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Elevator

An elevator, also known as a lift, is a mechanical vertical transport system designed to move passengers or freight between floors or levels in multi-story buildings and structures.^[1] It typically consists of an enclosed car or platform that travels along guide rails within a hoistway, powered by mechanisms such as hydraulic pistons or electric traction ropes and counterweights.^[1] Elevators have revolutionized urban architecture by enabling the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, providing efficient accessibility for people with disabilities, and facilitating the vertical movement of billions of passengers daily worldwide.^[2] The concept of vertical lifting devices dates back to ancient times, with early examples like hoists powered by human, animal, or water wheel mechanisms used in construction and mining as far back as 236 BCE, attributed to Archimedes.^[2] However, modern passenger elevators emerged in the 19th century, with American inventor Elisha Graves Otis inventing the safety brake in 1852 and patenting it in 1861 to prevent falls if hoisting cables broke, addressing a major public fear of these devices.^[3] Otis demonstrated his invention publicly in 1854 at the New York Crystal Palace Exposition, dramatically cutting a cable to show the brake engaging, which paved the way for safe passenger use.^[4] The first commercial passenger elevator, equipped with Otis's safety mechanism, was installed in 1857 in the Haughwout Department Store in New York City, marking a turning point in building design.^[2] Advancements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries shifted elevators from steam and hydraulic power to electricity, with German inventor Werner von Siemens building the first electric elevator in 1880 using an electromagnetic motor.^[5] By 1902, the Otis Elevator Company introduced gearless traction electric elevators, which eliminated the need for bulky gearing and allowed for higher speeds and greater building heights, further fueling the skyscraper era.^[6] Today, elevators are classified into main types including hydraulic systems, suitable for low- to mid-rise buildings up to about seven stories due to their use of pressurized fluid to raise a piston-driven car; and traction elevators, which use steel ropes over pulleys and counterweights for efficient operation in taller structures, subdivided into geared, gearless, and machine-room-less variants for space-saving designs.^[1] Safety standards, such as those codified in ASME A17.1 since 1921, ensure reliability through features like automatic emergency brakes, fire-rated doors, and overload sensors, making elevators one of the safest forms of transport with failure rates far below those of automobiles.^[7] In contemporary applications, high-speed elevators in supertall buildings like the Burj Khalifa can reach velocities around 600 meters per minute (10 m/s), incorporating advanced technologies such as regenerative drives that recapture energy during descent to improve efficiency and sustainability.^[7]^[8] Beyond transportation, elevators play a critical structural role in high-rises, occupying significant core space and influencing floor layouts, while innovations like destination dispatch systems optimize traffic flow to minimize wait times.^[2] Globally, the elevator industry supports urban density by accommodating population growth in vertical spaces, with ongoing research focusing on rope-less, multi-car systems to further enhance capacity in megatall structures.^[9]

History

Pre-industrial developments

The earliest precursors to modern elevators emerged in ancient civilizations as basic lifting devices powered by human or animal labor, primarily for construction and resource extraction. In ancient Greece around 236 BCE, the engineer Archimedes developed the compound pulley system, a mechanism that multiplied force to lift heavy loads with reduced effort, as demonstrated when he reportedly used it to haul a fully laden ship onto dry dock using his own strength. Archimedes also invented the screw lift, a helical device for raising water, which represented an early conceptual advance in vertical transport though not intended for passengers.^[10] Building on these innovations, the Romans engineered sophisticated timber cranes equipped with multiple pulleys and treadwheels, enabling the hoisting of substantial stone blocks to significant heights during monumental construction projects like aqueducts and amphitheaters.^[11] These devices, often operated by teams of workers on treadwheels, could lift weights up to several tons but were limited to goods and required constant manual input.^[12] During the medieval period in Europe, particularly from the 13th century onward, rope-and-pulley hoists became common in castles and monasteries for elevating goods such as supplies, building materials, and religious artifacts to upper levels or towers. These systems, documented in architectural records and illuminated manuscripts, typically consisted of hemp ropes threaded through wooden pulleys and winches powered by human or animal force, allowing for more efficient vertical movement in multi-story structures like fortified keeps.^[13] Such hoists were essential for logistical needs in isolated sites, such as provisioning remote monastic communities or raising armaments in castles, though they remained rudimentary and prone to rope failure without safety redundancies. By the 18th century, pre-industrial developments began incorporating more refined mechanisms, exemplified by the pantograph lift installed in 1743 at the Palace of Versailles for King Louis XV. This hand-operated "flying chair," a counterweighted platform connected by ropes and pulleys, allowed discreet vertical travel between floors for the king and his entourage, pulled by servants via a system of gears and levers.^[14] Around the same time, early proposals for steam-powered hoists surfaced, though these remained theoretical and unbuilt due to technological constraints.^[15] These advancements marked a shift from simple winches to geared systems, improving precision and capacity, yet all pre-industrial devices suffered from manual dependency, inconsistent power, and inherent safety risks like sudden drops from rope snaps.

Industrial era advancements

The Industrial era marked a pivotal shift in elevator technology, transitioning from manual hoists to powered systems that prioritized passenger safety and efficiency. In 1854, American inventor Elisha Graves Otis demonstrated his innovative safety brake at the New York Crystal Palace Exhibition, a device featuring spring-loaded pawls that automatically engaged to grip guide rails and halt the elevator car if the supporting cable failed, dramatically reducing the risk of catastrophic falls.^[4] This public spectacle, where Otis rode the platform as the cable was severed by an axe, captivated audiences and alleviated widespread fears of elevator accidents, paving the way for commercial adoption.^[16] Building on this breakthrough, Otis installed the world's first commercial passenger elevator in 1857 at the E.V. Haughwout Department Store in New York City, a five-story structure powered by a steam engine that operated at approximately 0.2 meters per second.^[17] The enclosed wooden cab, equipped with benches and Otis's safety mechanism, transported shoppers between floors, marking the debut of elevators as a practical vertical transport solution in urban retail environments.^[18] By the 1870s, steam-powered systems began evolving into hydraulic elevators, with Otis installing an early commercial example in 1870 at the Bunker Hill Brewery in Boston, utilizing pressurized water or oil to drive a piston for smoother, more reliable operation in low- to mid-rise buildings.^[19] This transition addressed limitations of steam power, such as inconsistent pressure, and expanded elevator use to freight and passenger applications.^[20] Electrical advancements followed soon after, with Werner von Siemens unveiling the first electric traction elevator in 1880 at the Mannheim Trade Fair in Germany, employing an electric motor to wind ropes over a sheave, enabling faster speeds and greater heights without the need for hydraulic infrastructure.^[21] These innovations profoundly influenced architecture, enabling the construction of taller buildings by making multi-story occupancy feasible and economical. A seminal example is Chicago's Home Insurance Building, completed in 1885 and designed by William Le Baron Jenney, which is widely recognized as the world's first skyscraper at ten stories (later expanded to twelve) due to its steel-frame structure integrated with four hydraulic passenger elevators that facilitated efficient vertical circulation.^[22] The elevators, manufactured by Hale, allowed the building to support dense office use while distributing weight innovatively, setting a precedent for urban high-rises that reshaped city skylines.^[23] Amid rapid proliferation, safety concerns prompted early regulatory responses. In the 1870s, following a series of high-profile elevator accidents in growing American cities like New York and Chicago, local building codes began mandating essential safety features, such as automatic door interlocks and hoistway enclosures, to prevent falls and unauthorized access.^[24] These measures, often enacted in municipal ordinances after incidents involving unsecured shafts, laid the groundwork for standardized protections and reflected the era's growing emphasis on public welfare in industrialized infrastructure.^[7]

Post-industrial evolution

The development of gearless traction elevators in the early 1900s marked a significant advancement in elevator technology, enabling higher speeds and greater building heights without the need for gears, which reduced mechanical wear and improved efficiency. Otis Elevator Company introduced its gearless traction system in 1902, allowing elevators to achieve speeds up to 700 feet per minute and facilitating the construction of taller structures.^[6] This innovation was first commercially installed in 1903 at the Beaver Building in New York City, setting the stage for modern high-rise applications.^[25] Post-World War II, elevator technology adapted to support the resurgence of high-rise construction, with improvements in electric motors, control systems, and structural integration that accommodated buildings exceeding 50 stories. The period saw a boom in urban redevelopment, where elevators incorporated more reliable power supplies and automatic leveling features to handle increased passenger volumes in commercial skyscrapers.^[26] These adaptations were crucial for post-war economic expansion, as seen in projects like the United Nations Headquarters in New York (completed 1952), which utilized advanced traction systems for efficient vertical transport.^[27] In the post-1950s era, the shift toward machine room-less (MRL) elevator designs revolutionized installation by integrating the drive machinery within the hoistway, thereby saving space and reducing construction costs in mid-rise buildings. The concept originated with Pickerings' Econolift in the 1950s, which eliminated the need for a separate machine room through compact hydraulic or traction configurations.^[28] By the 1970s, MRL systems gained traction in Europe and North America, particularly for residential and low- to mid-rise applications, as building codes evolved to permit such layouts.^[29] The 1970s and 1980s introduced microprocessor-based controls, enhancing operational precision, energy management, and group supervision for multi-elevator banks. Schindler's Miconic E, launched in 1975, was among the first to employ 1-bit microprocessors for optimized dispatching and fault detection, reducing wait times by up to 30% in high-traffic environments.^[30] By the 1980s, widespread adoption of these digital systems, including Otis' versions, allowed for predictive maintenance and smoother rides, aligning with the era's computing advancements.^[31] Japan achieved notable milestones in high-speed elevator technology during the 1960s, developing systems capable of exceeding 1,000 feet per minute to support its burgeoning skyscrapers amid economic growth. These innovations, influenced by precision engineering from the Shinkansen high-speed rail project launched in 1964, featured advanced counterweight and sheave designs for stability in tall buildings like the 147-meter Kasumigaseki Building (1968).^[32] Since 2000, China's rapid urbanization has driven mass production of elevators, with installations surging from under 100,000 units annually in 2000 to over 1 million by 2020, fueled by high-rise residential booms in cities like Shanghai and Beijing.^[33] This expansion positioned China as the global leader, accounting for two-thirds of new installations by value and supporting over 11 million operational units nationwide.^[34] Elevator standards have evolved to ensure safety and interoperability, with the ASME A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators in the United States undergoing regular updates, including the 2022 edition that incorporated cybersecurity requirements and enhanced remote operation protocols.^[35] In Europe, the EN 81 series, particularly EN 81-20 (2020) for construction and installation and EN 81-50 (2020) for components, has been updated through 2024 to address accessibility and risk assessments, harmonizing regulations across member states.^[36] These standards reflect ongoing global alignment, with revisions emphasizing resilience against modern threats like digital vulnerabilities. By 2025, trends in energy-efficient drives have gained prominence amid sustainability initiatives, with regenerative systems capturing braking energy to feed back into building grids, achieving up to 30% reductions in consumption compared to traditional setups.^[37] Innovations such as variable frequency drives and LED-integrated cabs, mandated in green building certifications like LEED, support net-zero goals, as evidenced by widespread adoption in new urban developments worldwide.^[38]

Design and Components

Core mechanical components

The core mechanical components of an elevator system form the foundational structure enabling vertical transportation, primarily in traction-based designs where gravitational balance and controlled motion are essential. The hoistway, or elevator shaft, serves as the enclosed vertical pathway through which the elevator car travels, typically featuring fire-resistant walls, doors at each floor level, and a pit at the bottom for safety buffers. This shaft houses all moving elements and is designed to withstand structural loads while isolating the system from building vibrations.^[39] The elevator car, also known as the cab, is the passenger or freight compartment suspended within the hoistway, constructed from steel frames with interior finishes for safety and comfort, directly supporting the load during ascent and descent.^[40] To optimize energy efficiency and reduce motor strain, elevators incorporate a counterweight, a heavy mass typically composed of cast iron or concrete slabs framed in steel, which moves in the opposite direction of the car via shared suspension elements. This counterbalancing leverages basic physics: the counterweight offsets approximately 40-50% of the car's maximum rated load plus the empty car weight, minimizing the net force the drive system must exert and thereby lowering energy consumption during operation. The standard formula for counterweight mass m_c in balanced systems is m_c = m_{car} + \psi \cdot Q, where m_{car} is the empty car mass, Q is the rated load capacity, and \psi is the balance coefficient (usually 0.4-0.5 for passenger elevators), ensuring near-neutral buoyancy in both loaded and unloaded states.^[41] Guide rails, usually T-section steel beams mounted vertically along the hoistway walls, provide lateral stability by constraining the car and counterweight to linear paths, preventing sway or misalignment under dynamic loads.^[39] Suspension ropes or belts, often multiple strands of steel wire rope or flat polyurethane-coated belts, connect the car and counterweight over the drive sheave, distributing the load and enabling smooth traction. These elements must endure tensile stresses exceeding the total suspended weight, with redundancy to prevent failure. The drive sheave, a grooved pulley integral to the traction machine, grips the suspension medium through friction, translating motor torque into vertical motion. The motor, typically an AC induction type with variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) control for precise speed regulation, powers the sheave and is rated for the system's torque requirements, often using three-phase electrical supply. Braking systems, such as electromagnetic or mechanical disc brakes, apply friction to the sheave or motor shaft to halt motion during normal stops or emergencies, ensuring compliance with deceleration limits.^[40]^[39] Safety is paramount through the governor mechanism, a centrifugal device mounted in the hoistway that monitors car speed via a sheave-driven cable; if overspeed exceeds 115-140% of rated velocity, it triggers safety clamps—wedge-shaped grips on the car frame that hydraulically or spring-loaded engage the guide rails to arrest descent. Load sensors, such as strain gauges or load cells mounted under the car floor or on suspension points, detect the weight inside the cab to prevent overloads and adjust motor performance for stability. Leveling devices, employing magnetic tapes, optical encoders, or laser systems along the hoistway, provide feedback for fine adjustments, ensuring the car aligns within millimeters of floor levels to facilitate safe entry and exit.^[40]^[39]

Doors and access systems

Elevator doors serve as critical access points, facilitating safe entry and exit while integrating with the car's structural frame for alignment and operation. Common types include sliding doors, which dominate modern installations due to their efficiency in high-traffic environments. Center-opening sliding doors consist of two panels that part symmetrically from the middle, providing balanced access and commonly used in passenger elevators for their space-saving design. Side-opening sliding doors feature a single panel that shifts laterally to one side, suitable for narrower hoistways or applications requiring asymmetric clearance, such as in freight or residential settings. Swinging doors, hinged like traditional building entrances, are typically manual and found in low-rise or home elevators where automatic operation is unnecessary, offering simplicity but requiring user intervention. Telescoping doors employ multiple overlapping panels that slide in a nested fashion, enabling wider openings in constrained spaces without excessive track length, often in two- or three-panel configurations for commercial use. Power-operated doors, standard in contemporary elevators, rely on hydraulic or electric operators to drive opening and closing motions. Electric operators, using motors and gearboxes, provide precise control and are prevalent in traction elevators for their energy efficiency and rapid response.^[42] Hydraulic operators, leveraging fluid pressure, suit heavier swinging or side-opening doors in hydraulic elevators, offering robust force for demanding loads but with slower speeds.^[43] These systems incorporate sensors for obstruction detection to prevent injuries; light curtains emit grids of infrared beams across the doorway, reversing door closure upon interruption for comprehensive coverage.^[44] Photo eyes, simpler single-beam devices positioned at knee and waist heights, detect larger obstacles and trigger reopening, serving as a cost-effective alternative in less critical applications.^[45] Interlocking systems ensure hoistway and car doors remain secure, preventing operation unless fully closed and aligned. These mechanical or electromechanical devices, such as roller locks or electric contacts, engage only when the elevator car is at the landing, complying with ASME A17.1 standards that mandate secure latching to avoid unintended access to the shaft.^[35] Door reopening force is limited to under 30 lbf (133 N) in the United States to minimize entrapment risks, with operators programmed to reverse upon resistance detected by sensors or pressure switches.^[46] The evolution of elevator doors transitioned from manual operations in the late 19th century to automatic mechanisms by the 1920s, driven by safety and convenience demands. Early manual swinging or sliding doors required attendant intervention, but Otis Elevator Company's 1925 introduction of fully automatic center-opening doors with self-closing features marked a pivotal shift, reducing human error in high-rises.^[47] Post-2020, touchless options emerged prominently in response to pandemic hygiene concerns, incorporating gesture recognition or proximity sensors to activate doors without physical contact, enhancing accessibility while maintaining traditional mechanical integrity.^[48] Maintenance challenges often stem from misalignment in tracks or hangers, leading to uneven panel movement and accelerated wear on rollers, seals, and guides. Regular lubrication and alignment checks prevent binding, which can increase operational noise and energy consumption, while ignoring such issues risks compliance failures under codes like ASME A17.1.^[49]

