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Risk arbitrage

Risk arbitrage, also known as merger arbitrage, is an investment strategy that seeks to generate profits by exploiting the price discrepancy—or "spread"—between the post-announcement trading price of a target company's stock and the price offered by the acquiring company in a proposed merger or acquisition, betting on the successful completion of the deal.^[1]^[2] This approach, commonly employed by hedge funds and specialized investors, typically involves taking a long position in the target company's shares, which trade at a discount reflecting the uncertainty of deal closure, and often a short position in the acquirer's shares for stock-for-stock transactions to hedge market exposure.^[3]^[4] The strategy's profitability hinges on the deal's resolution: upon successful completion, the investor captures the spread as the target shares converge to the offer price, while failure results in losses as the target's price may revert toward pre-announcement levels.^[1] Key variations include cash offers, where positions are long-only in the target, and stock-swap or collar offers, which incorporate hedging against the acquirer's stock performance and may yield higher returns due to information asymmetries in payment methods.^[3] The primary risk is deal-break risk, driven by factors such as regulatory hurdles, financing issues, market downturns, or competing bids, which can amplify losses—particularly in severe market declines where arbitrage returns exhibit positive correlation with broader equity markets (beta up to 0.50).^[4]^[2] Additional risks include leverage constraints, limited diversification across deals, and collateral requirements often exceeding 100% of position value.^[1] Historically, risk arbitrage has been prominent in U.S. financial markets since the mid-20th century, with empirical studies of over 4,750 mergers from 1963 to 1998 revealing annualized excess returns of approximately 4% after transaction costs, alongside lower volatility compared to equity benchmarks but vulnerability to rare, large drawdowns resembling the payoff of uncovered put options.^[4] Its visibility surged in the 1980s amid high-profile takeover activity, exemplified by arbitrageur Ivan Boesky, whose practices highlighted both opportunities and regulatory scrutiny over insider trading.^[1] In takeover contests, arbitrageurs play a facilitative role by accumulating significant stakes (often 30-40% of target shares), increasing liquidity and trading volume while potentially influencing deal outcomes through their tendering behavior and informational advantages.^[5] Overall, the strategy's returns, averaging 7-11% annually in various periods, reflect a liquidity premium for bearing completion uncertainty, though performance varies with market conditions and deal characteristics like duration and type.^[2]^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition

Risk arbitrage, also known as merger arbitrage, is an investment strategy employed primarily in the context of corporate events such as mergers and acquisitions, where investors seek to profit from price discrepancies between the current market value of a target company's stock and the announced acquisition price. The core approach generally involves purchasing shares of the target company (going long), which trade at a discount to the offer price, and, for stock-for-stock transactions, often selling shares of the acquiring company short to hedge market exposure, positioning for the deal's successful completion, which would converge the prices and capture the spread as profit.^[6]^[7]^[2] At its foundation, the strategy revolves around the spread—the difference between the target's post-announcement trading price and the acquirer's offered price per share—which reflects the market's assessment of deal completion probability, time to closure, and associated risks. This event-driven approach relies on probabilistic outcomes, as returns depend on the deal proceeding without disruption, rather than guaranteed convergence. In cash deals, the acquirer offers a fixed cash amount, creating a straightforward spread opportunity; in stock deals, the exchange involves a ratio of acquirer shares for target shares, introducing additional volatility from the acquirer's stock performance. Hedge funds and specialized arbitrage traders typically execute these positions, often holding significant stakes in targets to influence or monitor outcomes.^[7]^[2]^[8] Unlike pure arbitrage, which exploits simultaneous, risk-free price differences across markets for certain profits, risk arbitrage carries residual risk from potential deal failure, regulatory hurdles, or market shocks, potentially leading to losses that exceed the spread if the merger collapses. This distinction underscores its reliance on event resolution rather than instantaneous hedging, making it a hedged but not riskless bet on corporate transactions. Merger arbitrage represents the predominant application of this strategy.^[7]^[9]^[8]

