] In terms of environmental benefits, revolving doors significantly minimize the loss of conditioned air, reducing infiltration by up to 90% compared to conventional swing doors,^[29] which enhances overall HVAC system efficiency and lowers operational energy demands. By acting as an airlock, they limit the exchange of indoor and outdoor air during high-traffic periods, contributing to more stable indoor climates without the need for constant compensatory heating or cooling. These doors play a key role in sustainability efforts for commercial buildings, helping to decrease the carbon footprint through reduced energy consumption for climate control; for instance, in urban settings like airports, where continuous pedestrian flow is common, revolving doors preserve thermal comfort while cutting greenhouse gas emissions associated with building operations.^[29] Furthermore, revolving doors align with green building standards such as LEED, earning credits for minimizing air infiltration and supporting energy performance goals, while their sealed design also provides superior noise reduction and weather resistance, shielding interiors from external elements like wind and precipitation.^[20]

Safety and Security

Emergency Egress Features

Revolving doors incorporate emergency egress features to ensure safe evacuation during crises, such as fires or power failures, by allowing the structure to collapse or disengage without impeding occupant flow. These mechanisms prioritize life safety while maintaining the door's primary function of controlled pedestrian traffic and environmental separation.^[30] A primary safety component is the breakout panel system, where individual door wings or leaves are hinged to pivot outward or fold in a book-fold configuration when force is applied, creating an unobstructed exit path. According to the Builders Hardware Manufacturers Association (BHMA) standard A156.27, each wing must break out with a maximum force of 130 pounds (578 N) applied at three inches from the outer edge, providing an aggregate clear width of at least 36 inches (914 mm) for egress.^[31]^[32]^[33] This design enables rapid conversion of the revolving enclosure into a wide opening, typically spanning the full diameter of the door assembly, to accommodate multiple evacuees simultaneously.^[34] The regulatory framework for these features was significantly shaped by the 1942 Cocoanut Grove nightclub fire in Boston, which highlighted the dangers of non-collapsible revolving doors blocking exits and resulted in 492 deaths. In response, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) revised its Building Exits Code— the precursor to NFPA 101, the Life Safety Code— to mandate collapsible revolving door designs and prohibit their use as primary means of egress without supplementary options.^[35]^[36] Modern U.S. building codes, including the International Building Code (IBC) Section 1010.3.1, incorporate these principles, requiring revolving doors to comply with BHMA A156.27 for breakout functionality and to include an adjacent side-hinged swinging door within 10 feet for alternative egress.^[30]^[37]^[38] Contemporary revolving doors often integrate automated safety systems, such as shear pins or electromagnetic release mechanisms, which disengage the wings from the central drive upon activation of a fire alarm, power loss, or manual override, halting rotation and enabling immediate breakout. These features are tested under BHMA A156.27 protocols to verify reliable operation under emergency conditions, ensuring the panels collapse safely without endangering users. In high-occupancy settings like hotels or theaters, revolving doors are routinely installed adjacent to outward-swinging doors to provide redundant egress paths, complying with NFPA 101 provisions that limit revolving doors to no more than 50 percent of required exit capacity.^[39]^[40]

Access Control and Security Applications

Revolving doors serve as effective barriers for access control by regulating pedestrian flow and preventing unauthorized entry in high-traffic environments. One-directional mechanisms, such as locking systems that permit rotation only from the exterior, are commonly employed in secure facilities like subway stations and bank entrances to restrict inward access while allowing outward egress.^[41] These doors integrate seamlessly with modern security technologies to enhance verification and monitoring. Card readers and biometric scanners, including fingerprint or facial recognition systems, are often mounted adjacent to or within the door structure, triggering rotation only upon successful authentication.^[42]^[43] Anti-tailgating sensors, utilizing time-of-flight (TOF) or optical detection, monitor the compartments to ensure only one authorized individual passes per cycle, mitigating piggybacking risks in corporate lobbies and data centers.^[44]^[45] In high-security applications, revolving doors are engineered with ballistic-rated materials to withstand projectile threats, suitable for government buildings and military installations. For instance, systems like those from Horton Automatics incorporate reinforced glazing and frames tested to ballistic standards, providing protection equivalent to UL 752 Level 8 ratings against high-caliber firearms.^[46] Similarly, Gunnebo's GyroSec model offers optional ballistic reinforcement meeting EN 1063 and EN 1522 criteria for bullet resistance.^[47] Advanced threat detection has been furthered by innovations such as LIDAR-equipped revolving doors, exemplified in a 2023 U.S. patent (US11587385B2) that positions LIDAR sensors atop the assembly to scan for anomalies and control access in real-time.^[48] As of 2025, advancements include AI integration for predictive analytics in revolving doors, optimizing security during peak usage.^[49] Globally, airports utilize these doors for crowd management and security screening, integrating with turnstiles to handle high volumes while enforcing one-way flows during peak times.^[50]^[51]