Machine room-less and double-decker configurations

Machine room-less (MRL) elevators integrate the hoisting machinery, including gearless traction motors—often permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) for higher efficiency—directly into the hoistway, eliminating the need for a separate machine room.^[50] This design was pioneered in the 1990s, with KONE introducing the MonoSpace system in 1996 as the world's first MRL elevator, utilizing a compact EcoDisc gearless motor to drive the system efficiently within the shaft space.^[51] By removing the dedicated machine room, MRL configurations reduce the overall building footprint by approximately 15-25%, allowing for more flexible architectural layouts and valuable floor space savings in mid-rise structures.^[52] Double-decker elevators feature two passenger cabs stacked vertically within a single hoistway, enabling simultaneous service to adjacent floors and optimizing vertical transport in high-rise buildings.^[53] This configuration gained prominence in the 1990s, particularly in Asian skyscrapers, where space constraints in densely populated urban areas necessitated efficient core utilization.^[54] Double-decker systems can increase passenger handling capacity by about 30% compared to single-deck equivalents, though they require even floor zoning—typically assigning one cab to odd floors and the other to even floors—to maximize efficiency.^[55] Despite their benefits, both configurations present notable trade-offs. MRL elevators are generally limited to speeds below 500 feet per minute (152 meters per minute) due to challenges in heat dissipation from the integrated gearless motors, which lack the dedicated ventilation of traditional machine rooms and can lead to overheating in prolonged high-speed operations; many incorporate regenerative drives to recapture energy and improve efficiency as of 2025.^[56]^[57] Double-decker setups demand precise synchronization between the coupled cabs to maintain alignment throughout travel, relying on advanced control systems to prevent misalignment and ensure safe door operations at stops.^[58] Prominent installations highlight these technologies' applications in iconic structures. The Burj Khalifa in Dubai incorporates MRL variants, including 24 Otis Gen2 machine-room-less elevators that support efficient vertical circulation across its 828-meter height while minimizing mechanical space.^[59] Similarly, the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur feature 58 double-decker elevators supplied by Otis, which enhance capacity in the 88-story twins by servicing paired floors and reducing the elevator core's spatial demands.^[53]

Types of Elevators

Traction-based systems

Traction-based elevators, also known as traction lifts, operate using ropes or belts that run over a sheave driven by an electric motor, relying on friction to move the elevator car and counterweight in a balanced system. This design, which emerged as the dominant type for vertical transportation in multi-story buildings, allows for efficient energy use by offsetting the car's weight with a counterweight, typically around 40-50% of the car's loaded capacity. Unlike hydraulic systems, which rely on fluid pressure for direct lifting, traction systems enable higher speeds and smoother operation through pulley mechanics.^[60] Traction elevators are categorized into geared and gearless variants based on the motor-sheave connection. Geared traction systems employ a worm gear reduction between the motor and sheave, suitable for moderate speeds up to approximately 150 m/min and commonly used in low- to mid-rise buildings with rises under 100 meters. In contrast, gearless systems directly couple a high-torque, low-speed permanent magnet synchronous motor to the sheave, enabling speeds exceeding 150 m/min—often up to 1,000 m/min or more in high-rise applications—and providing quieter, more efficient performance with reduced mechanical wear.^[60]^[61] The suspension configuration in traction elevators is defined by the roping ratio, which determines the relationship between rope movement and car travel. In a 1:1 roping system, the car and counterweight move at the same speed as the rope, maximizing efficiency for lighter loads but requiring higher motor torque. A 2:1 roping system, achieved by redirecting ropes over additional sheaves, halves the car speed relative to the rope, allowing for heavier loads and slower motor speeds but doubling the required rope length. The travel distance d of the car is given by the equation d = \frac{r \theta}{n}, where r is the sheave radius, \theta is the sheave rotation angle in radians, and n is the roping ratio (1 for 1:1, 2 for 2:1). This ratio influences overall system dynamics, with 2:1 setups reducing drive machine size at the cost of increased overhead space.^[62]^[63] Modern traction elevators often incorporate regenerative drives to enhance energy efficiency. During descent or braking, these systems convert the car's kinetic and potential energy into electrical power through the motor acting as a generator, which is then fed back to the building's supply via inverters. This regenerative process can achieve energy savings of up to 30% compared to non-regenerative drives, particularly in buildings with frequent up-and-down traffic, while also reducing heat generation and extending equipment life.^[64] Traction elevators are primarily applied in mid- to high-rise buildings, where their ability to handle speeds over 100 m/min and travel distances exceeding 100 meters makes them ideal for efficient passenger flow in offices, hotels, and residential towers. Key advantages include a smooth, vibration-free ride due to balanced counterweights and precise control, as well as lower long-term operating costs from energy recovery features; however, they require deeper pits (typically 1.2-1.5 meters) and greater overhead clearance (3.5-4.5 meters) for sheaves and buffers, increasing initial installation complexity in space-constrained designs.^[65]^[66] The evolution of traction systems began with the introduction of electric traction in 1880, when Werner von Siemens demonstrated the first electrically powered elevator using a motor-driven sheave at the Mannheim exhibition, marking a shift from steam and hydraulic methods to more reliable electric operation. Early 20th-century advancements focused on geared motors for urban buildings, but by the mid-1900s, gearless designs enabled skyscraper applications. In the 2020s, innovations like polyurethane-coated steel belts have replaced traditional wire ropes in many systems, reducing suspension mass by up to 20% through lighter, flat profiles that maintain high traction while minimizing inertia and noise.^[5]^[67]

Hydraulic systems

Hydraulic elevators utilize pressurized fluid to drive a piston or plunger that raises and lowers the car, relying on Pascal's principle for operation and proving ideal for low-rise applications of two to eight stories where travel distances are limited to around 60 feet (18 m).^[68] These systems feature a power unit consisting of an electric motor, pump, fluid reservoir, and valves, with the pump pressurizing oil to extend the hydraulic cylinder and lift the car; descent occurs by releasing fluid back to the reservoir.^[66] Unlike traction systems, hydraulics push the car directly or via ropes, offering smooth motion at speeds up to 200 feet per minute but requiring a machine room adjacent to the hoistway.^[68] Direct-acting hydraulic elevators position the piston beneath the car in a drilled pit hole equal to the rise height, limiting travel to approximately 20-30 feet due to excavation constraints and structural needs.^[68] Roped hydraulic variants incorporate ropes and a sheave attached to the piston, creating a 2:1 mechanical advantage where the piston travels only half the car's distance, enabling rises up to 60 feet (18 m) without deeper pits.^[68] Pump configurations vary: submersible screw pumps, submerged in the oil reservoir, deliver quiet, pulsation-free flow at rates of 68-80 liters per minute across pressures up to 80 bar, making them standard for passenger service due to low vibration and high efficiency.^[69] Above-ground gear pumps, positioned externally, suit lower-flow freight applications under 30 liters per minute but generate more noise and suit moderate pressures with 85-93% volumetric efficiency.^[69] The system's lifting force derives from hydraulic pressure governed by Pascal's law, expressed as

P = \frac{F}{A}

where P is pressure in pascals (Pa or N/m²), F is the total force in newtons (including car weight and load), and A is the piston cross-sectional area in square meters; this ensures uniform pressure transmission to support loads up to 5,000 pounds.^[70] Hydraulic elevators offer advantages such as no counterweight requirement, saving 10-20% space compared to traction systems, and inherent self-leveling, where check valves maintain fluid pressure to hold the car precisely at floor levels without ongoing power.^[71] They also handle heavier loads efficiently in intermittent low-rise use, consuming minimal energy at idle or during descent.^[66] However, disadvantages include higher overall energy consumption from the lack of regenerative capabilities—requiring full pump operation for each ascent—and potential oil leaks from seals or hoses, which pose environmental hazards if using non-biodegradable fluids.^[66]^[72] Hydraulic elevators dominated the U.S. low-rise market through the 1970s and 1980s, comprising the majority of installations due to their simplicity and cost-effectiveness, but their share declined after the 1990s amid stricter environmental regulations on hydraulic oil disposal and contamination risks, alongside competition from more efficient machine-room-less traction alternatives. By the early 2000s, global market share had fallen to around 40%, though they remained prevalent in retrofits and regions with seismic concerns.^[73] Contemporary developments include holeless jack designs, featuring side- or base-mounted telescoping pistons that eliminate pit drilling, facilitating retrofits in existing structures by reducing excavation costs and mitigating groundwater contamination from buried cylinders.^[74] These variants support rises up to 50 feet with telescoping jacks or 20 feet with non-telescoping jacks, enhancing adaptability for buildings over unstable soil or high water tables.^[68]

Alternative mechanisms

Alternative mechanisms encompass innovative elevator designs that deviate from conventional rope or hydraulic systems, employing electromagnetic, mechanical gear, or pneumatic principles to suit specialized environments such as high-rises, inclines, or residential settings.^[75]^[76]^[77] Electromagnetic propulsion utilizes linear synchronous motors (LSM) to enable ropeless travel, eliminating cables and allowing multiple cabins to operate independently within a single shaft. This technology, exemplified by the ThyssenKrupp MULTI system introduced in 2017, powers cabins via electromagnetic fields along guide rails, facilitating both vertical and horizontal movement for enhanced building efficiency.^[78]^[79] The MULTI demonstrator at the Rottweil test tower in Germany showcased cabins reaching speeds of up to 5 m/s, with potential for multidirectional routing to reduce travel times.^[78] Climbing elevators rely on rack-and-pinion mechanisms, where a pinion gear driven by an electric motor engages a fixed rack to ascend steep inclines unsuitable for standard elevators. These systems are prevalent in mining operations, such as Alimak's installations in underground facilities, where they transport personnel and equipment over distances like 204 meters at speeds of 0.6 m/s.^[76] In demanding environments, rack-and-pinion designs achieve operational speeds up to 2 m/s (120 m/min) in permanent high-rise or industrial setups, prioritizing durability against harsh conditions.^[80] Pneumatic vacuum elevators operate through air pressure differentials created by a turbine, drawing the cabin upward in a sealed tube without mechanical cables or pistons. Developed by Pneumatic Vacuum Elevators LLC, the PVE system saw its first U.S. installation in 2004, targeting low-rise residential applications with rises up to 15 meters across five stops.^[81] These elevators maintain a partial vacuum above the cabin to lift it gently at speeds around 0.15 m/s, offering a transparent, cylindrical design for aesthetic integration.^[77] Ropeless electromagnetic systems like MULTI reduce overall cabin weight by up to 50% through lightweight materials and the absence of counterweights, though initial implementation costs remain high due to complex motor arrays and control systems.^[82] Pneumatic elevators provide silent, energy-efficient operation without oil or gears, but are constrained to 4-5 floors owing to pressure limitations and tube structural demands.^[77] Emerging maglev-inspired prototypes build on LSM technology to pursue ultra-high speeds exceeding 1000 m/min (16.7 m/s), with ongoing developments pursuing commercial viability, though as of 2025, such systems remain in prototype and testing phases without widespread building installations. These advancements, rooted in magnetic levitation principles tested in MULTI, aim to support vertical transport in buildings over 1 km tall by minimizing energy loss and enabling regenerative braking.^[78]^[83]

Controls and Operations

Manual and basic controls

Manual elevator controls, predominant before 1900, relied on an operator who physically manipulated ropes or levers to regulate the car's speed and initiate stops at desired floors. These systems, often used in early passenger and freight elevators, required the attendant to pull on a shipper-rope connected to pulleys and valves, allowing direct control over hydraulic or traction mechanisms for ascent and descent.^[84] Operators also managed door operations manually, ensuring safe passenger boarding while adjusting velocity based on immediate needs, such as gradual slowing near landings to prevent abrupt halts.^[85] The advent of basic automatic controls in the early 20th century marked a shift from full operator dependency, with systems introduced around 1924 using relay logic to automate sequencing for up and down travel. By the 1950s, these controls became more standardized, featuring single push buttons for each floor inside the car and at landings, enabling passengers to register requests without an attendant. Relay-based circuits processed these inputs to direct the elevator's motor, controlling acceleration, constant speed, and deceleration through electromechanical switches that sequenced stops in a predetermined order.^[30] Signal processing in these basic systems involved simple electromechanical relays that registered floor calls from hall buttons—typically one up and one down per landing—and car buttons, prioritizing requests on a first-come, first-served basis. When a call was activated, it energized a relay coil, latching the signal until the car arrived and served it, after which the relay reset; this ensured sequential handling without advanced prioritization, directing the car to stop at registered floors in the order received during its travel direction.^[84] Hall lanterns or gongs provided basic feedback to indicate the approaching car, but the system lacked coordination for multi-elevator banks, treating each car independently. These manual and basic controls proved inefficient in multi-elevator installations, particularly during peak traffic, as the first-come, first-served approach often resulted in unbalanced load distribution and average passenger waiting times exceeding 30 seconds.^[86] Without centralized dispatching, cars could bypass nearby calls if already committed to a direction, leading to prolonged queues and suboptimal energy use in high-rise buildings. The transition from electromechanical relay systems to early solid-state controls began in the late 1960s, replacing bulky, maintenance-intensive relays with semiconductor-based logic for more reliable signal processing and sequencing. This shift, exemplified by the first computerized solid-state systems installed in tall buildings like New York's World Trade Center, improved responsiveness and reduced mechanical failures while laying the groundwork for fully automated dispatching.^[87]