Historical Development

Risk arbitrage, also known as merger arbitrage, emerged as a distinct investment strategy in the early 20th century, with foundational principles outlined by Benjamin Graham in his seminal work Security Analysis (1934), where he described arbitrage opportunities arising from corporate events such as mergers and reorganizations.^[10] Graham, often regarded as the father of value investing, emphasized exploiting price discrepancies in special situations, including tender offers and consolidations, through careful analysis of undervalued securities.^[11] This approach laid the groundwork for modern risk arbitrage, focusing on low-risk spreads while acknowledging the inherent uncertainties in deal completion. The strategy gained prominence on Wall Street in the post-World War II era, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, as merger activity increased amid economic expansion and the establishment of dedicated arbitrage desks at investment firms.^[12] Pioneering practitioners, including those at firms like Fidelity Investments, explored aggressive growth and special situation investments, contributing to the professionalization of "arb" operations that bet on pending corporate transactions.^[13] A key milestone came with the Williams Act of 1968, which amended the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 to mandate disclosures for tender offers and proxy contests, providing arbitrageurs with timely information to assess deal probabilities and reducing information asymmetry in M&A markets.^[12] The 1980s marked a boom in risk arbitrage, fueled by the surge in leveraged buyouts (LBOs) and hostile takeovers, which created abundant opportunities for traders to capitalize on announcement spreads.^[14] Prominent figures like Ivan Boesky, who built a fortune through his arbitrage firm betting on corporate deals, exemplified the era's high-stakes environment, with merger-arbitrage funds achieving exceptional returns, such as 37.2% in 1988 at the peak of LBO mania.^[14] However, this period ended abruptly with the 1986 insider trading scandal involving Boesky, who pleaded guilty to illegal trading practices, paid a $100 million fine, and cooperated with the SEC, leading to stricter regulations on information handling and disclosure in arbitrage activities.^[15] In the 1990s and 2000s, risk arbitrage became institutionalized through the proliferation of hedge funds specializing in event-driven strategies, as the industry transitioned from niche Wall Street desks to a broader asset class attracting institutional capital.^[16] Post-deregulation environments and steady M&A growth supported this evolution, with funds like those employing merger arbitrage generating consistent returns amid rising deal volumes.^[12] The 2008 financial crisis exposed vulnerabilities, however, as liquidity dried up and high-profile deals collapsed, including those tied to Lehman Brothers' bankruptcy, causing arbitrage spreads to widen dramatically—up to a median annualized 14.2% for stock deals in October 2008—and leading to significant losses for event-driven funds.^[17] Following the crisis, risk arbitrage recovered alongside rebounding M&A activity in the 2010s, bolstered by low interest rates and economic stabilization, though the Dodd-Frank Act of 2010 introduced new reporting requirements for hedge funds, including Form PF disclosures on positions and risks, which increased operational costs and transparency for event-driven strategies.^[18] The strategy adapted further with the 2020-2021 SPAC boom, where approximately 860 SPACs raised a total of about $246 billion, offering arbitrageurs low-risk spreads on de-SPAC mergers through warrant and share trades, though redemption rates later pressured returns.^[19]^[20] By 2025, heightened antitrust scrutiny on tech mergers, exemplified by the DOJ's block of the HP-Juniper deal and ongoing probes into AI acquisitions, has prolonged timelines and widened spreads, prompting arbitrageurs to incorporate regulatory risk assessments more rigorously.^[21]^[22]

Strategies

Merger Arbitrage Mechanics

Merger arbitrage involves a systematic process to capitalize on pricing discrepancies following the announcement of a merger or acquisition. The strategy typically begins with the identification of announced deals through public disclosures, where arbitrageurs evaluate the terms to determine potential profitability based on the initial spread between the target's current market price and the offered deal price. This spread, calculated as (offer price - current target price) / current target price, represents the anticipated return if the deal closes, adjusted for the time to completion.^[23]^[24] The core operational steps include establishing positions immediately after announcement to lock in the spread. In cash mergers, which offer a fixed payout to target shareholders, arbitrageurs take a long position in the target company's shares, expecting to tender them at the higher offer price upon closure. For stock-for-stock mergers, positions involve going long the target and shorting the acquirer in proportion to the exchange ratio, aiming for delta-neutral positioning to hedge market exposure and isolate the spread convergence. Hostile takeovers follow similar mechanics but often involve heightened scrutiny of defensive measures like shareholder rights plans. Position sizing depends on the deal's total value, portfolio diversification, and risk parameters, with leverage commonly employed to enhance returns on the relatively low-yield spreads, typically holding positions for periods ranging from 45 days to over a year until resolution.^[2]^[24]^[25] Arbitrageurs rely on specialized tools for execution and monitoring. Key data sources include SEC filings such as Schedule 13D, which disclose significant beneficial ownership changes often signaling activist involvement in takeovers, and real-time platforms like Bloomberg terminals for tracking spreads and market movements. Regulatory approvals are monitored via antitrust filings with bodies like the FTC or DOJ, ensuring positions align with evolving deal status. In stock deals with collar structures, which set price ranges for the exchange ratio, options may be used to hedge volatility.^[26]^[27]^[2] Exit strategies focus on deal resolution. Upon completion, positions are closed by tendering target shares for cash or exchanging for acquirer stock while covering shorts, realizing the narrowed spread. If the deal fails, positions are unwound promptly to limit losses, though some arbitrageurs may exit early if the spread compresses significantly due to reduced uncertainty, capturing partial gains ahead of closure. These mechanics can be executed actively through proprietary analysis or passively via indexed approaches, though the core steps remain consistent.^[23]^[25]

Active vs. Passive Approaches

In risk arbitrage, commonly referred to as merger arbitrage, practitioners employ either active or passive approaches to capitalize on the spread between a target company's current stock price and the acquisition price following a merger announcement. The passive approach is purely reactive, involving the purchase of the target company's shares immediately after the deal is publicly announced and holding the position until resolution, with minimal operational involvement beyond monitoring deal progress. This method relies on the statistical probability of deal completion, typically betting on spreads that reflect a high likelihood of success without attempting to alter outcomes.^[7] In contrast, the active approach entails proactive efforts to influence merger outcomes, such as through activist investing where arbitrageurs acquire significant stakes in the target or acquirer to advocate for deal modifications, push for termination of value-destroying acquisitions, or lobby regulators and shareholders to expedite approvals. For instance, activists may build positions exceeding 5% ownership in the acquirer to file a Schedule 13D with the SEC, enabling public disclosure of their intentions and potential proxy solicitations to sway voting or negotiations. Such strategies emerged prominently in the 2000s, with studies showing activists challenging 58 acquirers between 2000 and 2017, leading to deal terminations in 36% of cases and bid reductions of about 4 percentage points in others. However, post-1980s securities reforms, including the Insider Trading Sanctions Act of 1984 and enhanced Rule 10b-5 enforcement, imposed strict legal boundaries on pre-announcement trading based on rumors, prohibiting the use of material non-public information while permitting speculation on public rumors only if not insider-derived.^[28]^[29] Key differences between the approaches lie in resource demands and execution style: active strategies require substantial capital to amass influential stakes—often 5% or more for regulatory filings—and incur higher fees for specialized expertise in activism, legal compliance, and stakeholder engagement, whereas passive strategies emphasize algorithmic, low-touch execution with diversified portfolios across multiple deals to mitigate idiosyncratic risks. Active methods offer potential alpha through intervention, as evidenced by risk-adjusted returns 6.0 percentage points higher than benchmarks in challenged deals, but they elevate legal and operational risks from failed influence attempts or regulatory scrutiny. Passive approaches, conversely, enable broader diversification and lower entry barriers but yield more modest returns tied closely to baseline deal completion probabilities, typically without the upside from shaping outcomes.^[30]^[31] Modern trends highlight the growing dominance of passive strategies, facilitated by the launch of merger arbitrage exchange-traded funds (ETFs) post-2010, such as the Credit Suisse Merger Arbitrage Liquid ETN in 2010 and ProShares Merger Arbitrage ETF filings in 2012, which democratize access for retail and institutional investors seeking low-cost, diversified exposure. Meanwhile, active approaches persist in complex private equity-backed deals, where activists leverage larger stakes to influence terms amid heightened regulatory hurdles.^[32]^[33]