Historical Development

Invention and Early Patents

The origins of the revolving door can be traced to early concepts aimed at minimizing air drafts in buildings. In 1881, H. Bockhacker of Berlin received German patent DE 18,349 for a device titled "Thür ohne Luftzug," or "door without draft of air," which featured a basic rotating structure enclosed in a cylindrical housing to allow passage while preventing airflow.^[52] This turnstile-like mechanism represented an initial attempt to address ventilation issues in doorways, though it was not widely adopted.^[1] The key invention that established the modern revolving door occurred in the United States seven years later. On August 7, 1888, Theophilus van Kannel of Philadelphia was granted U.S. patent 387,571 for a "storm-door structure," designed specifically to exclude wind, rain, snow, and dust from buildings while enabling smooth, unidirectional passage.^[2] Van Kannel's innovation addressed longstanding problems with conventional swinging doors, which often created noise, allowed rapid air exchange, and risked collisions between users entering and exiting simultaneously.^[2] The patented design consisted of a central vertical pivot with three radiating panels that fit snugly within a fixed cylindrical casing, incorporating weather-stripping for an airtight seal and ensuring noiseless operation without springs or mechanical aids.^[2] Subsequent refinements by van Kannel enhanced the device's stability and functionality. The original three-panel configuration was soon supplemented in commercial applications with four panels, which provided greater balance and reduced wobbling during rotation, improving overall durability and user safety.^[1] In 1900, van Kannel secured U.S. patent 641,563 for further improvements to the revolving-door structure, including reinforced central posts and hanger mechanisms to support heavier installations in public buildings.^[53] These developments paved the way for automatic operation features in later patents, such as adjustable pivots and locking systems that facilitated controlled rotation without manual propulsion in high-traffic settings.^[53] Following the 1888 patent, van Kannel established the Van Kannel Revolving Door Company to commercialize the invention, marking the first dedicated enterprise for manufacturing and installing these doors on a large scale.^[54] The company's early awards for practical innovation underscored the device's effectiveness in energy conservation and crowd management, setting the foundation for its integration into architecture.^[55]

Adoption and Milestones

The first revolving door was installed in 1899 at Rector's restaurant in Times Square, New York City, marking the debut of the invention in a high-profile urban venue.^[4] This installation quickly boosted the device's popularity in densely populated areas by demonstrating its ability to manage crowds and maintain interior climates without disruptive drafts.^[56] During the early 20th century, revolving doors saw increased adoption in skyscrapers, including the Flatiron Building, where a wooden revolving door was incorporated shortly after its 1902 completion to handle the pressures of high-rise environments.^[57] The 1920s brought a surge in their use within department stores amid the era's retail boom, as these entrances efficiently accommodated growing pedestrian traffic in expanding commercial hubs like Hudson's in Detroit.^[58] The 1942 Cocoanut Grove nightclub fire in Boston, where jammed revolving doors exacerbated the tragedy and resulted in 492 fatalities, prompted nationwide reforms in building egress regulations to address such vulnerabilities.^[59] In recognition of his foundational patent from 1888, inventor Theophilus van Kannel was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2007 for the revolving door's enduring impact on architecture and urban life.^[55]

Research and Innovations

Energy Efficiency and Airflow Studies

Early research on the energy efficiency of revolving doors highlighted their role in reducing heat loss compared to conventional swing doors. A seminal 2006 study conducted by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) analyzed air exchange rates in a campus building, finding that revolving doors permitted 80-95% less air infiltration than swing doors under typical usage conditions, primarily due to minimized openings and pressure differentials during operation.^[5] This reduction translated to potential annual energy savings of up to 74% on heating and cooling specifically attributable to door-related air exchange, equivalent to about 1.5% of the building's total HVAC energy consumption in a temperate climate.^[60] Post-2010 investigations expanded on these findings by exploring airflow dynamics and supplementary energy recovery mechanisms. Studies from 2017 onward incorporated kinetic energy harvesting from door rotation, with models estimating generation potentials of 50-100 W per door in moderate-traffic urban settings, depending on user frequency and door dimensions.^[61] Airflow models in this period often applied Bernoulli's principle to describe pressure equalization across the door's compartments, where rotational motion creates transient low-pressure zones that limit bulk air transfer, thereby maintaining indoor-outdoor separation more effectively than linear door swings.^[62] Quantitative assessments of infiltration rates have relied on established fluid dynamics equations to predict energy impacts. The volumetric flow rate Q through door openings or seals is commonly modeled as

Q = C \cdot A \cdot \sqrt{\frac{\Delta P}{\rho}},

where C is the discharge coefficient (typically 0.6-0.8 for door gaps), A is the effective opening area, \Delta P is the pressure difference across the boundary, and \rho is air density; this orifice flow equation, derived from Bernoulli's conservation of energy, underscores how revolving doors' continuous seal reduces A and stabilizes \Delta P.^[62] In cold climates, such as those with outdoor temperatures below 0°C, empirical data indicate HVAC cost savings of up to 6% annually when revolving doors replace swing entrances in high-traffic buildings, primarily from curtailed heating demands.^[63]