Automated algorithms and dispatching

Automated dispatching algorithms in elevator systems manage the allocation of multiple cars to hall calls and optimize car movements to minimize passenger wait times and system inefficiencies. These algorithms emerged in the mid-20th century as buildings grew taller and traffic volumes increased, replacing manual or simple relay-based controls with computational logic. Early implementations focused on directional grouping of calls to reduce unnecessary stops and reversals, drawing inspiration from scheduling problems in computing.^[88] One foundational approach is the SCAN algorithm, also known as the elevator algorithm, which treats floor requests similarly to disk head movements in storage systems. In this method, an elevator serves all calls in its current direction of travel—up or down—before reversing, effectively scanning floors sequentially while minimizing direction changes. For example, during ascent, the car stops at all registered up calls in ascending order until reaching the highest request, then reverses for down calls. Pseudocode for a basic SCAN implementation might involve sorting pending calls by floor number within the current direction and processing them until no more calls exist in that direction, at which point the direction flips. This reduces total travel distance and reversal frequency, improving efficiency in moderate traffic scenarios.^[89] Up-peak logic addresses morning rush hours when most passengers enter from the lobby and travel upward, zoning elevators for efficiency by designating specific cars for certain floor ranges or prioritizing lobby dispatches. All cars are directed to express upward during detected up-peak conditions, often parking at the main terminal after unloading to quickly reload. This zoning prevents overloading and ensures balanced distribution, with systems like Otis's Channeling from the 1970s exemplifying early zoning to handle 10-15% handling capacity gains. Such logic dynamically adjusts based on traffic patterns, reverting to normal operation post-peak.^[90] Collective selective control, the modern default since the 1960s, groups hall calls by direction across all cars while allowing selective car assignment based on proximity and load. Cars respond only to calls in their travel direction—e.g., ignoring down calls while ascending—and collectively serve all registered calls in that direction without pre-assigning specific cars until dispatch. This method, implemented in duplex or group systems, balances load by allocating the nearest available car, reducing average wait times compared to non-selective approaches. It became widespread with microprocessor adoption in the 1970s, enabling real-time call grouping.^[91] Performance in these systems is evaluated using metrics like average waiting time (AWT), the time from call registration to car arrival, and average travel time (ATT), encompassing wait plus in-car journey duration. Historical developments, such as the 1960s shift to selective collective systems, aimed to cut AWT by 20-30% in up-peak traffic through better call prioritization. By the 1990s, simulations showed collective selective achieving AWT under 30 seconds in typical office buildings.^[88] In the 2000s, genetic algorithms introduced dynamic optimization by evolving dispatching rules over simulated traffic patterns, treating car assignments as a population of solutions refined via selection, crossover, and mutation to minimize AWT and ATT. These methods outperformed traditional heuristics in variable traffic, with studies reporting 5-15% improvements in handling capacity for high-rise scenarios. For instance, a genetic approach evaluates fitness based on predicted round-trip times, adapting to real-time changes unlike static SCAN logic.^[92]

Destination dispatch systems

Destination dispatch systems are advanced elevator control technologies designed primarily for multi-car installations in super-high-rise buildings, where passengers pre-select their destinations at lobby terminals to enable optimized grouping and assignment to specific cars. This approach differs from conventional directional grouping by eliminating in-car floor buttons, as users input their floor via keypads or touch screens upon entry, and the system directs them to an assigned elevator, thereby reducing the number of in-car stops by up to 50% and minimizing unnecessary travel within the car.^[93] The process enhances overall efficiency by predicting and allocating hall calls based on destination clusters, resulting in smoother passenger flow without the randomness of traditional up/down button systems.^[94] At the core of these systems are algorithms that allocate hall calls to minimize round-trip time (RTT), the total duration for an elevator to complete a cycle of serving passengers. These algorithms group passengers with similar destinations using optimization techniques, such as hybrid search methods combining branch-and-bound with constraint propagation, to compute efficient stop sequences in real time.^[95] Since the 1990s, advancements have incorporated artificial intelligence, including neural networks for predicting response times and reinforcement learning for dynamic traffic adaptation, as seen in systems like Schindler's PORT, which was pioneered with the Miconic 10 in 1992 and evolved into third-generation predictive models.^[96] KONE's destination control similarly employs AI-driven algorithms to factor in passenger counts and peak patterns, integrating seamlessly with machine-room-less EcoDisc hoists for compact, energy-efficient operation in tall structures.^[97] The primary benefits of destination dispatch manifest in high-traffic environments, where it can reduce average journey times by up to 35% and waiting times by 10-50% compared to earlier systems, while doubling transportation capacity in some configurations.^[95] This leads to less crowding, fewer stops, and improved energy use, with handling capacities exceeding 110 passengers per five minutes during up-peak periods—about 15% higher than conventional setups.^[98] However, drawbacks include higher initial installation costs due to specialized input devices and control hardware, as well as a potential user learning curve that may cause initial confusion, particularly among transient occupants in hotels or public buildings.^[98] Notable implementations include Otis's Compass system, launched in 2005, which optimizes RTT through passenger grouping and integrates with building management for predictive dispatching.^[94] Schindler's PORT, building on its 1990s origins, has been deployed in projects like Frankfurt's Omnitower for personalized, RFID-enabled access.^[96] KONE's system features EcoDisc integration, as utilized in the 2012 DaVita World Headquarters in Denver, enhancing capacity by up to 150% via staged modernizations.^[97] As of 2025, destination dispatch systems increasingly incorporate biometrics for contactless entry, such as facial recognition or fingerprint scanners tied to access control, further streamlining pre-selection in secure environments and aligning with broader smart elevator trends projected to grow the market to USD 60.5 billion by 2033.^[99]

Traffic Analysis and Planning

Round-trip time models

Round-trip time (RTT) models provide a foundational analytical framework for evaluating elevator system performance, particularly during peak traffic periods, by estimating the time required for an elevator car to complete a full cycle starting and ending at the main terminal floor. These models are essential in traffic analysis, enabling engineers to predict handling capacity and interval times, which inform the determination of the required number of cars for a building. The core of these models revolves around deterministic equations that account for travel, stopping, and passenger handling times under simplified traffic assumptions.^[100] The seminal RTT equation for up-peak traffic conditions is given by:

\text{RTT} = 2 H t_v + (S + 1) t_s + 2 P t_p

where H represents the highest reversal floor, t_v is the interfloor travel time at rated speed, t_s is the performance time per stop, S is the expected number of stops, t_p is the passenger transfer time, and P is the number of passengers carried per trip. This formula captures the round trip's key components: the main journey to the highest floor and return (2 H t_v), stop times including the return trip ((S + 1) t_s), and passenger transfer times for both entry and exit (2 P t_p). Derived initially for basic up-peak scenarios, it allows calculation of system interval as RTT divided by the number of cars, facilitating capacity assessments.^[101] The RTT concept was first developed by J. Schroeder in the 1950s and 1960s, who introduced probabilistic elements for stop and reversal floor predictions in early traffic studies.^[102] These models were refined in the 1980s by G. C. Barney, who adapted them specifically for up-peak traffic with enhanced assumptions on passenger flows and building configurations, as detailed in her foundational works on elevator traffic design.^[100] RTT models rely on key assumptions, including a uniform population distribution across floors, Poisson-distributed passenger arrivals at the lobby, and all trips originating from the main terminal during up-peak (with no intermediate entries or exits). These simplifications enable straightforward application in preliminary design phases to determine the optimal number of elevator cars needed to achieve target handling capacities, typically aiming for 10-15% of building population handled in five minutes.^[103] Despite their utility, RTT models have limitations, such as neglecting variability in down-peak or interfloor traffic patterns, where passenger origins and destinations are more distributed, potentially leading to underestimations of actual performance in balanced or two-way traffic scenarios. For more complex dispatching behaviors, these models can be complemented by simulation approaches.^[104]

Peak traffic simulations

Peak traffic simulations in elevator systems employ computational models to analyze variable passenger arrival patterns, door operations, and controller responses under high-demand conditions, extending beyond deterministic analytical approaches like round-trip time (RTT) calculations. These simulations capture stochastic elements such as random passenger arrivals and dwell time variations, enabling more accurate predictions of system performance in real-world scenarios. By modeling the full dynamics of elevator groups, they help identify bottlenecks and optimize configurations for buildings with fluctuating traffic, such as office towers during morning rush hours.^[105] Dispatcher-based simulations use event-driven approaches to replicate the decision-making processes of elevator controllers, where each passenger call, door opening, or car movement triggers sequential updates in the system state. Software like ELEVATE implements these models by simulating individual lift trips, zoning strategies, and dispatch algorithms in a discrete-event framework, allowing designers to test various control logics without physical prototypes. This method is particularly effective for evaluating complex interactions in multi-car systems, providing outputs like average waiting times and journey durations under peak loads.^[106] Monte Carlo simulations address variability by randomly sampling passenger behaviors, such as arrival rates and destination floors, over multiple iterations to estimate probabilistic outcomes. For instance, running 10,000 simulations can achieve 95% confidence intervals for metrics like handling capacity, while incorporating distributions for dwell times (typically 2-5 seconds per passenger) to account for human factors. These techniques reveal how random events, like clustered calls, affect overall efficiency, often highlighting discrepancies with simpler models.^[107]^[108] Key performance metrics in these simulations include handling capacity (HC), calculated as system HC (%) = \frac{300 \times N \times P}{\text{RTT} \times \text{pop}} \times 100 for a 5-minute peak period, where N is the number of cars, P is average passengers per trip, RTT is round-trip time, and pop is building population, representing the proportion of building population served; and interval time, the average dispatch frequency between cars. Simulations demonstrate that analytical RTT models can overestimate capacity; for example, a 15% HC from RTT calculations may equate to only 12% in dynamic simulations due to unmodeled variabilities like imperfect load balancing.^[109]^[110] In applications, peak traffic simulations guide high-rise elevator design by testing zoning schemes that divide floors among cars, reducing cross-traffic and improving response times. Studies from the 1990s and early 2000s, using early simulation tools, showed that RTT-based planning could lead to 15-20% overestimation of system performance in zoned setups, prompting a shift toward simulation for validation in tall buildings. These tools also support sensitivity analyses for factors like car speed and door configurations. As of 2025, integrations with ISO 25745 standards for energy efficiency in simulations enhance predictive accuracy for sustainable designs.^[105]^[111]^[112] Post-2020 advancements integrate artificial intelligence into simulations for predictive maintenance and adaptive traffic forecasting, using machine learning models like LSTM networks to predict peak flows from historical data and sensor inputs. AI-enhanced tools simulate scenarios incorporating real-time variables, such as occupancy from cameras, to preemptively adjust dispatches and minimize downtime, achieving up to 15% improvements in energy efficiency and wait times in smart building integrations.^[113]^[114]

System capacity optimization

System capacity optimization involves determining the appropriate number and configuration of elevators to handle anticipated traffic while minimizing energy use and space requirements in building design. Key sizing factors include peak population density, typically assuming 10-15% of the building's occupants arrive during the busiest five-minute period for scenarios like hotels or offices.^[115] Car capacities range from 80 kg for small residential units to 1600 kg for high-volume commercial installations, balancing passenger comfort with structural efficiency.^[116] The number of cars, denoted as N, can be estimated using the formula N = \frac{\text{RTT}}{\text{IT}}, where \text{RTT} is the round-trip time and \text{IT} is the desired system interval in seconds (typically 20-30 s for acceptable service levels); alternatively, for a target handling capacity HC (%): N = \frac{\text{HC} \times \text{pop} \times \text{RTT}}{300 \times P \times 100}, with pop as building population and P as average passengers per car, deriving from standard traffic analysis ensuring the system achieves a target handling capacity of 12-15% during up-peak conditions.^[117] Zoning strategies enhance efficiency in tall structures by segmenting floors into dedicated elevator groups, with sky lobbies serving as intermediate transfer points for buildings exceeding 40 floors to reduce long-distance travel and cross-traffic congestion. These sky lobbies allow express elevators to bypass lower zones, optimizing round-trip times and core space utilization by up to 20-30% compared to single-group systems.^[118] Energy optimization plays a critical role, with variable speed drives (VSDs) enabling precise motor control that reduces overall consumption by approximately 40% through adaptive acceleration and regenerative braking during descent.^[119] This technology adjusts power based on load and distance, minimizing peak demand and heat generation in gearless traction systems. A notable case study is the Empire State Building's elevator retrofit, spanning from its 1930s origins to comprehensive upgrades in the 2000s and 2010s, which modernized 73 cars with VSDs and improved dispatching algorithms, enabling passengers to reach destinations 50% faster during peak times and making the elevators 50-75% more efficient than the originals, contributing to the building's overall energy use reduction of 38%.^[120] These enhancements, including faster speeds up to 500 fpm, supported higher passenger volumes without expanding infrastructure.^[121] As of 2025, sustainable designs emphasize net-zero operations through regenerative drives that recapture braking energy and feed it back to the building grid, achieving up to 30% additional savings in high-traffic environments like the Hotel Marcel, the first U.S. net-zero hotel featuring such systems integrated with solar microgrids.^[122] These configurations align with global standards for carbon-neutral buildings, prioritizing lifecycle emissions reduction.^[123]

Special Operating Modes

Emergency and safety protocols

Elevators incorporate specialized emergency and safety protocols to manage crises such as fires, power outages, and medical urgencies, ensuring controlled operation while integrating with primary hardware safeties like mechanical brakes for descent control. In fire scenarios, Phase I recall operation activates automatically via smoke detectors in the hoistway, lobby, or machine room, or manually through a keyed switch, directing the elevator car to a designated recall level—typically the ground floor with optimal exterior access—where doors remain open to facilitate occupant exit and prevent entrapment.^[124] This mode removes elevators from normal service to protect users and responders, as required by ASME A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators and NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code in the United States.^[125] Following Phase I, Phase II firefighter control enables authorized personnel to override the system using a three-position key switch inside the car (OFF, ON, HOLD), allowing manual floor selection, door operation via constant button pressure, and stationary positioning with doors open, while ignoring hall calls to prioritize emergency access.^[124] In Europe, EN 81-72 standard mandates similar firefighter lift operations, including fire-protected hoistways, bi-stable control switches marked '1' for activation and '0' for normal mode, and dual-entry car designs to support rescue without smoke exposure.^[126] Emergency power provisions ensure elevators can perform controlled descents during utility failures, powered by uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) or battery systems that maintain operation for a minimum of 90 minutes under full load in high-rise buildings, allowing passengers to reach a safe floor.^[127] The International Building Code (IBC) requires standby power for elevators in structures four or more stories tall, with automatic transfer within 60 seconds to support egress and fire operations, excluding regenerative drives to avoid back-feed damage to the backup system.^[128] These systems must illuminate the hoistway at least 1 foot-candle (11 lux) during firefighter emergency operation and include notifications for activation.^[129] For medical emergencies, code blue service provides priority override, summoning the elevator directly to the requesting floor via a dedicated hall station key switch, bypassing all existing calls to enable rapid transport of patients or equipment in healthcare facilities.^[130] This mode ensures immediate availability for staff, enhancing response times without interfering with routine operations unless overridden by higher-priority functions like fire service.^[131] Independent service mode permits mechanics to assume full manual control from the car operating panel via a key switch, disabling automatic dispatching, hall calls, and group operations to allow focused movement between floors for maintenance or freight transport, with doors closing only on operator command.^[132] Inspection mode, activated from the car top, machine room, or in-car panel, limits speed to 25-150 feet per minute for safe testing and servicing, requiring door locks to be closed and halting if doors open unexpectedly, as outlined in ASME A17.1.^[132] These modes collectively support mechanic-only access while preventing unauthorized use. Compliance with these protocols, including EN 81-72 in Europe and NFPA 72 in the US, mandates annual inspections and testing—such as Phase I/II recalls via smoke simulation and key activation—to verify functionality, with quarterly checks for fire service in some jurisdictions to maintain certification.^[133] Failure to test can result in operational impairments during crises, underscoring the need for integrated fire alarm-elevator system validation.^[134]