Success Predictors

Regulatory hurdles represent a primary factor in assessing merger completion probabilities in risk arbitrage. Under the Hart-Scott-Rodino (HSR) Act in the United States, parties to transactions exceeding specified thresholds must file premerger notifications with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Department of Justice (DOJ), triggering antitrust reviews that typically last 30 days for initial assessments but can extend significantly with second requests for additional information. In fiscal year 2024, the agencies received 2,031 HSR filings, issued 59 second requests (2.9% of filings), and initiated 32 merger enforcement challenges (1.58% of filings), leading to 24 deal abandonments or restructurings due to antitrust concerns (approximately 1.18% failure rate).^[34] Foreign investment approvals, such as those by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS), add further scrutiny for deals involving national security, with timelines often spanning 30-45 days for declarations and up to 90 days or more for full notices. In calendar year 2024, CFIUS reviewed 116 declarations (91 cleared without action, 1.2% withdrawn) and 209 notices (49 withdrawn, including 7 abandoned, and 2 presidential prohibitions, yielding a blockage rate under 1%).^[35] Empirical data from 2010-2021 indicates that regulatory issues contribute to about 5% of overall deal failures in merger arbitrage.^[36] Financing risks influence deal success by affecting the acquirer's ability to secure and sustain funding, particularly in debt-financed transactions. Acquirer funding stability is evaluated through credit ratings, liquidity ratios, and existing debt loads, as unstable financing can lead to deal breaks if market conditions deteriorate. Rising interest rates exacerbate this for leveraged deals, increasing borrowing costs and reducing cash flow coverage, which historically correlates with lower completion rates; for instance, during periods of rate hikes like 2022-2023, debt-heavy acquisitions faced elevated abandonment risks due to tighter lending standards and higher default probabilities.^[37] Quantitative assessments often incorporate interest rate sensitivity, with models showing that a 1% rate increase can raise financing costs by 10-20% on large deals, prompting 5-10% more withdrawals in debt-reliant structures compared to equity-funded ones.^[38] Deal structure indicators provide reliable predictors of completion likelihood, with all-cash offers demonstrating higher success rates than stock-based ones due to reduced valuation disputes and shareholder approval hurdles. Historical data from 1980-2020 reveals all-cash deals completing at rates exceeding 90%, as they avoid stock volatility and offer immediate certainty, while pure stock deals succeed at around 80%, hampered by acquirer share price fluctuations and relative valuation concerns.^[39] Hostility levels further differentiate outcomes: friendly mergers, negotiated with target management cooperation, achieve 81% completion rates, whereas contested or hostile bids drop to 44%, reflecting prolonged negotiations, poison pill defenses, and shareholder resistance.^[40] Quantitative models, such as logistic regression, enable probabilistic forecasting of deal success by integrating key variables like arbitrage spread (the gap between current target price and offer price), acquirer premium (offer relative to pre-announcement price), and deal size. A basic formulation estimates the probability of completion as P(\text{success}) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{-(\beta_0 + \beta_1 \cdot \text{[spread](/page/Spread)} + \beta_2 \cdot \text{[premium](/page/Premium)} + \beta_3 \cdot \text{deal size})}}, where narrower spreads (under 5%) and higher premiums (over 30%) signal stronger commitment, boosting predicted success by 10-20%; larger deals (> $1 billion) introduce complexity, reducing odds by 5-15% due to regulatory intensity. This approach, validated on U.S. data from 1981-2006, identifies spread and structure as dominant predictors, with out-of-sample accuracy exceeding 85%.^[41] Market sentiment proxies offer forward-looking insights into deal viability, with trading volume spikes in the target stock post-announcement indicating informed buying and higher completion confidence, often correlating with 5-10% improved success odds as arbitrageurs pile in. Elevated short interest in the target (>10% of float) serves as a bearish signal, proxying skepticism about rationale or financing, and has historically preceded 15-20% more failures by amplifying downward pressure. Analyst consensus, measured via recommendation aggregates, further refines predictions: strong buy ratings on the deal's strategic fit (e.g., synergies >20% of target value) align with 90%+ completion, while neutral or sell views on overvaluation reduce probabilities by 10-15%.^[42]^[43]