Technological Advancements

In the early 2000s, revolving doors began incorporating smart integrations to enhance user experience and operational efficiency, particularly through sensor-based auto-rotation systems. For instance, Boon Edam's Tourniket model features motion-detecting sensors that automatically initiate door rotation upon detecting approaching pedestrians, reducing manual effort and improving accessibility in high-traffic environments. These advancements often include IoT connectivity, allowing revolving doors to interface with building management systems for real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and integration with broader access control networks, as seen in ASSA ABLOY's platform that links entrances to centralized IoT ecosystems.^[64] Energy-harvesting technologies emerged in the 2010s as a sustainable innovation, leveraging the kinetic energy from door rotation to generate electricity via piezoelectric materials or dynamo systems. Prototypes developed during this period, such as those tested by engineering teams, demonstrated the potential to produce approximately 2.4 kWh daily under continuous operation at moderate speeds like 12 RPM, powering low-energy building features without external sources.^[65] This approach aligns with broader efforts to minimize environmental impact, building on airflow efficiency principles to create self-sustaining entry solutions. Recent patents underscore ongoing advancements in security and materials. The 2023 U.S. patent US11587385B2 describes a security revolving door assembly incorporating LIDAR sensors for precise detection and threat assessment, mounted in the canopy to monitor user movement and enhance perimeter protection.^[66] Concurrently, manufacturers like Boon Edam and Horton Automatics have adopted ballistic-rated materials, such as UL 752-compliant composites, for high-security applications, while sustainable options incorporate recycled composites and recyclable components to meet green building standards.^[67]^[46] Post-2020 developments emphasize inclusivity and regulatory alignment, with automated revolving doors increasingly designed for ADA compliance through features like auto-folding wings that provide unobstructed wheelchair passage activated by push buttons.^[68] In Europe, updates to standards like EN 16005 ensure powered pedestrian doorsets, including revolving types, incorporate advanced safety sensors and fail-safes for emergency egress.^[69] As of 2025, further innovations include AI integration into revolving doors for predicting peak usage times and enhancing security through intelligent entry solutions.^[49] These innovations contribute to market expansion, projected to grow from USD 1.24 billion in 2024 to USD 1.89 billion by 2034 at a 4.3% CAGR, driven by demand for smart, secure, and eco-friendly building entries.

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NIHF Inductee Theophilus Van Kannel Invented Revolving Doors
- **Induction Date**: Theophilus Van Kannel was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2007.
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In a spin: the history of revolving doors - Australian Design Review
Jul 24, 2017 · While the splendidly named H Bockhacker may have been granted the first German patent in 1881 for a Tür ohne Luftzug (door without draft of ...
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https://www.invent.org/inductees/theophilus-van-kannel
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[PDF] Storefronts on Main Street: An Architectural History
One note- worthy variation in door design is that of the revolving door, a late-nineteenth-century invention most often found in larger department stores. The ...
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Fitting Tribute - NFPA
Nov 21, 2023 · I also tell them that NFPA is the reason exit doors open out rather than in, and why revolving exit doors must be accompanied by standard doors.Missing: 101 | Show results with:101
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[PDF] modifying habits towards sustainability: a study of revolving door ...
May 25, 2006 · 1) The revolving door is energy efficient. 2) The revolving door is fun and entertaining. For those students who regularly used swing doors ...
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https://www.nfpa.org/news-blogs-and-articles/nfpa-journal/2023/11/21/outreach-winter-23
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[PDF] Electrical Power Generation from Revolving Door - IOSR Journal
However, revolving door can be used as a new source of energy.That not only saves energy, but also generates energy with every person passing the door.The door ...
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[PDF] Air infiltration through revolving doors - AIVC
through the revolving door. These two routes are shown diagram- matically in ... The centrifugal force of the air in the door segment was estimated.
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[PDF] Factsheet Revolving Doors and Energy Efficiency Benefits
▻ Less demand placed on HVAC systems resulting in reduced running costs for the building. ▻ Employees are now enjoying a more constant and comfortable.
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Make your entrances smarter with IoT and connectivity
We connect your doors and docking solutions through an easy-to-use all-in-one platform, helping you shift from reactive to proactive maintenance.
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[PDF] Energy of Revolving Doors - ASEE PEER
The solution we came to is a revolving door that uses the rotation of the door panels/shaft to power a motor generator, which in turn produces clean and.
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US11587385B2 - Security revolving door assembly - Google Patents
A security revolving door assembly including a revolving door, a controlling unit and a LIDAR sensor. The LIDAR sensor is appropriately disposed in the top ...Missing: equipped | Show results with:equipped
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Bullet-Resistant Package | Boon Edam USA
The Bullet-Resistant Package equips a security door with the ability to stop three .44 magnum bullets, or a bullet twice as heavy and significantly faster.
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Manual or Automatic Revolving Door - Tourniket | Boon Edam
Capacity (per minute in one direction). 2 x 22 · Standard unit size (W x H). 1600 x 2300 mm · Standard dimensions. 695 mm throat opening, 200 mm canopy height, ...Missing: components | Show results with:components
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EN 16005 Standard - Automatic Doors | Boon Edam
EN 16005 is a European standard for the safety in use of power-operated pedestrian doorsets. This standard covers automatic doors used for normal access.