Peak demand adjustments

Peak demand adjustments in elevator systems refer to specialized operational modes designed to manage routine surges in passenger traffic, such as those occurring during morning arrivals, evening departures, and midday movements, by optimizing dispatching and zoning to maintain service levels.^[135] These modes leverage group control algorithms to prioritize high-volume directions and reduce unnecessary stops, distinct from general automated dispatching that handles balanced traffic.^[136] In up-peak mode, typically activated during morning rush hours, all elevators in the group are directed upward from the main lobby, loading passengers destined for upper floors before ascending, often with express service to the top floors or designated zones to minimize intermediate stops.^[135] This configuration targets a handling capacity of 12-15% of the building's population within a five-minute period, achieved through zoning that assigns elevators to specific floor bands, thereby shortening round-trip times and boosting throughput.^[135] Down-peak mode operates similarly during the evening exodus, where elevators are dispatched empty from the lobby to upper floors to collect descending passengers, then return directly to the lobby after serving calls, ensuring efficient downward flow.^[137] If overload conditions arise, load shedding is implemented by splitting service zones between elevators or restricting additional hall calls to prevent exceeding capacity, thus avoiding excessive delays.^[136] For inter-floor peaks, common midday when passengers move between non-lobby levels, systems employ dynamic zoning to adapt in real-time, reassigning elevators to contiguous floor sectors based on current demand distribution rather than fixed schedules.^[138] This adjustment prioritizes short trips within active zones, reducing cross-traffic interference and maintaining responsiveness during balanced up-and-down flows.^[138] Implementation occurs via controller software that monitors traffic patterns, activating peak modes when car utilization exceeds 80% of rated capacity over a defined interval, such as five minutes, and automatically reverting to standard operation once demand subsides below thresholds.^[139] Fuzzy logic or similar algorithms process inputs like load factors and call rates to detect and switch modes seamlessly, integrating with existing group supervisory controls.^[139] These adjustments yield significant efficiency gains, with simulations showing reductions in average waiting time (AWT) of 20-40% during peaks compared to non-optimized systems, as demonstrated in multi-elevator buildings where proactive zoning and dispatching cut response times from 0.35-0.57 minutes to 0.27-0.43 minutes.^[140]

Accessibility and specialized services

Elevators incorporate various features to accommodate users with disabilities, ensuring compliance with accessibility standards such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in the United States, which mandates braille and tactile interfaces on control buttons, including raised characters at least 2 inches high and braille designations for floor levels and emergency controls.^[141] These tactile elements allow visually impaired individuals to independently operate elevators, while audible signals—such as verbal announcements of floor arrivals at a minimum of 10 dB above ambient noise but not exceeding 80 dB—provide orientation for those with visual or cognitive impairments.^[142] In the European Union, the EN 81-70:2021+A1:2022 standard, which became mandatory for new installations following EU Mandate 473 in 2010, similarly requires accessible car dimensions (at least 1,100 mm wide and 1,400 mm deep for certain types), contrasting floor and symbol colors for visibility, and hands-free activation options to support independent use by persons with disabilities.^[143]^[144] Specialized services address cultural and religious needs, particularly Sabbath mode for observant Jewish communities, where elevators operate automatically without requiring users to press buttons, which is prohibited under halachic law.^[145] In this mode, the elevator typically ascends to the top floor and then descends, stopping at every level with doors opening automatically, often using sensor-based detection like weight sensors in the car or infrared beam-break mechanisms at door edges to register passengers without direct interaction.^[146]^[147] Manufacturers such as Otis have integrated these features into models like the Gen2 since the early 2000s, allowing activation via control parameters for buildings in Jewish communities.^[148] Security-focused accommodations include anti-crime protection (ACP), a mode activated by key switch that directs all cars to stop at a designated floor—often the lobby—for visual inspection by guards, integrating with surveillance cameras to monitor passengers and deter criminal activity.^[149]^[148] To enhance security, some systems employ random car assignment in destination dispatch setups, preventing predictable patterns that could aid unauthorized access, while lobby surveillance feeds into centralized monitoring for real-time threat assessment.^[150] Riot mode, another security protocol, restricts service to upper floors by ignoring calls from ground-level lobbies during disturbances, with remote activation for lockdown to limit vertical movement and facilitate controlled descent-only operation if needed.^[151]^[152] Medical accommodations prioritize emergency needs through voice-announced systems that reserve cars for priority use, broadcasting messages like "This car is needed for a medical emergency" to clear non-essential passengers upon arrival.^[153] These features align with ADA requirements for emergency two-way communication, ensuring swift access for wheelchair users or those with mobility impairments via oversized doors and low-force operation.^[141]

Safety and Standards

Primary safety mechanisms

The foundation of modern elevator safety was laid in 1854 by Elisha Otis, who demonstrated his invention of a safety brake at the New York Crystal Palace Exhibition, featuring spring-loaded pawls that engaged guide rails upon cable failure to prevent free-fall.^[154]^[155] This innovation addressed the primary fear of elevator use and evolved into the core fail-safe systems still in use today. A key primary safety mechanism is the speed governor, a centrifugal device that monitors the elevator car's velocity and activates emergency stopping if it exceeds 115% of the rated speed.^[156]^[157] The governor's flyweights expand outward with increasing rotational speed, triggering a linkage that releases the safety gear; this ensures intervention before uncontrolled acceleration leads to catastrophe, as governed by standards like ASME A17.1. Safety brakes, or safety gears, are mechanical clamps mounted on the car frame that grip the guide rails upon governor activation, halting descent through friction-induced deceleration typically between 0.6g and 1g (5.9-9.8 m/s²) to balance stopping efficacy and passenger comfort.^[158] These progressive or instantaneous gears use wedge-shaped blocks to amplify normal force, where the stopping acceleration a = \mu g (with \mu as the friction coefficient between gear and rail, often around 0.2–0.3, and g as gravitational acceleration) ensures controlled engagement without excessive jolt.^[159]^[160] At the hoistway pit bottom, buffers—hydraulic oil or gas-spring types—absorb the kinetic energy of a descending car or counterweight in the event of overtravel, converting impact energy E = \frac{1}{2} m v^2 (where m is mass and v is impact velocity) into heat via fluid displacement or compression.^[161]^[162] These devices limit deceleration to safe levels, often below 1g, and hydraulic variants may incorporate variable orifices for progressive damping.^[158] Door protection systems, including light curtains, infrared sensors, or mechanical edges, detect obstructions in the doorway and automatically reverse closing motion if resistance exceeds approximately 5 kg force, preventing entrapment or crushing injuries.^[163]^[164] Such mechanisms comply with force limits in codes like ASME A17.1, ensuring doors exert no more than 30 lbf (about 13.3 kg) during closure while sensitively reopening on contact.^[165]

Elevator-specific hazards and mitigations

In traction elevators, rope slippage poses a primary hazard due to potential loss of grip on the sheave, which could lead to uncontrolled car movement. This risk is mitigated through the use of multiple hoisting ropes—typically three or more—to distribute load and ensure sufficient traction under all operating conditions, with a minimum safety factor of 8:1 for steel wire ropes based on static loads. Free-fall incidents remain exceedingly rare in modern traction systems, occurring in fewer than 1 in 12 million trips, largely owing to redundant safety interlocks that engage before full detachment.^[166] Hydraulic elevators carry the risk of hydraulic line bursting from overpressurization, which could cause sudden fluid loss and uncontrolled descent. Pressure relief valves are standard mitigations, automatically venting excess pressure to prevent hose or cylinder rupture and maintain system integrity during faults like blockages or thermal expansion. Additionally, oil spills from leaks or failures are contained using sump pans or secondary containment structures beneath the power unit, capturing up to the full system volume to prevent environmental contamination and facilitate safe cleanup.^[167] Mine-shaft elevators operate in environments prone to combustible dust accumulation, heightening explosion risks from sparks or hot surfaces igniting airborne particles. Safety measures include dust- and explosion-proof enclosures for electrical components and control systems, designed to contain internal explosions and prevent flame propagation, as specified in ISO 18758 for mining conveyances. These enclosures use robust, sealed housings rated for hazardous locations to withstand internal detonations without external ignition. Across elevator types, common hazards include nuisance calls and passenger entrapment from door malfunctions or power interruptions, which account for approximately 20% of all service calls. Advanced monitoring systems address entrapment by providing two-way communication and automatic alerts to operators if no response is received within 5 minutes, enabling rapid remote assessment and dispatch while minimizing panic.^[168] Globally, elevator incidents occur at a rate of approximately 1 in 1 million rides based on U.S. data as of 2024, with ~18 billion annual trips and ~17,000 injuries.^[169]

International and regional standards

International standards for elevators aim to ensure safety, reliability, and interoperability across borders, with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) playing a central role in establishing global benchmarks. The ISO 22559 series, initiated in the early 2000s and formalized in ISO 22559-1:2014, outlines global essential safety requirements (GESRs) for lifts, serving as a foundational reference for national and regional codes, emphasizing risk reduction in design, installation, and operation without prescribing detailed engineering methods.^[170]^[171] Accessibility provisions, such as minimum door widths for wheelchairs (e.g., 800 mm clear width recommended in related standards like EN 81-70), promote inclusive design. In the United States and Canada, the ASME A17.1/CSA B44-2022 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators governs the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of elevators, requiring periodic inspections by qualified personnel to verify compliance with safety features like emergency brakes and overload protection, with frequency typically annual as per local regulations.^[172] This code enforces a minimum 8:1 safety factor for hoisting ropes, reflecting a harmonized North American approach that integrates accessibility provisions aligned with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).^[172] Recent updates in 2022 include provisions for cyber-physical security in controls and IoT for predictive maintenance. Europe relies on the EN 81 series, which was comprehensively updated in 2020 with EN 81-20 for passenger and goods passenger lifts and EN 81-50 for existing lifts, incorporating enhanced seismic provisions developed post-2010 to address earthquake resilience in vulnerable regions.^[173] These standards, harmonized under the EU's Machinery Directive, require features like car-door locking mechanisms and improved door retainers to mitigate risks during unintended movement.^[36] In Asia, China's GB/T 7588-2020 provides safety rules for the construction and installation of lifts, particularly emphasizing provisions for high-rise buildings to withstand wind loads through reinforced structural calculations and component testing.^[174] This standard, adapted from international norms like EN 81, includes specific requirements for passenger and goods lifts in seismic and typhoon-prone areas, ensuring stability in structures exceeding 100 meters.^[175] Ongoing harmonization efforts are supported by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) through standards like IEC 60364-1:2025, which addresses low-voltage electrical safety in installations, including elevators, with new sustainability add-ons promoting energy-efficient components and reduced environmental impact.^[176] These updates facilitate global alignment by integrating electrical protections against faults while encouraging regenerative drives and eco-friendly materials in elevator systems.^[176]

Applications and Uses

Passenger transport

Passenger elevators are designed primarily for transporting people in buildings, prioritizing safety, efficiency, and user experience. Standard passenger elevators, the most common type, utilize traction or hydraulic systems suitable for low- to mid-rise structures, providing reliable vertical transport without specialized features. Observation elevators, featuring glass walls or panoramic cabs, offer scenic views during transit and are often installed in hotels, malls, or atriums to enhance aesthetic appeal. High-speed passenger elevators, operating at speeds exceeding 500 meters per minute, are employed in tall skyscrapers to minimize travel time, incorporating advanced controls for smooth operation at velocities up to 1,200 meters per minute.^[60]^[177]^[178] Capacity in passenger elevators typically ranges from 6 to 20 persons, corresponding to rated loads of 450 to 1,600 kilograms, based on an average passenger weight of 75 kilograms. These capacities ensure adequate space while adhering to safety codes that limit the number of occupants to prevent overcrowding. For optimal comfort and performance, elevator systems are often designed with an 80% loading rule, meaning the handling capacity targets 80% of the rated load during peak periods to account for variable usage and maintain ride quality.^[179]^[180]^[181] Key comfort factors in passenger elevators include controlled acceleration limited to less than 1 m/s² to avoid discomfort during starts and stops, ensuring a smooth experience comparable to everyday motion. Noise levels are regulated to below 55 dB within the cab to minimize auditory disturbance, achieved through insulated components and low-vibration drives. Ventilation systems provide adequate airflow—typically one air change per minute—to maintain fresh air quality and thermal comfort, while adhering to energy efficiency guidelines.^[182]^[183] As of 2023, there are over 18 million elevators and escalators installed worldwide, with passenger elevators comprising the majority used for human transport. These systems collectively move approximately 2 billion people daily, facilitating urban mobility in residential, commercial, and public buildings.^[184]^[6] Post-COVID-19 trends in passenger elevators include the adoption of contactless buttons using sensors, voice activation, or mobile apps, significantly reducing germ transmission on high-touch surfaces by eliminating direct contact. This innovation has become standard in many modern installations to enhance hygiene and user confidence in shared spaces.^[185]^[186]

Freight and industrial applications

Freight elevators are designed to transport heavy loads such as pallets, machinery, and materials in industrial, commercial, and warehouse settings, with typical capacities ranging from 2,000 to 10,000 pounds (900 to 4,500 kg), though specialized models can exceed 20,000 pounds (9,000 kg).^[187] These elevators often employ geared traction systems for reliable vertical movement over multiple floors, paired with robust door configurations like vertical bi-parting or lift gates to withstand frequent impacts from loading equipment such as forklifts and hand trucks.^[188] Classified under ASME A17.1 standards into categories like Class A (general freight with distributed loads) and Class C (industrial truck loading), they prioritize structural integrity over passenger comfort, featuring reinforced steel cabs and floors capable of supporting concentrated weights up to 150% of rated capacity during loading.^[189] Dumbwaiters, a compact variant of freight elevators, serve for transporting small items like food, laundry, or documents in settings such as restaurants, hospitals, and multi-story buildings, with capacities typically between 100 and 500 pounds (45 to 227 kg).^[190] Governed by ASME A17.1 Part 7, these unattended lifts have car volumes calculated at a minimum rated load of 13.9 pounds per cubic foot (222 kg/m³), with standard sizes around 24 by 24 by 30 inches (61 by 61 by 76 cm) and speeds of 30 to 50 feet per minute (0.15 to 0.25 m/s).^[191] They often use electric or hydraulic drives for short rises up to 50 feet (15 m), emphasizing enclosed designs to prevent access and ensure safe, automated operation.^[192] Other industrial applications include sidewalk elevators, which provide direct access from street level to basements for deliveries and waste removal in urban buildings, featuring flush-mounted sidewalk doors with drainage to handle weather exposure and capacities up to several thousand pounds.^[193] In theaters and performance venues, hydraulic scissor or stage lifts enable dynamic set changes and performer positioning, with rise heights of 10 to 50 meters (33 to 164 feet) and platforms supporting variable loads for effects like rising scenery or orchestra pits.^[194] Vehicle and boat lifts, often hydraulic platform systems, facilitate heavy transport in marinas and shipyards; for instance, marine elevators like the Three Gorges Dam ship lift handle up to 3,000 metric tons (3,300 short tons) over 113 meters (371 feet), using counterweight mechanisms for efficient vertical transit of vessels.^[195] To ensure longevity in demanding environments, freight and industrial elevators incorporate enhanced durability features, such as components rated for over 1 million operational cycles and anti-abuse gates with solid metal reinforcements to resist impacts from rough handling.^[196] Regular maintenance, including lubrication and inspections per ASME guidelines, extends service life to 20-25 years or more, minimizing downtime in high-usage industrial operations.^[197]