Risks

Deal-Specific Risks

Deal-specific risks in risk arbitrage, also known as merger arbitrage, arise from factors inherent to the individual transaction that can lead to deal termination or adverse price movements in the target company's stock. These risks are distinct from broader market forces and can result in substantial losses for arbitrageurs who hold long positions in the target while shorting the acquirer or hedging via other means. Understanding these perils is crucial, as they directly influence the pricing of the arbitrage spread—the difference between the deal price and the current market price of the target shares.^[44] Financing failure occurs when the acquirer cannot secure the necessary debt or equity funding to complete the transaction, particularly in cash-financed or leveraged buyout deals. This risk is heightened during periods of rising interest rates, which increase borrowing costs and make lenders more cautious about committing funds. For instance, in 2023, the $5.4 billion leveraged buyout of Tegna by Apollo Global Management and Standard General collapsed after regulatory delays prompted lenders to withdraw financing amid elevated interest rates, causing Tegna's stock to fall 2.8% on the day of termination, following earlier declines of over 20% due to regulatory hurdles, and resulting in significant losses for merger arbitrage positions. Such failures underscore the vulnerability of deals reliant on committed financing, where even minor shifts in credit conditions can trigger termination.^[44] Regulatory denial represents another critical deal-specific risk, where antitrust authorities or other regulators block the merger due to concerns over reduced competition or market concentration. Shareholder vote failures can also derail deals if target or acquirer shareholders reject the terms. A prominent example is the 2023 termination of Adobe's $20 billion acquisition of Figma, which was abandoned following opposition from the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the European Commission over antitrust issues in the digital design software market. The FTC's intervention highlighted how regulatory scrutiny in technology sectors can prevent closures, leading to abrupt spread collapses and forcing arbitrageurs to unwind positions at a loss.^[45]^[46] Target-side issues often involve the invocation of material adverse change (MAC) clauses, which allow the acquirer to walk away if significant negative events affect the target's business, such as earnings shortfalls, legal disputes, or operational disruptions. These clauses serve as buyer protections but introduce uncertainty for arbitrageurs, as they can lead to renegotiations or outright deal breaks. Empirical analysis of 1,034 U.S. acquisitions from 1998 to 2005 found that MAC-related events accounted for approximately 47% of deal terminations and 54% of renegotiations, with average price revisions of about 12% (ranging from 13% increases to 15% reductions depending on which party experienced the adverse event). In practice, lawsuits or poor quarterly results can trigger these provisions, widening spreads and eroding the expected arbitrage return.^[47] Hostile dynamics emerge in contested acquisitions, where the target resists the bidder through defensive measures, potentially causing the acquirer to abandon the deal or inviting alternative suitors. Tactics such as poison pills—shareholder rights plans that dilute the bidder's stake—can deter hostile takeovers by making them prohibitively expensive. White knight interventions, where a friendly third party acquires the target to thwart the original bidder, further complicate outcomes. In merger arbitrage, these elements increase uncertainty in hostile bids, as seen in cases where poison pills or board resistance lead to bidder walk-aways, resulting in sharp declines in the target's price below pre-announcement levels.^[48] Empirical studies indicate that deal break rates in merger arbitrage average 10-20% annually during the 2020s, reflecting the inherent uncertainty in announced transactions. Common causes include regulatory hurdles, financing issues, shareholder votes, MAC triggers, or hostile defenses, as identified in analyses of U.S. deals from 2019 to 2024. These rates highlight the asymmetric risk profile, where successful deals yield modest gains but failures can generate outsized losses.^[24]^[39]

Market and Systemic Risks

Risk arbitrage strategies, while designed to be market-neutral, exhibit significant exposure to market beta, particularly during equity market downturns. This correlation arises because declining stock prices increase the probability of deal failures, as acquirers face heightened financing difficulties or regulatory scrutiny. Empirical analysis of mergers from 1963 to 1998 shows that risk arbitrage portfolios maintain a near-zero beta in flat or appreciating markets but experience a beta of approximately 0.50 when the market declines by 4% or more, amplifying losses relative to the broader market. During the 2008 financial crisis, this dynamic was evident as merger spreads widened dramatically to a median annualized level of 14.2%—far exceeding the typical 2.1%—due to forced liquidations by leveraged arbitrageurs facing margin calls and revoked financing commitments.^[4]^[17] Liquidity risks pose another portfolio-wide challenge, especially in volatile periods where small-cap targets become illiquid and prone to sharp price swings. Arbitrage positions often rely on leverage, making them vulnerable to margin calls during spikes in market volatility, as measured by proxies like the VIX index, which can force rapid unwinding of holdings. Studies indicate that systematic liquidity risk, rather than just idiosyncratic deal risk, erodes returns; for instance, the 2007 credit crunch widened speculative spreads and reduced profitability for arbitrageurs by increasing borrowing costs and limiting capital availability. In small-cap deals, where trading volumes are low, this illiquidity can exacerbate losses, as arbitrageurs struggle to exit positions without further depressing target prices.^[49]^[49] Systemic events, such as geopolitical shocks and interest rate hikes, further threaten risk arbitrage by curtailing overall merger and acquisition (M&A) activity. The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine disrupted cross-border deals through sanctions and supply chain interruptions, leading to a sharp decline in global M&A volume—Russia's share of deals fell to 0.4% in the first half of 2022 from 5.6% in 2012—and delaying regulatory approvals for international transactions. Similarly, rising interest rates elevate the cost of debt financing for acquirers, reducing deal initiation and completion rates; for example, higher rates in 2022-2023 contributed to a slowdown in leveraged buyouts, directly impacting arbitrage opportunities. These events create a feedback loop where fewer deals heighten competition for remaining opportunities, compressing spreads and elevating tail risks.^[50]^[51] Crowding effects amplify systemic vulnerabilities when multiple arbitrageurs concentrate in popular deals, leading to correlated position unwinds during stress. Overconcentration in high-profile targets can result in synchronized failures if a systemic shock hits, as seen in the 2021 Archegos Capital Management collapse, where rapid deleveraging triggered fire sales across concentrated equity positions, indirectly pressuring merger-related holdings through broader market contagion. This crowding reduces the strategy's diversification benefits, as independent deal risks become interdependent in crowded trades.^[52]^[53] Diversification challenges in risk arbitrage portfolios intensify during stress periods, as correlations between positions rise, undermining the strategy's low-volatility profile. While portfolios typically limit exposure to 10% per deal to mitigate idiosyncratic risks, market downturns cause intra-portfolio correlations to spike, with value-at-risk (VaR) models revealing elevated tail risks akin to writing uncovered put options on the market index. Historical data from 1963-1998 confirms that such tail events—large losses in severe downturns—persist even in diversified setups, as systematic factors like market beta dominate. Adequate diversification requires careful position sizing, but leverage and crowding can still expose portfolios to undue event risk in turbulent environments.^[4]^[51]