Specialized and unique installations

Specialized elevator installations deviate from conventional vertical transport, incorporating custom engineering to accommodate unique architectural, environmental, or operational demands in landmarks, vessels, and urban settings. These systems often require bespoke designs to navigate curved paths, inclined surfaces, or extreme loads, pushing the boundaries of elevator technology while adhering to rigorous safety adaptations.^[198] One of the earliest iconic examples is the Eiffel Tower in Paris, completed in 1889, which featured massive hydraulic elevators engineered by Otis Elevator Company. These cable-driven hydraulic lifts, powered by pistons and pressurized accumulators, ascended the tower's legs from ground level to the second floor, representing a pioneering application of hydraulic technology on an unprecedented scale for passenger transport.^[199]^[200] In modern skyscrapers, the elevators of Taipei 101 in Taiwan, operational since 2004, exemplify high-speed innovation with double-decker cabins manufactured by Toshiba. These shuttles achieve a top speed of 1,010 meters per minute (16.8 m/s), transporting passengers from the fifth floor to the 89th in 37 seconds, a record at the time that incorporated advanced vibration suppression and aerodynamic features for comfort at extreme velocities.^[201]^[202] Architectural uniqueness is evident in inclined systems, such as the inclinators at the Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, installed in 1993 with expansions through 1997. These Otis traction elevators travel at a 39-degree angle along the pyramid's interior walls, functioning like hybrid inclined lifts to access guest rooms in a non-vertical structure, earning recognition from Guinness World Records as the most inclined elevators inside a pyramid.^[203]^[204] Paternoster elevators, featuring a continuous loop of open compartments moving at low speeds without stops, originated in the late 19th century and were once common in European office buildings for efficient multi-floor access. However, safety concerns over falls and entrapment led to bans on new installations in many countries, including West Germany in 1974 and widespread restrictions post-1990s, rendering them rare today with only a few preserved examples in operation.^[205]^[206] In transportation applications, aircraft carrier elevators represent extreme heavy-duty adaptations, such as those on U.S. Navy vessels like the Nimitz-class carriers, which utilize hydraulic systems capable of lifting up to 30 tons of aircraft or equipment between decks at speeds supporting rapid sortie generation. These platforms, often measuring over 50 feet wide, handle fighter jets and helicopters in harsh marine environments, requiring corrosion-resistant materials and shock-qualified controls.^[207] Urban transport hybrids include funicular-style and inclined elevators integrated into infrastructure for steep gradients in regenerated areas, blending elevator mechanics with cable-pulled inclines to facilitate accessibility in mixed-use zones. The current record for the world's fastest elevator belongs to the Mitsubishi Electric systems in Shanghai Tower, China, operational since 2015, reaching 1,230 meters per minute (20.5 m/s) to serve the 632-meter skyscraper efficiently. This surpasses prior benchmarks like Taipei 101, using linear motors and optimized ropes for reduced sway.^[208] Such installations often face challenges with custom regulatory compliance, as seen in the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, completed in 1965, where a unique tram-style elevator system—consisting of eight-person capsules on chains following the arch's curved legs—necessitated special engineering exemptions and ongoing maintenance protocols due to its non-standard path and pod design.^[209]^[198]

Modern Developments and Impacts

Technological modernization

Technological modernization of elevators primarily focuses on retrofitting legacy systems to improve operational efficiency, reduce energy consumption, and extend service life, often through targeted upgrades rather than complete overhauls. A key retrofit type involves replacing traditional motors with regenerative drive systems, which capture energy during descent or braking and feed it back into the building's power supply, achieving energy savings of 20-30% in high-traffic installations.^[210] Another common upgrade replaces outdated relay-based control panels with microprocessor controllers, enhancing precision in door operations, dispatching, and fault detection while improving overall system reliability and compliance with modern safety codes.^[211]^[212] The modernization process typically employs phased installations to minimize operational disruptions, with upgrades completed floor by floor or component by component, limiting downtime to less than one week per affected area in many cases.^[213] These projects cost approximately 20-50% of a full new elevator installation, depending on the building's age and scope, making them a cost-effective alternative for aging infrastructure.^[214] Benefits include extending the elevator's operational life by 20-30 years beyond its typical 20-25-year baseline, while also reducing maintenance frequency and enhancing passenger comfort through smoother rides.^[215] A notable example is the Empire State Building's overhaul in the 2010s by Otis Elevator, which integrated regenerative drives and intelligent dispatching to make elevators 50-75% more energy-efficient and reduce peak-time travel durations by up to 50%, thereby boosting overall system speed and capacity.^[120] As of 2025, emerging trends emphasize modular retrofit kits that facilitate conversions to machine-room-less (MRL) configurations, allowing seamless integration of compact, gearless machines into existing hoistways without major structural changes.^[216] Additionally, AI-driven diagnostics are increasingly incorporated, using real-time data analysis to predict and prevent faults, potentially reducing unplanned downtime by up to 60% through proactive maintenance alerts.^[217] Environmentally, modernizations often include LED lighting upgrades, which consume up to 80% less power than incandescent alternatives, and the adoption of biodegradable eco-oils derived from vegetable bases, minimizing hydraulic fluid spills and associated emissions in grease-trap systems.^[218]^[219] These enhancements collectively lower the carbon footprint of elevator operations, with brief integrations of IoT sensors enabling remote monitoring to further optimize performance.^[220]

Smart and IoT integrations

Smart and IoT integrations in elevators involve the incorporation of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies to enable real-time data collection, connectivity, and intelligent processing, transforming traditional vertical transportation into responsive, data-driven systems. These integrations typically include networks of sensors embedded within elevator components to monitor parameters such as vibration, load distribution, temperature, and operational status, which feed data to cloud-based platforms for analysis and decision-making. For instance, systems like Schindler Ahead connect elevators to an IoT cloud for 24/7 equipment monitoring, allowing for seamless data aggregation from multiple units across buildings.^[221] Similarly, CEDES IoT solutions utilize sensors to capture vibration and other health metrics, converting raw data into actionable insights for performance optimization.^[222] A core feature of these IoT-enabled elevators is predictive maintenance, where machine learning algorithms analyze sensor data to forecast potential faults before they occur, often achieving failure prediction accuracies up to 90%. This approach reduces unplanned downtime by identifying anomalies in components like motors or cables through continuous monitoring of vibration patterns and load variations, enabling proactive interventions that extend equipment lifespan and minimize service disruptions. Cloud analytics platforms process this data to generate fault predictions, integrating with broader building management systems for holistic oversight.^[223] Remote configuration capabilities further enhance IoT integrations, allowing technicians to adjust elevator parameters such as speed profiles or door timings over wireless networks, including 5G for low-latency connectivity in high-rise environments. 5G-enabled routers facilitate this by converting cellular signals into stable networks for real-time data transmission, supporting remote management without on-site visits and improving response times during peak usage.^[224] In advanced setups, these features extend to high-speed elevators, exemplified by Mitsubishi Electric's system in the Shanghai Tower, which reaches 1,230 meters per minute using lightweight sfleX-rope technology for reduced weight and enhanced efficiency—while IoT sensors ensure safe operation at such velocities.^[208] Security enhancements via blockchain technology secure IoT data flows, particularly for access logs that record user entries and system interactions, creating tamper-resistant records to prevent unauthorized modifications or breaches. This decentralized ledger approach ensures audit trails for elevator usage, integrating with IoT gateways to verify transactions and maintain data integrity across connected devices. On the energy front, IoT-driven demand-response systems optimize power usage by dynamically adjusting elevator operations based on building occupancy and grid signals, achieving peak load reductions of up to 25% through regenerative drives and scheduling algorithms.^[225] By 2025, adoption of IoT in elevators has surged, with about 39% of new installations incorporating these technologies for monitoring and control, driven by demands for efficiency in smart buildings and urban infrastructure. This trend reflects broader market growth, where IoT solutions are projected to contribute to a global market value exceeding $28 billion, emphasizing predictive analytics and connectivity as standard features.^[226]^[227] Elevators have profoundly shaped urban development by enabling the construction of skyscrapers, which allow cities to accommodate growing populations vertically rather than through horizontal sprawl. This vertical expansion has concentrated economic activity and housing in dense urban cores, supporting higher population densities in major cities worldwide.^[228]^[229] On the social front, elevators have enhanced accessibility for people with disabilities, particularly following the enactment of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, which mandated accessible elevators in public buildings to reduce exclusion from multi-story environments. This legislation integrated elevators into standard building designs, promoting greater societal inclusion and independence for millions.^[230]^[231] Environmentally, elevators account for 5% to 10% of a building's total energy consumption, depending on usage and type, contributing to significant electricity demands in high-rise structures. Mitigations such as regenerative drives, which recapture energy during descent, and LED lighting have reduced consumption by up to 75% in modern systems, leading to notable decreases in operational carbon emissions.^[232]^[233]^[234] Economically, the global elevator industry was valued at approximately USD 107 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow steadily, reaching over USD 140 billion by 2030, driven by urbanization and infrastructure demands. As of 2025, the market is estimated at USD 100.23 billion. This sector supports substantial employment, with a projected need for about 1,200 additional elevator installers and repairers in the United States from 2024 to 2034 to meet growing installation and maintenance requirements.^[235]^[236]^[237]^[238] Culturally, elevators evoke nostalgia through historical designs like the paternoster, a continuously circulating lift invented in the 19th century that persists in a few European buildings despite safety concerns leading to construction bans in the 1970s. Public affection has preserved remaining installations, though regulations limit their operation due to accident risks. Additionally, equity issues arise in low-income areas, where outdated or absent elevators exacerbate access barriers, prompting modernization efforts to address disparities in housing and services.^[239]^[240]^[205]^[241] Looking to the future, elevators are integral to sustainable urban innovations like vertical farming in green cities, where integrated lift systems facilitate efficient crop transport in multi-story agricultural towers, reducing land use and supporting food security in dense populations.^[242]^[243]

Ancillary Systems

User interfaces

User interfaces in elevators encompass the physical and digital elements that facilitate interaction between passengers and the system, ensuring safe, intuitive operation across diverse user needs. These interfaces include buttons for floor selection and door control, visual and audible indicators for position and direction, and accessibility features to accommodate varying abilities. Standards such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in the United States mandate specific design criteria to promote usability and inclusivity, while international guidelines like those from ISO influence global implementations.^[141] Inside the elevator car, the car operating panel (COP) houses floor selection buttons, typically arranged vertically with the most frequently used floors at the center for ergonomic access. These buttons must be at least ¾ inch in diameter, raised or flush-mounted, and illuminate upon activation to provide visual feedback, often using LED lighting. Adjacent indicators, such as dot-matrix or LCD displays, show the current floor position and travel direction (e.g., "up" or "down" arrows), updating in real-time as the elevator moves. Emergency controls, including stop and alarm buttons, are grouped at the panel's lowest point, with tactile symbols for quick identification.^[244]^[141] In the elevator hall or lobby, up and down call buttons enable summoning the car, positioned at a maximum height of 48 inches above the floor to ensure reachability. These buttons illuminate when pressed and are accompanied by hall lanterns mounted at least 72 inches high, featuring large arrows (minimum 2½ inches) to signal arriving cars and direction. Audible gongs or chimes—often one tone for up and two for down—provide confirmation, complying with code requirements for notification upon arrival. Floor numbering on buttons and signs varies by region; in many buildings, conventions avoid the number 13 due to superstition, with Otis Elevator Company estimating that 85% of its installations omit it, labeling the space as 14 instead. Other notations include "L" for lobby, "G" for ground, and "1" for the first floor above ground, particularly in European systems.^[244]^[141]^[245] Accessibility features are integral to modern user interfaces, addressing visual, auditory, and mobility impairments. All buttons and signs incorporate Grade II Braille below raised characters (minimum 1/32 inch high), with tactile designations for functions like door open/close. For low-vision users, characters on indicators must be at least ½ inch high, and hall signs use large tactile numerals (2 inches minimum) in contrasting colors. Audible signals, such as verbal announcements of floors and directions (frequency 300–3,000 Hz), are required for destination-oriented systems, with non-verbal tones limited to 1,500 Hz maximum and volume 10 dB above ambient noise but not exceeding 80 dB. These elements align with ADA standards, ensuring independent use without physical contact where possible.^[246]^[141] The evolution of elevator user interfaces traces from mechanical origins in the late 19th century to sophisticated digital systems today. Early 1900s designs featured mechanical dials or pointer indicators showing floor position via a rotating arm linked to the car, requiring manual operation. By 1892, push buttons emerged for passenger control, transitioning to electronic signaling in the 1920s. Post-1950 automation eliminated operators, with full electronic controls by the 1960s incorporating basic lights and buzzers. The 2010s introduced touchscreens replacing traditional buttons, offering customizable interfaces with haptic feedback for confirmation, alongside voice synthesis for announcements since the 1980s.^[247] Ergonomic principles guide interface design to minimize user effort and error. Control panels are mounted with operable parts between 35 and 48 inches (889–1,219 mm) above the floor—approximating 900–1,200 mm for optimal reach—allowing wheelchair users and those of varying heights to access buttons comfortably. Response times prioritize immediacy; buttons provide visual or haptic feedback within seconds, while doors remain open for at least 3 seconds upon activation to facilitate entry. These specifications enhance safety and efficiency, reducing wait times and physical strain.^[141]^[246]

Environmental controls

Environmental controls in elevators focus on maintaining a stable internal climate to ensure passenger comfort, equipment reliability, and air quality within the confined cabin space. These systems primarily employ heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) units mounted on the top of the elevator car, utilizing forced air circulation with 100% return air drawn from hoistway intake slots at floor level. The air is conditioned and recirculated, while an exhaust fan discharges excess air back into the hoistway through a dedicated vent, with fan capacity typically sized to at least three times the car floor area or the full cabin volume for adequate exchange rates of around 60 air changes per hour (ACH).^[248]^[249] These car-top units help sustain cabin temperatures between 20°C and 25°C and relative humidity levels of 40% to 60%, aligning with thermal comfort standards to prevent discomfort during extended travel times in high-occupancy scenarios.^[248] Condensate management is a critical aspect of elevator HVAC operation, as cooling processes generate moisture that must be efficiently removed to avoid water accumulation, corrosion, or operational hazards. Primary methods include drainage pans equipped with submersible pumps that automatically collect and evacuate condensate where gravity drainage is impractical, often handling volumes under 1 liter per day from compact car-top units. Alternative techniques, such as atomizing sprays that disperse the liquid into fine mist for evaporation or heating elements that boil off small quantities, provide low-maintenance options for minimal condensate loads in modern systems.^[250]^[251]^[252] These approaches ensure safe disposal, with pumps thermally protected to manage condensate up to 60°C and integrated safety switches to prevent overflow.^[250] Energy efficiency in elevator environmental controls is enhanced through technologies like heat recovery ventilators (HRV), which capture sensible heat from exhaust air to precondition incoming ventilation, achieving savings of approximately 15% in HVAC-related energy use within building systems. Compliance with standards such as ASHRAE 62.1 ensures minimum ventilation rates for indoor air quality while promoting energy recovery in enclosed applications, mandating devices for systems exceeding certain outdoor air thresholds to reduce overall conditioning loads.^[253] In high-rise installations, challenges arise from stack effect-induced pressure differentials, which can generate drafts and uneven airflow in the cab due to temperature-driven buoyancy forces along the hoistway, potentially reaching up to 120 Pa across doors. Solutions include enhanced cab sealing to minimize infiltration through cracks and dedicated pressurization strategies, such as adjustable HVAC exhaust to balance pressures and maintain stable internal conditions.^[254]^[249]^[255]

Maintenance and diagnostics

Elevator maintenance involves a structured schedule of inspections and tests to ensure operational reliability and safety, guided by standards such as those from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Routine upkeep typically includes weekly visual and functional checks of machinery, sheaves, motors, brakes, doors, and controls, along with cleaning of key areas like pits and machine rooms to prevent contamination and wear. Monthly procedures expand to lubrication of door components, guide rails, and linkages, as well as testing of safety switches, emergency systems, and oil levels in hydraulic units. Quarterly tasks focus on rope inspections for wear and tension, brake linings, and traveling cables, while semi-annual comprehensive reviews cover hoist ropes, governors, guide rails, and Category 1 tests like buffer compression and safety device activation. Full Category 5 tests, including detailed wire rope examinations for internal defects, occur every five years to assess suspension members against replacement criteria outlined in ASME A17.6.^[256] Diagnostics in modern elevator systems rely on supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) platforms to log faults, monitor performance metrics, and facilitate remote troubleshooting, enabling operators to track real-time status such as position, speed, and error codes. Integration with Internet of Things (IoT) sensors enhances predictive capabilities by analyzing vibration, temperature, and usage data to forecast failures, with systems like those from KONE achieving up to 40% reductions in reported issues through proactive alerts. Advanced IoT implementations can predict approximately 80-90% of potential faults before they cause downtime, minimizing unplanned service calls and extending component life.^[257]^[258]^[259] Common maintenance challenges include bearing wear in motors and sheaves, which can lead to vibrations and noise if unaddressed, and misalignment of guide rails or drives, often resulting from building settlement or uneven loading. These issues, if neglected, contribute to higher repair frequencies and safety risks, with annual maintenance contracts for commercial elevators typically ranging from $3,000 to $8,000 depending on usage and building height. Door malfunctions and contamination from dust or water also frequently arise, underscoring the need for regular cleaning and alignment checks.^[260]^[261] Specialized tools aid in precise diagnostics and upkeep; multimeters are essential for testing electrical controls, circuits, and signal integrity in controllers and sensors. For wire ropes, ultrasonic flaw detectors scan for internal breaks, corrosion, or fatigue without disassembly, providing quantitative data on residual strength per ASME A17.6 criteria. Tension meters ensure even load distribution across ropes, preventing premature wear.^[262] By 2025, drone-based inspections of hoistway shafts and components have emerged as a key innovation, allowing remote visual assessments of hard-to-reach areas like pits and overhead machinery without halting operations or requiring manual entry. This approach reduces labor requirements by up to 50% compared to traditional scaffolding or cherry picker methods, while improving safety and data accuracy through high-resolution imaging.^[263]^[264]