Performance

Historical Returns

Risk arbitrage strategies have historically delivered annualized returns ranging from 5% to 10% over extended periods, characterized by relatively low volatility compared to broader equity markets, with Sharpe ratios typically between 0.5 and 1.0.^[54] For instance, an analysis of 4,750 mergers from 1963 to 1998 found that a risk arbitrage index portfolio, net of transaction costs, generated an annualized compound return of 10.64%, with an annual standard deviation of 7.74% and a Sharpe ratio of 0.57, outperforming the risk-free rate by approximately 4% annually while exhibiting limited correlation to the CRSP value-weighted market index return of 12.24%.^[4] These returns reflect the strategy's focus on capturing spreads in announced deals, adjusted for occasional failures, and highlight its role as a diversifier amid market stress, though performance varies with economic conditions.^[55] Performance has fluctuated across decades, influenced by merger activity levels and macroeconomic factors. In the 1980s, amid the leveraged buyout (LBO) boom and wave of hostile takeovers, risk arbitrage achieved elevated returns exceeding 15% annually, driven by wider spreads and high deal volumes.^[56] The 2000s saw diminished results, including a sharp decline of approximately -20% to -25% in 2008 during the global financial crisis, when deal terminations surged and liquidity constraints amplified losses, contributing to decade lows around -5% in crisis years.^[57] Recovery marked the 2010s, with annualized returns of 7-8% as merger activity rebounded post-crisis, supported by stable economic growth and lower termination rates averaging below 10%.^[58] The 2020s have shown moderation, with returns of 4-6% amid elevated interest rates that narrowed spreads but improved risk premia relative to the risk-free rate, as evidenced by HFRI Event-Driven Index gains of +8.7% in 2024 despite volatility.^[59] Benchmarks such as the HFRI Event-Driven (Total) Index, which includes merger arbitrage as a core component, provide a standardized view of performance, reporting annualized returns of approximately 7.34% from inception in 1990 through recent years, with deal success-adjusted spreads typically closing at 1-2% per month on average.^[60] This index underscores the strategy's consistency, posting positive returns in most years and lower drawdowns than equities during downturns, though it incorporates a mix of event-driven tactics beyond pure merger plays.^[61] Reported figures must account for several influencing factors to avoid overstatement. Management fees under the common 2-and-20 structure (2% annual fee plus 20% of profits) reduce net returns by 2-4% annually, while moderate leverage (often 1.5-2x) amplifies both gains and volatility without proportionally increasing risk-adjusted performance.^[62] Additionally, survivorship bias in hedge fund databases like HFRI can inflate historical averages by 1-2%, as underperforming funds exit reporting, though academic studies mitigate this by including delisted vehicles.^[54] Overall, these elements ensure that observed returns represent realistic, post-cost outcomes for dedicated risk arbitrage portfolios.^[63]