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EP0814047A1 - Synchronizing elevator arrival at a level of a building
Elevators approaching a transfer floor may be synchronized by adjusting the speed of one of them until the remaining distance is the same for both. Hall calls ...Missing: capacity | Show results with:capacity
[57]
Burj Khalifa: sky-high safety - Prysmian
Twenty-four of these are machineroom-less elevators (MRL) Gen2 ™, characterised by a refined interior design and cutting edge technology. Two are double ...Missing: machine room-
[58]
The four main types of elevators - Schindler
Oct 31, 2023 · Geared traction uses a gearbox to turn the hoisting sheave and lift the elevator. These systems are usually slower than gearless systems.
[59]
All You Need to Know About Gearless Elevator
Jan 18, 2022 · These elevators typically operate at speeds in excess of 500 feet per minute (or 2.5m/s), but depending on the application, some gearless ...Missing: threshold | Show results with:threshold
[60]
Fred Hymans and the Theory of Rope Traction, Part One
Feb 1, 2017 · A simplified 1:1 roped elevator system is shown in Figure 1. The Notations used are defined toward the end of this article. SI dimensional units ...
[61]
Elevators 101: Don't Slip Up on Rope Configurations
In this configuration, the car speed is half the rope speed, meaning the motor must rotate twice as fast as a 1:1 configuration. Please also note that the drive ...Missing: suspension distance
[62]
How Modern Elevators Are More Energy Efficient | Toledo
Regenerative braking technology enables elevators to recapture energy that is typically lost during braking, thus reducing up to 30% of the elevator's energy ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[63]
Traction Elevators: A Superior Choice for Your Building - KONE U.S.
Traction elevators are an excellent choice for a wide range of buildings, offering speed, efficiency, and reliability. They feature numerous advantages over ...
[64]
Traction Elevators Vs. Hydraulic Elevators - TK Elevator
Traction elevator advantages. Appreciated for their smooth ride quality and ability to travel at high speeds, traction elevators are typically used in buildings ...
[65]
https://www.kone.us/blog/traction-elevators-compared-to-hydraulic.aspx
[66]
Elevator Types - Archtoolbox
May 22, 2021 · Roped Hydraulic Elevators use a combination of ropes and a piston to move the elevator. Maximum travel distance is about 60 feet. Hydraulic ...
[67]
None
### Summary of Pump Types for Hydraulic Elevators
[68]
Hydraulic Force and Pascal's Law - The Engineering ToolBox
The force on a piston with area 0.1 m2 can be calculated. F = p A (1). where. F = force (N). p = pressure (Pa, N/m2). A = area (m2). or with values. F = (2000 ...
[69]
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Lifts - Elevator World
Jun 2, 2022 · Hydraulic lifts also save place. As counterweights are not used, they save place between 10% and 20%, compared to electric lifts with the same ...Missing: self- | Show results with:self-
[70]
Hydraulic Elevator vs. Other Types: Which is Right for Your Building?
Nov 11, 2024 · Environmental Impact: Hydraulic elevators use oil, which raises environmental concerns regarding disposal and potential leaks.Missing: disadvantages no self-
[71]
[PDF] Why hydraulic elevators are so popular? Part II
It was concluded that the percentage share of the hydraulic elevator in the elevator market reduced to approximately 40% however, this did not decrease.Missing: US 1970s 1990s
[72]
Lifting the Load: Choosing the Right Elevator Jack for Your Building
Jan 15, 2025 · Description: Holeless jacks are hydraulic systems designed to work without needing a drilled hole beneath the elevator pit, which can reduce ...
[73]
MULTI - A new era of mobility - TK Elevator
MULTI is the world's first rope-free elevator, using linear motors to move multiple cars in a single shaft, both vertically and horizontally.Missing: synchronous | Show results with:synchronous
[74]
Alimak industrial elevators built to service the mining industry
Dec 21, 2021 · This industrial elevator built on rack and pinion technology can safely transport nine passengers 204 metres below ground at a 0.6 metres per ...
[75]
PVE® Air Driven Residential Elevators | 1, 2 & 3 Passengers' Lift
All of PVE's vacuum home lift systems are capable of up to a 50 foot (15m) vertical rise over as many as five stops.Missing: 2000s | Show results with:2000s
[76]
(PDF) MULTI® - rope-less elevator demonstrator at test tower Rottweil
ThyssenKrupp Corp. utilized a linear synchronous motor for lifting a passenger elevator and newly presented a rotary branch system to enable horizontal ...
[77]
MULTI® - rope-less elevator demonstrator at test tower Rottweil
An ironless long-stator linear synchronous motor concept is applied. The primary part consists of multiple coil units in double array configuration placed along ...
[78]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328883031_MULTIR_-_rope_less_elevator_demonstrator_at_test_tower_Rottweil
[79]
HISTORY OF PNEUMATIC VACUUM ELEVATORS
2004: The very first Pneumatic Vacuum Elevator is sold through distribution and installed in the U.S. 2008: To meet the demand for a wheelchair accessible unit ...Missing: 2000s | Show results with:2000s
[80]
The Third Dimension: Today - Canadian Consulting Engineer
Aug 29, 2017 · A rendering promoting the new MULTI system from thyssenkrupp Elevator. ... reduce MULTI's cabin and door weight by up to 50%. …” addressing ...
[81]
This Rope-free Elevator Could Change the Future of Skyscrapers
First, it can increase passenger capacity while reducing the elevator's overall footprint in a building by half, thanks to the removal of ropes and linear ...Missing: cons | Show results with:cons
[82]
The History of Operatorless Elevators: Push Button Control 1886 -1895
Apr 6, 2023 · “Prior to my invention the power-controlling valve has been operated by means of a shipper-rope passed about sheaves fixed to the building ...
[83]
The History of Elevator Buttons
Apr 24, 2024 · By 1857, Elisha Otis developed the first passenger elevator. Initially, operators would manually control an elevator using levers and pulleys.Missing: rope- pull pre-
[84]
[PDF] The History of Lift Traffic Control1
However, a waiting passenger may not be allocated to board the first available lift, and this may produce increased waiting times.
[85]
THE RISE-BUT RARELY THE FALL-OF THE ELEVATOR
Mar 20, 1995 · In the late 1960s, the first computerized control system based on solid-state technology was developed for elevators at New York's 110-story ...
[86]
[PDF] Elevator Dispatching - Peters Research
This paper reviews the fundamentals of dispatching, explaining a range of different approaches including fuzzy logic, neural networks and genetic algorithms.Missing: UPACS | Show results with:UPACS
[87]
SCAN (Elevator) Disk Scheduling Algorithms - GeeksforGeeks
Jul 12, 2025 · The SCAN Algorithm considers all pending requests in one direction before changing the direction. Is SCAN Preemptive or Non-Preemptive? SCAN ...
[88]
Optimal Dispatching Control for Elevator Systems During Up Peak ...
Aug 7, 2025 · In this paper we develop optimal dispatching controllers for elevator systems during uppeak traffic. An uppeak traffic period arises when ...
[89]
[PDF] Elevator Controls
dispatching for two elevator cars including capabilities beyond those of a conventional duplex collective selective system. The system shall utilize a ...
[90]
Genetic algorithm for controllers in elevator groups: analysis and ...
A genetic algorithm (GAHCA) is proposed to control elevator groups of professional buildings. The genetic algorithm is compared with the universal ...
[91]
None
### Summary of Schindler PORT Technology
[92]
Compass® 360 | Elevator Dispatch Management System | Otis
Our Compass 360 destination management system ensures easy travel for all passengers, with shorter wait times and faster, more efficient journeys.
[93]
[PDF] An AI-Based Approach to Destination Control in Elevators
The stochastic search used in genetic algorithms often produces better dis- patching solutions than those generated by a predefined set of dispatching rules ( ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[94]
Schindler PORT - Elevator destination dispatch
Schindler PORT optimizes traffic flow, alleviates congestion, and reduces elevator wait times while offering personalized service and access control.Missing: algorithms implementations Otis Compass KONE
[95]
[PDF] THE DESTINATION CONTROL SYSTEM FOR OPTIMIZED PEOPLE ...
KONE Destination uses destination floors and passenger numbers to improve elevator efficiency, leading to shorter travel times, fewer stops, and uncrowded cars.Missing: implementations Schindler PORT Otis Compass<|control11|><|separator|>
[96]
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### Benefits of Destination Dispatch Elevators
[97]
Global Smart Elevator Market to Reach USD 60.5 Billion by 2033
Nov 18, 2024 · They consist of destination dispatching and access control systems, biometrics, and touch screens that allow users to press a button and ...
[98]
Elevator Traffic Handbook | Theory and Practice | Gina Barney, Lutfi A
Aug 27, 2015 · The book introduces the basic principles of circulation, outlines traffic design methods and examines and analyses traffic control using worked ...Missing: 1980s | Show results with:1980s
[99]
[PDF] Improvements to the Up Peak Round Trip Time Calculation
Most lift designs are based on up peak calculations. The up peak is not always the most appropriate choice of peak period for the analysis.Missing: models history
[100]
The effect of multiple entrances on the elevator round trip time under ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Calculating the round trip time is the building block of elevator traffic analysis and design. ... J Schroeder. J. Schroeder, Personenaufzuege, ...
[101]
(PDF) Calculating the Elevator Round Trip Time for the Most Basic of ...
This article in turn will start examining the operation of the elevator system used to process such passenger demand and provide the adequate supply.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[102]
[PDF] Derivation of an Elevator Round Trip Time Formula under Up-peak ...
Table 2: Traffic analysis parameters. Parameter. Value. Arrival rate. 12 ... [6] J. Schroeder, “Personenaufzuege, Foerden und Heben”, 1955. [7] Lutfi Al ...
[103]
Methods for Evaluating Elevator RTT - Elevator World
Dec 1, 2014 · This article lists and discusses six different analytical, numerical and simulation methods used in evaluating RTT.
[104]
Elevate Traffic Analysis & Simulation - Peters Research
Elevate is software used by designers world-wide to select the number, size and speed of elevators for all types of new buildings.
[105]
[PDF] The Round Trip Time Simulation: Monte Carlo Implementation and ...
In this paper, the authors discuss the implementation of MCS within lift traffic analysis software and demonstrate its consistency with classical RTT, GA RTT ...
[106]
Elevator Traffic-Flow Prediction Based on Monte Carlo Method
May 1, 2012 · Elevator traffic-flow prediction based on the Monte Carlo method describes the behavior of passengers, including arrival time, original floor and destination ...Missing: dispatcher- | Show results with:dispatcher-
[107]
Difficulties in Comparing the Results of Lift-Traffic-Simulations
Jan 1, 2014 · RTT-calculated we need 15 %. Our experience is that 12 % HC5 simulated is nearly equal with 15 % HC5 (RTT-) calculated.
[108]
(PDF) Elevator Traffic Simulation Procedure - ResearchGate
In this article, such assumption is removed and the study is based on Monte Carlo simulation. It is found that there is room for enhancing the handling ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[109]
[PDF] Using Monte Carlo Simulation in Lift Traffic Systems to Compile the
The Monte Carlo Simulation method has been successfully used in a number of applications in lift traffic analysis and design, such as the evaluation of the ...
[110]
Prediction and Analysis of Elevator Traffic Flow under the LSTM ...
In this study, LSTM (Long Short-Term Memory) network technology is leveraged to analyze elevator traffic flow within a typical office building.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[111]
Connected smart elevator systems for smart power and time saving
Aug 20, 2024 · This project designs an elevator system that uses the YOLO model for object detection. Compared to traditional methods, our results show a 15% improvement in ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[112]
[PDF] Lift and Escalators: Lift Traffic and Components - ibse.hk
• RTT = 2 H t v. + (S + 1) t s. + 2 P t p. • H = average highest call reversal floor. • t v. = single floor transit time (s). • S = average no. of stops. • t s.
[113]
[PDF] OPTIONS AND SHAFT DIMENSIONS 1.0-3.0 m/s; 630-2500 kg
SINGLE ENTRANCE CAR (SEC). THROUGH TYPE CAR (TTC). SIDE OPENING. SIDE OPENING. CENTRE OPENING. CENTRE OPENING. FRAME AND NARROW FRAME DOOR TYPES. 2. Q. = RATED ...
[114]
[PDF] PDF - ibse.hk
The up-peak handling capacity (HC), in persons per 5 min, of a group of (L) cars can be calculated using equation F.3. HC. 300PL. RTT. 300P. INT. (F.
[115]
[PDF] Lift Planning for High-Rise Buildings - Peters Research
For super high-rise buildings, shuttle lifts expressing people to sky lobbies offer further savings in core space. Planned rope-less lifts solutions promise ...
[116]
VVVF Technology in Elevators: What Is It and When Is It Used?
Quiet and smooth elevator systems for enhanced passenger comfort. What Are the Advantages of VVVF? – Precise speed control – Up to 40% reduction in energy ...
[117]
Empire State Building | Otis Global Projects
The owners again turned to Otis 80 years later, this time to modernize the elevators as part of a massive undertaking to reinvent the majestic tower for the ...
[118]
Inside the Empire State's 21st Century Upgrade - The B1M
Dec 9, 2020 · A ten-year modernisation programme has revamped the groundbreaking Otis elevator system that enabled the original construction of the building.
[119]
How Hotel Marcel is becoming the first net zero hotel in the U.S.
Hotel Marcel uses regenerative elevators, solar panels, and a microgrid, generating enough renewable energy to become net-zero, with energy-efficient elevators ...
[120]
Regenerative Drives - Elevator World
In an effort to achieve net zero by 2040, Schindler is integrating eco-consciousness into its entire product lifecycle, the Khaleej Times reports. The company ...
[121]
How Do Firefighters Safely Use Elevators in a Fire? - NFPA
Feb 5, 2024 · Phase I emergency recall is designed to protect both occupants and firefighters in the event of a fire by returning the elevators to a level ...
[122]
Elevator Operation and Fires: Phase I and Phase II - Facilitiesnet
Phase II operation is an override meant for firefighters after Phase I has been activated. Under Phase II operation, firefighters can use a keyswitch to operate ...
[123]
https://elevatorworld.com/tag/regenerative-drives/
[124]
Emergency Power Back Up Systems for Elevators | Pentech
Jan 23, 2020 · 90 minutes of full load backup power for elevators in high-rise buildings to ensure the safety of passengers in the event of a utility power failure.
[125]
Elevating Emergency Power Requirements for Elevators - Consulting
Mar 8, 2005 · The IBC requires elevators in 4+ story buildings to be part of standby power, with AC loads on the generator, and transfer within 60 seconds.
[126]
CHAPTER 30 ELEVATORS AND CONVEYING SYSTEMS
This chapter governs the design, construction, installation, alteration and repair of elevators and conveying systems and their components.
[127]
5 ways to upgrade your healthcare elevator for safety and reliability
Sep 25, 2024 · "Code Blue" is an extremely useful function that should be included in all healthcare elevator systems. It overrides any existing calls, giving ...
[128]
[PDF] Vancouver Coastal Health Elevator Technical Guidelines Rev 11
Dec 30, 2020 · “Code Blue”) is a priority elevator operation mode that allows medical staff to call an elevator to their location as a priority, over ...
[129]
[PDF] Traction Elevator Controller Manual - GAL Manufacturing
1.14 Independent Service Mode. The independent service mode is initiated by placing the key operated independent switch located in the car operating panel to ...
[130]
Fire Alarm Elevator Recalls and Preparation for Facility Managers
For an elevator to receive its' annual certification of operation it must undergo an annual inspection and testing of the fire alarm system and elevator recalls ...Missing: 81-72 | Show results with:81-72
[131]
What is Elevator Recall Testing? Here's an Explanation
Jul 15, 2022 · This test ensures that when a smoke detector becomes activated in an elevator lobby, shaft, or mechanical room, the elevator recalls to the ground floor, opens ...<|separator|>
[132]
[PDF] Traffic planning methodology - ctbuh
Up-peak boosters are used to increase handling capacity during heavy incoming traffic. Boosters decrease round trip time and the number of stops elevators make.Missing: Gina 1980s
[133]
Strategies for Serving Peak Elevator Traffic - ScienceDirect.com
For the up-peak an elevator will run express to the lowest floor of the zone, visit all floors in the zone and then return to the lobby possibly stopping at ...
[134]
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[135]
Intelligent supervisory control for lifts: dynamic zoning - Sage Journals
In this paper, the mathematical algorithms of dynamic zoning are presented for up-peak, down- peak and the more general heavy interfloor condi- tions. Floor ...Missing: elevator | Show results with:elevator
[136]
Fuzzy Logic Based Controller for Peak Traffic Detection in Elevator ...
Aug 7, 2025 · This paper presents a fuzzy logic based controller for peak traffic detection in elevator systems. The controller is validated with the most ...
[137]
Optimization of Elevator Standby Scheduling Strategy in Smart ...
Traditional EGCS methods commonly use simple dispatching strategies such as the closest car algorithm (CCA) [3] and the two-handle variable (THV) duplex ...
[138]
U.S. Access Board - Chapter 4: Elevators and Platform Lifts
Elevators are the typical means of providing an accessible route between stories and to mezzanines. In facilities not required to have an accessible route ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[139]
ADA Standards for Accessible Design Title III Regulation 28 CFR ...
Mar 14, 2014 · This document sets guidelines for accessibility to places of public accommodation and commercial facilities by individuals with disabilities.
[140]
https://www.mdpi.com/2571-5577/8/5/132
[141]
[PDF] Accessibility of Lifts: How the European standard prEN 81 ... - ANEC
Jun 15, 2021 · EU Mandate 473 (2010) to include Design for all in relevant standardisation initiatives to include accessibility requirements following the DfA ...Missing: elevator post-
[142]
Tall Buildings and the Sabbath Elevator - Elevator World
Jul 1, 2016 · These elevators enable observant Jews to reside in tall buildings and take full advantage of facilities in hotels, hospitals, synagogues and ...Missing: sensor- | Show results with:sensor-
[143]
Going Up: All About Shabbos Elevators | STAR-K Kosher Certification
Elevators typically feature an infrared mechanism known as the door edge sensor, which detects when a person is blocking the doorway. This poses a concern on ...
[144]
WO2014195948A1 - Elevator for shabat observers - Google Patents
Further, doors on the elevators during a Shabbat mode typically have their infrared sensors disengaged, and instead may be programmed such that the elevator ...Missing: break | Show results with:break
[145]
[PDF] GeN2-MR - www.otis.com.py
This allows a security guard or receptionist at the floor to visually inspect the passengers of the elevator before the car completes its run. Mode 2- ACP is ...
[146]
[PDF] GEN3 PASSENEGRS ELEVATOR - SSS - Smart System Solution
ACP-Anti Crime Protection. Anti-Crime Protection forces each car in the group to stop at pre-determined floor and open its door. This allows a security guard.
[147]
Elevator Access Control: Guide to Elevator Security Systems
Mar 4, 2025 · Elevator access control regulates who can call your building's elevators and/or access certain floors within your building.Missing: UPACS | Show results with:UPACS
[148]
[PDF] 2 Elevators
Sep 2, 2015 · ◇ Earthquake mode. • Move the car in a direction that avoids passing counterweight. ◇ Riot mode. • Exclude the lobby or lower floors to ...
[149]
State Employees Confused By New 'Riot' Button In Elevators At ...
Mar 19, 2019 · The buttons are supposed to light up to alert riders the elevators won't go to the first floor if there is a security scare, like a riot. "They' ...Missing: features | Show results with:features
[150]
[PDF] Elevator Voice™ announcer keeps riders moving in the right direction
Each Elevator Voice unit ships with these eight prerecorded messages: 1. Do not be alarmed. This car is needed for a medical emergency. When the doors open, ...
[151]
High-Rise Safety Systems - Otis Elevator
An inspired piece of engineering, Otis' safety brake kept the elevator from falling if the hoisting rope broke. If the rope went slack, the release of tension ...
[152]
[PDF] A Brief History of Lift Safety Devices 1835-1935
In 1854 Elisha Graves Otis exhibited his ratchet & pawl safety device at the New York Crystal Palace. (Fig. 3) [1, 3]. Otis was the first to propose integrating ...
[153]
Elevator Overspeed Governor: All You Need to Know - Dazen
What Speed Does The Speed Governor Trip at? When the elevator's operating speed exceeds 115% of the rated speed, the mechanical action of the speed governor ...
[154]
Elevator Overspeed Incidents Expert Article - Robson Forensic
Nov 23, 2021 · Should an elevator exceed 115% of the rated contract speed, an emergency stopping of the elevator will occur by activation of the governor ...
[155]
Braking Capacity Requirements of Elevators
Mar 1, 2020 · Minimum braking must decelerate a car at 125% rated load down, or empty up. Max deceleration is 9.8 m/s^2. Recommended: k ≥ 1.1, Sa ≥ 1.25.
[156]
[PDF] Car Deceleration During Buffering Process of Lifts
The buffer force Fb is used to decelerate a mass m with its initial kinetic energy Wkin and its driving force Fd. A lift car mass at the shaft limit stop e.g. ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
[157]
[PDF] High Speed - High Rise Elevators. A Quick Guide
Abstract: This paper highlights the new trends in high-speed elevators and discusses the impact in modern buildings' design, construction, and operation.
[158]
[PDF] Rubber Buffers / Cellular Buffers Program 0170 / 0180
• Calculate the basic energy formula: W = ½ m × v². • Determine the energy distribution for each single buffer. • Select the needed buffer (cellular or rubber ...Missing: elevator | Show results with:elevator
[159]
[PDF] INDUSTRIAL GAS HYDRAULIC PRODUCTS - Oleo Inc
What sets the Oleo gas hydraulic buffer above all other energy absorbers is their ability to dissipate over 95% of the impact energy, leading to controlled ...Missing: v² | Show results with:v²
[160]
Elevator Door Strikes Expert Article - Robson Forensic
Mar 21, 2023 · The 2019 version of the A17.1 Code has increased the requirements for a door reopening device for all elevators that are installed to this ...
[161]
Elevator Door Protection Devices - ATIS
May 24, 2025 · These passenger-safety door protection devices project a 2D array of infrared sensor beams across the full width and height of the elevator door entrance ...
[162]
3015.8 Door Reopening Devices - UpCodes
Doors shall be provided with a door reopening device that automatically stops and reopens the car door and landing door if the door becomes... Seattle Elevator ...Missing: standard | Show results with:standard
[163]
None
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[164]
[PDF] Elevator Sump Filtration System - Highland Tank
Highland Tank Elevator Sump. Discharge Filtration Systems recover harmful oil spills or discharges from hydraulic elevator sumps whenever the sumps are drained ...Missing: containment pan
[165]
Get the Latest Elevator Code - Emergency Help Phones - Kings III
Jul 2, 2025 · With up to 1,000 false calls daily, the updates to elevator emergency phone requirements are designed to help monitoring stations distinguish ...Missing: nuisance percentage
[166]
Elevator Accident Statistics - Miller & Hine
Sep 10, 2024 · Around 30 people die in the U.S. each year due to elevator accidents, and over 17,000 suffer injuries. About half of elevator accident deaths ...Missing: million | Show results with:million
[167]
ISO 22559-1:2014 - Safety requirements for lifts (elevators) — Part 1
ISO 22559-1:2014 is applicable to lifts that are intended to carry persons or persons and goods that can a) be located in any permanent and fixed structure or ...
[168]
[PDF] INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 22559-1