Risk-Return Analysis

In risk arbitrage, the expected return for a position is calculated as the probability of deal success multiplied by the initial spread minus the probability of failure multiplied by the potential loss magnitude, providing a probabilistic assessment of profitability adjusted for completion risk.^[64] This formula, originally articulated by Benjamin Graham, underscores the strategy's reliance on high completion probabilities (typically above 90%) to offset occasional large losses from deal breaks, where spreads average 2-5% but failures can lead to 10-20% declines in target stock prices.^[65] Standard deviation in returns arises primarily from idiosyncratic deal breaks, contributing 4-6% volatility, compounded by a low market beta estimated via the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) at approximately 0.3-0.5, reflecting limited systematic exposure during normal conditions but higher sensitivity (up to 0.5) in downturns.^[66]^[67] Risk-adjusted performance metrics highlight the strategy's appeal for downside protection. The Sharpe ratio, measuring excess return per unit of total volatility, typically ranges from 0.6 to 1.2 for diversified merger arbitrage portfolios, outperforming broader equity benchmarks due to consistent spreads and low correlation to market movements.^[68]^[69] The Sortino ratio, which focuses solely on downside deviation, often exceeds 0.3 and adjusts upward to 0.8-1.0 when emphasizing failure scenarios, as it penalizes only negative volatility from deal terminations rather than benign upside fluctuations.^[70] These ratios demonstrate how risk arbitrage generates stable alpha through disciplined spread capture, though they decline in high-failure environments where tail risks amplify losses. Portfolio optimization in risk arbitrage emphasizes diversification to mitigate idiosyncratic risks, with practitioners typically holding 20-50 concurrent deals across sectors and deal types to reduce single-event exposure to under 5% of assets.^[68] Using CAPM for beta estimation (β ≈ 0.3-0.5), investors allocate based on systematic risk contributions, often pairing long target positions with short acquirer hedges to achieve market neutrality and target annualized volatility below 5%.^[66] Alpha generation stems from selective deal picking, where quantitative models predict completion probabilities with 5-10% accuracy gains over naive benchmarks, enabling outperformance by avoiding high-risk transactions like hostile bids or regulatory-heavy cross-border deals.^[4] Scenario analysis reveals vulnerabilities in stressed markets, with stress tests simulating recessions to quantify drawdowns. During the 2008 financial crisis, merger arbitrage portfolios experienced peak-to-trough declines of 14-20%, driven by cascading deal failures and liquidity squeezes that widened spreads temporarily before compressing returns.^[71] Such analyses inform position limits and hedging overlays, confirming the strategy's ability to preserve capital through diversification while generating 2-4% alpha annually from superior selection in non-crisis periods.^[42] In 2025, advancements in M&A due diligence have streamlined deal processes amid heightened competition, with average spreads narrowing toward 1.5-3%. Robust M&A volumes rose approximately 10% in the U.S. compared to 2024, supporting the strategy's role as a low-beta diversifier, with year-to-date returns for the HFRI Event-Driven: Merger Arbitrage Index at approximately 9.1% through October, bolstered by low termination rates.^[72]^[73]

Examples

Notable Case Studies

One prominent case in risk arbitrage history is the 2000 merger between America Online (AOL) and Time Warner, announced on January 10, 2000, as an all-stock transaction valued at approximately $165 billion, with AOL acquiring Time Warner at a fixed exchange ratio of 1.5 AOL shares per Time Warner share.^[74] Arbitrageurs initially faced a 10% spread, capturing early profits as the deal progressed toward closure on January 11, 2001, amid high market enthusiasm for the internet-media convergence. However, the merger ultimately collapsed in value due to AOL's overvaluation during the dot-com bubble, leading to a $99 billion goodwill write-down in 2002—the largest corporate loss at the time—and an 80% decline in the combined entity's stock price over the following years, resulting in substantial post-closure losses for arbitrageurs who maintained positions beyond the deal's completion.^[75]^[74] In contrast, the 2018 AT&T-Time Warner merger exemplified successful navigation of regulatory hurdles in risk arbitrage. Announced on October 22, 2016, for $107.50 per Time Warner share ($53.75 in cash plus 0.0934 AT&T shares), the deal faced intense antitrust scrutiny from the U.S. Department of Justice, extending the hold period to about 20 months until closure on June 14, 2018. Initial spreads were around 19-20% in early 2018, narrowing to 6.8-8.6% by the trial's resolution, allowing patient arbitrageurs to earn 5-7% returns on the compressed spreads despite prolonged uncertainty; overall, the strategy generated $8.2 billion in one-day profits for the sector upon court approval, highlighting the rewards of enduring litigation delays.^[76]^[77] The 2023 Microsoft-Activision Blizzard acquisition provided another key illustration of prolonged regulatory risk in merger arbitrage. Valued at $68.7 billion and announced on January 18, 2022, as an all-cash deal at $95 per share, the initial post-announcement spread stood at approximately 14% (with Activision shares closing at $81.88), reflecting immediate regulatory concerns from the FTC and others. The hold period stretched to 21 months amid FTC lawsuits and international blocks, causing spreads to widen to over 25% at peaks of doubt before narrowing near zero at closure on October 13, 2023; arbitrageurs who held through the uncertainty achieved 10-23% internal rates of return, depending on entry timing, underscoring the benefits of patience in high-stakes tech deals.^[78]^[79] These cases reveal critical lessons for risk arbitrage practitioners, particularly the profound impact of litigation timing on hold periods and profitability, as seen in the extended delays for AT&T-Time Warner and Microsoft-Activision that tested investor resolve but rewarded completion. Spread dynamics during uncertainty—widening under regulatory pressure and compressing upon positive resolutions—directly influence P&L, with initial opportunities like AOL's 10% spread eroding if broader market forces intervene post-closure. Finally, post-deal integration risks, exemplified by AOL-Time Warner's cultural and valuation mismatches leading to massive write-downs, emphasize the need to assess beyond mere deal completion, as lingering exposures can erode gains even after arbitrage positions unwind.^[74]^[77]^[79]

References

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[PDF] EconWPA - 1 RISK ARBITRAGE-US FINANCIAL MARKETS
Risk Arbitrage otherwise called as merger arbitrage, refers to an investment strategy whereby an attempt is made to profit from what is known as an arbitrage ...
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### Summary of Merger (Risk) Arbitrage Strategy
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A test of risk arbitrage profitability - ScienceDirect
Risk arbitrage is a type of investment strategy that involves placing bets on prospective mergers. This type of trading is considered a conservative investment ...
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Risk arbitrage, also called merger arbi- trage, refers to an investment strategy that attempts to profit from this spread. If the merger is successful, the ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Risk Arbitrage in Takeovers*
Abstract. The paper studies the role of risk arbitrage in takeover contests. We show that arbitrageurs have an incentive to accumulate non-trivial.
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Risk arbitrage focuses on capturing the spreads between the market value of an announced takeover target and the eventual price at which the acquirer will buy ...
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Merger arbitrage, otherwise known as risk arbitrage, is an investment strategy that aims to generate profits from successfully completed mergers and/or.What is Merger Arbitrage? · Merger Arbitrage in Cash...Missing: SEC | Show results with:SEC
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Characteristics of Risk and Return in Risk Arbitrage - Mitchell - 2001
Dec 17, 2002 · This paper analyzes 4,750 mergers from 1963 to 1998 to characterize the risk and return in risk arbitrage. Results indicate that risk arbitrage ...
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Risk Arbitrage: What it is, How it Works, Criticism - Investopedia
Risk arbitrage is a strategy to profit from the narrowing of a gap of the trading price of a target's stock and the acquirer's valuation of the stock.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Merger Arbitrage: An Introduction - SpringerLink
Merger arbitrage is not a new strategy. It was described explicitly in the third edition of Benjamin Graham's classic text, Security Analysis.
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[PDF] Benjamin Graham: The Father of Financial Analysis
Investments were limited to arbitrage operations and to the purchase of securities that appeared to be greatly undervalued. The first trades were the purchase ...
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Merger Arbitrage - Return Stacked® Portfolio Solutions
Aug 16, 2024 · Merger arbitrage, also known as risk arbitrage, is an investment strategy that seeks to profit from the price discrepancies that often occur in the stock ...
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Gerald Tsai, Innovative Investor, Dies at 79 - The New York Times
Jul 11, 2008 · He was not yet 30 when he started Fidelity Investments' first aggressive growth fund in 1958, riding it to great success and a large personal ...
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Revenge of the arbs | Institutional Investor
... leveraged-buyout era of the late 1980s. In 1988, at the height of the craze, merger-arbitrage funds returned 37.2 percent, according to the Hennessee Group ...
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Ivan F. Boesky, Rogue Trader in 1980s Wall Street Scandal, Dies at 87
a $50 million fine and $50 million in ...
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History of the Hedge Fund Industry [Detailed Analysis] [2025]
Origins (1940s-1960s). The origins of the hedge fund industry are deeply rooted in the pioneering efforts of Alfred Winslow Jones in the late 1940s, a period ...Alfred Winslow Jones And The... · Ltcm And The Crisis Of... · D. Maturation And Regulation...
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[PDF] Arbitrage Crashes and the Speed of Capital
May 17, 2010 · The most comparable empirical research to this paper is recent work by Mitchell, Pedersen, and Pulvino (2007) who study merger arbitrage ...
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The economic consequences of hedge fund regulation: An analysis ...
Jan 2, 2024 · Dodd-Frank is one of the most significant pieces of legislation ever affecting the financial sector and the hedge fund industry in particular.
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[PDF] 2020 was a transformative year for the SPAC market
Jan 14, 2021 · In years past, hedge funds and other big institutional traders would buy shares with warrants in a SPAC IPO as a safe arbitrage play. The hedge ...
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Antitrust & Competition Technology Update Q2 2025 - Goodwin
Oct 20, 2025 · Q2 2025 saw major deals, AI acquihires, and bold antitrust moves reshaping tech enforcement in the US and EU. Read more.
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[PDF] An Introduction to Merger Arbitrage
Merger arbitrage is an investment strategy profiting from the difference between a target company's stock price and the offer price in pending mergers.
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[PDF] Merger Arbitrage - The Pennsylvania State University
Dec 14, 2023 · Merger arbitrage is an investment strategy that profits from price convergences resulting from corporate events, specifically mergers and ...
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[PDF] MERGER ARBITRAGE FUNDS: OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS IN ...
The process has several steps. First, identify the companies involved in the merger or acquisition. Second, analyze the terms of the transaction, including the ...
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[PDF] Influencing Control: Jawboning in Risk Arbitrage
from the same SEC filings. (4) The ... 16In our sample, 54 of the 210 disclosures by activist arbitrageurs are not through Schedule 13D filings.
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[PDF] Devices for Doubt: Models and Reflexivity in Merger Arbitrage
The news had landed on the Bloomberg terminals of the traders at 5.58 pm on the previous day, with the market already closed. The arbitrageurs confronted the ...
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[PDF] The Rise of Activist Arbitrage - Columbia Business School
Activist M&A arbitrage is a new phenomenon that is effectively stopping value- destroying acquisitions. Activist arbitrageurs advocate for modifications.
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Timeline: A History of Insider Trading - The New York Times
Dec 6, 2016 · Mr. Boesky was a specialist in risk arbitrage, where stocks are bought in anticipation of a takeover, a merger or change in corporate ownership.
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Activist Arbitrage in M&A Acquirers
Apr 6, 2018 · On average, activist arbitrageurs earn a risk-adjusted return that is 6.0 percentage points higher than the matched sample in the post-deal ...
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Merger Arbitrage - Overview, How It Works, Role in Mergers
Mar 21, 2025 · The history of merger arbitrage can be traced back to the early 20th century when a few pioneering investors began to recognize the potential ...
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Time for a Merger Arbitrage ETF? - ETF News And Commentary