Feb 15, 2014 · ISO 22559-1 is the first edition (2014-02-15) standard for safety requirements for lifts (elevators), specifically global essential safety ...
[169]
Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators - ASME
In stockThe ASME A17.1 / CSA B44 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators has become the accepted guide throughout North America for the design, construction, ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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https://www.iso.org/standard/61455.html
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GB/T 7588.1-2020 English PDF
In stockOct 18, 2025 · GB/T 7588.1-2020: Safety rules for the construction and installation of lifts - Part 1: Passenger and goods passenger lifts.Missing: wind | Show results with:wind
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Detail of GB/T 7588.1-2020 - Code of China
GB/T 7588.1-2020 Safety rules for the construction and installation of lifts—Part 1：Passenger and goods passenger lifts (English Version). Standard No.Missing: rise | Show results with:rise
[173]
IEC 60364-1:2025
Sep 5, 2025 · IEC 60364-1:2025 defines the scope of the series, specifies safety requirements, and addresses fundamental principles of low-voltage electrical ...Missing: elevators | Show results with:elevators
[174]
Different Types Of Standard Elevator Dimensions - News
Dec 30, 2024 · Observation elevators stand out with see-through shafts and walls. These are made of strong, clear glass for a full view. Inside, they focus on ...
[175]
High-Speed Traction Elevator | Mitsubishi Electric Elevators and ...
Mitsubishi's high-speed elevators feature permanent magnet gearless machines, dual disk brakes, speeds from 500 to 1200 fpm, and capacities between 3000 and ...
[176]
Passenger Lift Sizes & Dimensions - Stannah Lifts
Standard passenger lifts range from 6 to 33 people, with Part M recommending a minimum of 8 or 13 people. Custom sizes from 4 to 46 people are also available.
[177]
3037. Capacity and Loading.
(3) The number of passengers permitted on a passenger elevator shall not exceed the rated load in pounds, divided by 150. Image 1 within § 3037. Capacity and ...
[178]
Elevator Loading Requirements for High-Rise Elevators
Jun 1, 2024 · The rated load shall be based on not less than 240 kg/m2 of inside net platform area. Class C1: Industrial Truck Loading.
[179]
Vertical Transportation Design and Traffic Calculations – Part Three
acceleration/deceleration (rate of change of velocity) should be limited to about 1.5 m/s2,. The values of jerk (rate of change of acceleration) to 2.0 m/s3.
[180]
[PDF] NOISE AND RIDE COMFORT PERFORMANCE - TK Elevator
Ride comfort quality in an elevator is mainly evaluated through car vibrations, as well as jerk and acceleration. Vertical car vibration is caused by vibrations ...Missing: factors | Show results with:factors
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Elevator HVAC Design Requirements - ASHRAE
The purpose of hoistway venting is to allow smoke and hot gases to vent out of the elevator hoistway to the outside in the event of a fire.
[182]
http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2019/03/Human-effects-on-elevator-design.html
[183]
Keeping Elevators Safe From Infections
Apr 1, 2021 · Retrofitting of contactless buttons ... There are many commercial products that can convert elevators into touchless operation to reduce the small ...
[184]
Touchless Elevator Solutions for Safety & Convenience
Sep 8, 2025 · Touchless elevator solutions enhance safety and convenience by reducing physical contact with buttons through mobile apps, voice commands, ...
[185]
The Ultimate Guide to Freight Elevators
Freight elevator capacity, Minimum capacity of 5,000 lbs (2,268 kg). Maximum load capacity up to 220,000 lbs (10,000kg). Freight elevator dimensions ...Freight Elevator Cost · Different Types of Freight... · Methods of Loading Goods on...
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Freight Elevator - CITI Elevator Inc.
Geared traction elevators designed for freight are available with power or manually operated vertical or horizontal opening, doors. Medium to high rise ...Missing: robust | Show results with:robust
[187]
Understanding Freight Elevator Classes: A Comprehensive Guide
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) defines freight elevator classes in its A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators. These classes ...
[188]
Residential & Commercial Dumbwaiters - Arrow Lift
Size: from 20” x 20” x 30” up to 36” x 36” x 48” · Weight Capacity: 100-500 lbs. · Lift Distance: up to 50+ feet · Standard Speed: 30-50 feet per minute · Loading ...
[189]
[PDF] ASME A17.1-2013 Part 7 Dumbwaiters
3 Capacity and Loading. The rated load shall be not less than 13.9 pounds per cubic foot of inside car volume. A metal capacity plate shall be provided. A ...
[190]
Standard Dumbwaiter - Elevators - Nationwide Lifts
Standard dumbwaiters have 125 or 250 lbs capacity, sizes of 24"x24"x24" or 28"x28"x28", 30 ft/min speed, and travel up to 6 stops and 80 ft.
[191]
Sidewalk Elevators | Gillespie Corporation
The country's largest manufacturer of custom sidewalk elevators, Gillespie designs three basic models, all of which feature: sidewalk door with drainage.
[192]
Custom Scissor Lift for Theme Park - Handling Specialty
A unique three-stage, high-rise custom scissor lift for a giant monster special effect. The pit-mounted scissor lift moves upward to propel the monster up, out ...
[193]
An Elevator for 3000-Ton Ships, Thanks to Archimedes
The chamber can handle boats that displace a maximum of 3,000 metric tons of water, or 793,000 gallons. 2. The Chamber Rises. The chamber is made of reinforced ...
[194]
10 Questions About Freight Elevator Door - News
Jun 3, 2025 · Drive System Lifespan: The cycle life of rack and pinion drive modules varies, with low-cost products typically lasting 500,000 cycles and high- ...
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Elevator Life Cycle
Nov 6, 2024 · As a general rule, the industry standard life expectancy of an elevator is approximately 20 years of service before you need to consider modernization or ...Missing: anti- abuse gates
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Tram System - Gateway Arch National Park (U.S. National Park ...
Aug 22, 2025 · The tram system was custom-made for the unique constraints of the Gateway Arch. There is nothing else like it anywhere in the world!Missing: 1965 codes
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Eiffel Tower | Otis Global Projects
Otis engineers designed two huge hydraulic cable lifts that ran on rail tracks. The big, beautiful machines became tourist attractions themselves.
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What were the elevators like in the Eiffel Tower's early days
Aug 20, 2019 · They were driven by hydraulic pistons with movable joints installed at the foot of the elevators. Between the 2nd floor and 3rd floor, the ...
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Technology | Fast lifts rise into record books - BBC NEWS
Dec 16, 2004 · The 17m/s top speed of the lifts translates to about 38mph (61km/h). Curiously the lifts take longer to descend and spend almost a whole minute ...
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Getting high, quick - Taipei Times
Sep 4, 2004 · Set to carry sightseers to the 388m high, 89th floor indoor observation deck, the two observation deck elevators will reach top speeds of 1,010 ...
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Most inclined elevators inside a pyramid - Guinness World Records
The most inclined elevators inside a pyramid are the four corner elevators installed at the Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2004/09/04/2003201624
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Lovin' their elevator: why Germans are loopy about their revolving lifts
Aug 14, 2015 · But a ban in west Germany on building new paternosters that has existed since 1974, owing to safety concerns and disability access regulations, ...
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Life's a 'Paternoster' (and then you fly) - IEEE Spectrum
Apr 20, 2010 · West Germany banned new Paternosters in 1974, and outrage at ongoing accidents has progressively winnowed the ranks of those left operating.
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Marine Elevators and Lifts - Jered, LLC
Most recently, we developed all-electric aircraft elevators for the U.S. Navy CVN-79 and LHA-8, lowering installation and projected through-life support costs.Missing: 30- | Show results with:30-
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Taking a trip in London's only Funicular railway - ianVisits
Nov 20, 2010 · A Funicular Railway is a special railway that is designed to run up very steep slopes – such as cliffs or mountains.Missing: Docklands hybrids
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[PDF] Mitsubishi Electric Improves Speed of World's Fastest Elevators to ...
May 10, 2016 · Mitsubishi Electric achieved 1,230 meters per minute using new equipment, improved safety devices, and a new wire rope structure.<|control11|><|separator|>
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The Invention of the Tram Ride to the Top | The Gateway Arch
Feb 11, 2021 · The Gateway Arch tram: designed in 2 weeks! Discover the story of its creation and the innovation behind this iconic ride.Missing: 1965 custom codes
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[PDF] Study Report on Application of Lift Regenerative Power
The amount of energy saving arising from lift regenerative power varies with the lift traffic pattern. The Housing Department have assessed the lift system in ...
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Elevator Controls Modernization
A new controller improves safety, reliability, and energy efficiency. Also, onboard diagnostics quickly reveal the source of a shut down, minimizing downtime.
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Expert Guide to Modernizing Elevators - Facilitiesnet
Dec 12, 2024 · Basic modernization typically involves replacing electrical components like the controller (the brains of the elevator), selector, door ...
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Elevator Modernization
A full modernization costs more upfront, while a phased modernization costs more over time as components are purchased separately. ... Before modernization work ...Missing: retrofit | Show results with:retrofit
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Elevator Modernization Costs 2024 - Arizona Elevator Solutions
Apr 25, 2024 · A full elevator modernization typically costs around $175,000 [source]. However, the range can be anywhere from $75,000 to $250,000 per elevator ...Missing: retrofit process
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How Long Does an Elevator Last?
Apr 26, 2022 · At around 20-25 years, most elevators are due for a modernization which will upgrade major components and extend the life of the system.<|separator|>
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Renew-MRL-Conversion-Kits-Launch - GAL Manufacturing
The Renew MRL package combines the GLR25S2 and Pixel MRL controller. The GLR25S2 is a direct mechanical replacement for the MX10 & NMX11 rail mounted machines.
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MicroAI AtomML Reduces Elevator Maintenance Down Time
Oct 14, 2022 · MicroAI AtomML reduces elevator downtimes by up to 60% by enabling predictive maintenance, using sensors and real-time data, and reducing ...
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How Energy-Efficient Elevators Reduce Carbon Footprint and Costs
LED lighting, which consumes up to 80% less energy than traditional bulbs. Sleep mode, where lighting and ventilation turn off when the elevator is not in use.2. Smart Traffic Management... · 3. Led Lighting And Standby... · 1. Lower Electricity BillsMissing: oils | Show results with:oils
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Sustainable Elevators: Reducing Environmental Impact in Buildings
In high-rise buildings, elevators can account for up to 10% of the total energy usage. This not only translates to higher operational costs but also contributes ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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How Modernizing Elevators Supports Sustainability
Jun 4, 2025 · LED Lighting & Auto-Dimming Controls: LED fixtures in elevator cabs use less energy and last longer than traditional lighting. Auto-dimming ...Missing: oils | Show results with:oils
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Digital services for elevators, escalators, and moving walks - Schindler
Schindler Ahead is the digital building solution that connects elevators, escalators, and moving walks to the IoT Cloud.24/7 Equipment Monitoring · Schindler Technical... · Key User BenefitsMissing: AI vibration 2018
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Turning Elevator Sensor Data Into Actionable Insights - Elevator World
Feb 1, 2025 · Discover some real-life examples of how CEDES is turning this data into actionable insights through the Internet of Things (IoT).Cedes Provides Real-Life... · Iot Data Backbone: Sensor... · Case In Point: Feedback From...
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8 Trends Shaping the Future of Predictive Maintenance - WorkTrek
Sep 11, 2025 · Based on a recent study, AI-driven predictive analytics can increase failure prediction accuracy up to 90% while reducing maintenance costs by ...Missing: fault | Show results with:fault
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Elevator remote monitoring system based on 5G router - Szelins.com
Jun 8, 2021 · 5G industrial router is a device that can convert the received 5G signal into WIFI, so that devices connected to 5G Cellular router can also ...Missing: configuration | Show results with:configuration
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K-Easy Energy saving plan for elevators
Jul 4, 2024 · According to the calculation of previous projects, the average power saving rate of the energy feedback system is 25%, according to the average ...
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Elevators & Escalators Market Size, Share & Growth By 2034
Rising demand for smart and energy-efficient solutions has led to over 45% of new installations integrating IoT-based monitoring systems for predictive ...
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IoT in Elevators Market Report 2025 (Global Edition)
The global IoT-in elevator market size will be USD 28924.8 million in 2025. Growing demand for personalized and contactless services is expected to boost sales ...
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[PDF] Lift and the City: How Elevators Reshaped cities - ctbuh
The elevator gave birth to the skyscraper and has changed the shape of cities. The rapid growth in the size of cities and height of buildings has increased the ...
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How Did The Elevator Impact The Growth Of Cities?
Aug 28, 2024 · By enabling taller buildings, elevators concentrated businesses and residents in smaller areas, reducing urban sprawl. This increase in density ...
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Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, As Amended | ADA.gov
Here is the text of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), including changes made by the ADA Amendments Act of 2008.
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35 Years of the ADA: What Has Changed, And What Still Needs To
Jul 25, 2025 · Thanks to the ADA, ramps, curb cuts, accessible restrooms, elevators, and accessible parking are now part of everyday design. These features ...
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How much Energy does an Elevator Use?
Feb 23, 2024 · The energy consumption of an elevator can contribute between 5% to up to 10% of a building's total energy consumption.
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Energy Efficiency of Elevators
May 1, 2025 · For low-usage elevators, such as buildings with up to five floors, this percentage typically ranges from 2% to 3%. Overall, elevator energy ...
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[PDF] The Way To Green - Otis Elevator
We are always working to reduce our environmental impact worldwide, from our water and energy consumption to greenhouse gas emissions. Modernisation. Customised ...
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Elevator Market Outlook 2030 | Roland Berger
Aug 8, 2025 · The USD 107 billion global elevator market has experienced several ups and downs in the past few years.Missing: worldwide | Show results with:worldwide
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Elevator and Escalator Installers and Repairers
Employment of elevator and escalator installers and repairers is projected to grow 5 percent from 2024 to 2034, faster than the average for all occupations.
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The job market for elevator mechanics in the United States
Over the next 10 years, it is expected the US will need 5,500 elevator mechanics. That number is based on 400 additional elevator mechanics, and the retirement ...
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Paternoster Elevator Facts - Lift for Home
Sep 13, 2025 · European Tourist Ban and Restrictions ; Motion, Continuous loop, no stop, Germany, Czechia ; Operation, Hop on/off moving open cabins, Prague, ...
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This Doorless Elevator Doesn't Stop or Slow Down - Atlas Obscura
Aug 17, 2017 · The paternoster lifts are today a dying breed after safety norms banned their construction. These once-ingenious creations were invented in ...
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[PDF] office of racial equity and social justice - Montgomery County Maryland
Mar 17, 2025 · Elevator modernization will reduce racial disparities and inequities for low-income individuals and families who rely on services provided ...
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From Vacant Super Target Store to Vertical Farm - NAIOP
Wilder Fields has devised a transport system that uses a series of conveyers and lifts to move the plants around the facility at a high throughput.Missing: elevators | Show results with:elevators
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Skyscraper Crops Are Changing the World - Earth Day - EarthDay.org
Jul 25, 2025 · The concept is simple: rather than taking up even more land in a horizontal direction, crops are stacked vertically, integrated into structures ...
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Elevator Controls and Indicators - Archtoolbox
May 22, 2021 · Description of the elevator controls and indicators that are located in an elevator car and also those required in the elevator lobby.
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The tradition behind why so many NYC buildings are missing this floor
Oct 24, 2025 · Otis Elevator once estimated that 85% of its elevators omit a 13th-floor button 12. Otis Elevator once estimated that 85% of its elevators ...
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What are ADA requirements for elevators? - KONE U.S.
Car Controls. Controls must be accessible with raised characters and Braille, and emergency buttons should be grouped and located at an accessible height.
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The Evolution of Elevators: Physical-Human Interface, Digital ...
This article reviews the history of elevators and their technologies. It then examines specific considerations for megatall buildings.
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HVAC and Fire Safety for Elevator Systems - Consulting
Aug 1, 2007 · Most building elevator mechanics and manufacturers maintain elevator machine rooms between 60°F and 80°F with 35% to 60% relative humidity. The ...
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[PDF] Airflow and elevators - OTIS
Elevator fans are often sized to provide one air change per minute – or 60 air changes per hour.
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Elevator Pumps & Systems - Champions Marketing
This fully automatic, easily installed, condensate pump removes condensation from air conditioning equipment, condensing furnaces, dehumidifiers, ice makers, ...<|separator|>
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Condensate Atomization Pump P15J - Wipcool
The P15J pump atomizes AC condensate, stops dripping, increases heat rejection, and enhances refrigeration, using a few elements for fast, cost-effective ...
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Elevator air conditioning
Apr 24, 2010 · Condensation. Air conditioning poses a problem to elevators because of the condensation that occurs. The condensed water produced has to be ...
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California's Title 24, The Recovery Ventilator, and You
Sep 8, 2022 · In a study performed by Build Smart, they found that typical recovery ventilators save up to 11-15% HVAC-related energy (in Climate Zones 1-5, ...
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Resolving Stack Effect Problems in a High-Rise Office Building by ...
Sep 26, 2017 · In high-rise buildings, the stack effect causes various problems, especially problems related to excessive pressure differences across main ...Missing: sealed cabs
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Seven ways to fight stack effect in buildings - Consulting
Feb 20, 2020 · Place tight doors between your elevator lobby and the reception area. Even sliding doors can help. Modern HVAC systems can adjust themselves ...<|separator|>
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Solar-Assisted Air Conditioning: What Engineers Need to Know
Sep 8, 2020 · By using renewable energy, solar-assisted AC systems are decreasing the use of fossil fuels and reducing annual energy costs.
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Green Technology Options for Elevators | Green City Times
Apr 2, 2024 · Green elevator technologies include regenerative drives, energy-saving drives, MRL elevators, smart control systems, solar power, and battery- ...Missing: oils | Show results with:oils
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[PDF] Wire Rope Replacement Criteria - Prysmian
The replacement criteria shall be documented in the Maintenance. Control program (see ASMe A17.1/CSA B44, requirement 8.6.1.4.1). 1.10.1.2 Criteria for ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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SCADA Applications: Improving Infrastructure Operations
Sep 18, 2025 · In lift and elevator control systems, SCADA ensures smooth and safe vertical transportation. It oversees the operation of lifts, monitoring ...
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KONE Unlocks New Efficiencies Using AWS IoT | KONE Case Study
Benefits ; 40%. reduction in customer-reported elevator and escalator issues ; 40%. fewer entrapments ; 99.9%. provisioning success rate ; 5x. increase in scale of ...
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Predictive Maintenance with IoT and AI: Reduce Downtime & Save ...
Aug 19, 2025 · Strategic Reality: Organizations implementing structured predictive maintenance programs achieve 80-90% success rates while identifying ...Missing: elevator | Show results with:elevator
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Common Elevator Problems: Prevention and Repair
Dec 30, 2021 · Common Elevator Problems: Prevention and Repair · Worn Sheaves · Power Failure · Contamination · Bearing Malfunction · Misaligned Motor Drive.Missing: per | Show results with:per<|control11|><|separator|>
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Breaking Down Elevator Maintenance Cost - Toledo Elevator
Oct 10, 2025 · Residential elevator systems are typically run smaller, simpler, and quieter. That means fewer service calls and lighter compliance requirements ...
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HRD-150 Elevator Wire Rope Ultrasonic Metal Testing Equipment ...
Good Quality HRD-150 Elevator Wire Rope Ultrasonic Metal Testing Equipment Steel Rope Flaw Detector From China - HUATEC GROUP CORPORATION.Missing: maintenance multimeter
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Elevator - DroneXploration GmbH
Eliminating the need for manual entry, scaffolding, or suspended inspections, drones enhance worker safety while reducing downtime. Detection of Debris & ...Missing: labor | Show results with:labor
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Drone Building Inspection Services for Safer, Faster Results
Rating 4.9 (109) A study by DroneDeploy found that drone programs can reduce inspection costs by over 50% on average. 3. Detailed, High-Resolution Data. Equipped with 4K ...Missing: elevators | Show results with:elevators