Jul 5, 2012 · Credit Suisse Merger Arbitrage Liquid ETN ( CSMA ) was debuted in October 2010 and tracks the Credit Suisse Merger Arbitrage Liquid Index.
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ProShares Files for Merger-Arbitrage and Private Equity ETFs
Apr 6, 2012 · ProShares Merger Arbitrage: This ETF will provide exposure to a merger arbitrage strategy by capturing the spread, if any, between the price at ...
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[PDF] HSR Annual Report for FY24 - Federal Trade Commission
Jul 1, 2025 · 2015 through 2024. The statistics show that the number of transactions reported in fiscal year 2024 increased from fiscal year 2023, while ...
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[PDF] Annual Report to Congress for CY 2024 - CFIUS - Treasury.gov
FOREWORD. The Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS or the Committee) Annual Report to. Congress (the Report) responds to the ...
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Merger Arbitrage Strategy & Return Calculator 2025 | InsideArbitrage
Over a twelve year period from 2010 to 2021, 95% of all announced mergers and acquisitions ended up closing successfully. This included the period coming out of ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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Interest Rates and their Effect on Mergers and Acquisitions
Dec 6, 2024 · The rise in interest rates hurt buyers because it made the cost of capital more expensive, making investments riskier. This increased risk ...
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M&A Market Update: The Impact of Interest Rates | Koley Jessen
May 12, 2023 · High interest rates increase the risk of borrowers defaulting on their obligations; therefore, lender scrutiny and diligence increases. This ...
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Market Returns and Interim Risk in Mergers | Management Science
Feb 14, 2022 · The contrast between average premiums and average completion rates for cash versus stock deals is striking and is plausibly driven at least in ...Missing: success | Show results with:success
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Significant decrease in success rates for public mergers and ...
Apr 13, 2021 · As one would expect, friendly transactions were much more likely to succeed than hostile takeovers (81% vs 44%). The failed competing bids ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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A note on takeover success prediction - ScienceDirect.com
We find that target resistance, arbitrage spread, deal structure and transaction size are the dominating factors in predicting takeover success. The second ...
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[PDF] Merger Options and Risk Arbitrage
For example, when deal risk is not priced, the risk-neutral probability of deal success is counterfactually equal to the objective probability.
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Merger arbitrage short selling and price pressure - ScienceDirect
We show that the majority of the negative announcement returns can be attributed to price pressure induced by merger arbitrage short selling.
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Risks in Merger Arbitrage- Navigating Deal Failure, Regulatory ...
Apr 4, 2025 · 1. Deal Failure Risk · 2. Regulatory Risk · 3. Financing Risk · 4. Shareholder and Activist Investor Risk · 5. Market and Economic Risk.
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Antitrust AAG Kanter Statement After Adobe and Figma Abandon ...
Dec 18, 2023 · Antitrust AAG Kanter Statement After Adobe and Figma Abandon Merger. Monday, December 18, 2023. For Immediate Release. Office of Public Affairs.
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Adobe and Figma Mutually Agree to Terminate Merger Agreement
Adobe (Nasdaq:ADBE) and Figma announced that they have entered into a mutual agreement to terminate their previously announced merger agreement.
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[PDF] Material Adverse Change Clauses and Acquisition Dynamics
First, we analyze arbitrage spreads - i.e., the difference between the price offered to target shareholders and the current market price of the target's shares.
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Merger Arbitrage - Wiley Online Library
The merger arbitrage strategy seeks to seize the opportunities arising from extraordinary corporate events, such as mergers and acquisitions (M&A) or ...
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The Profitability of Risk Arbitrage in Mergers and Acquisitions
### Summary of Systematic Risks in Risk Arbitrage
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Impact of the Russia-Ukraine conflict on M&A activity
Aug 12, 2022 · The global market share of Russia's M&A deals declined to 0.4% in 1H 2022 from a high of 5.6% in 2012. 2012 was a record-breaking year, ...
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[PDF] Merger (Risk) Arbitrage Strategy
Merger arbitrage, or risk arbitrage as it is sometimes referred, is a strategy that attempts to capture a spread between the price at which a company (target) ...Missing: SEC | Show results with:SEC
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Event hedge fund primer: alpha from corporate catalysts - Aurum
Merger arbitrage funds specialise in capitalising on the price differential between the current market price of a target company's shares and the agreed-upon ...
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Key points of Credit Suisse Archegos post-mortem - Reuters
Jul 29, 2021 · Credit Suisse (CSGN.S) released a review on Thursday into what led the bank to lose $5.5 billion in its dealings with investment fund Archegos.
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Characteristics of Risk and Return in Risk Arbitrage
May 30, 2001 · This paper uses a sample of 4,750 stock swap mergers, cash mergers, and cash tender offers during 1963 - 1998 to characterize the risk and ...
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Characteristics of Risk and Return in Risk Arbitrage
In this paper, we provide estimates of the returns to risk arbitrage investments, and we also describe the risks associated with these returns.
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The Takeover Wave of the 1980s - jstor
1980s was to a large extent a response to the disappointment with conglomerates. As did all merger waves, the 1980s saw rising stock prices and rising ...
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HFRI GAINS ACCELERATE IN JUNE TO CONCLUDE HISTORIC ...
Jul 8, 2025 · Led by directional Equity Hedge and Event Driven strategies, hedge funds posted their strongest monthly gain since December 2023 in June to conclude 1H25.
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Beyond Mergers: A Diversified Approach to Event-Driven Investment
Oct 22, 2025 · Performance data for the HFRI Event Driven Index reflects the cumulative since inception performance from January 1990 through April 2025.
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HEDGE FUNDS DECLINE IN OCTOBER, STRATEGY ... - HFR
Nov 7, 2024 · ... HFRI Event-Driven (Total) Index fell -0.35 percent. ED sub-strategy declines were led by the HFRI ED: Activist Index, which fell -2.6 ...Missing: annualized | Show results with:annualized
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you must accept these terms of use to view hfr indices data
HFR DatabaseFrom multibillion dollar hedge fund firms to emerging managers, HFR brings you performance and qualitative data on over 5,700 investment products ...HFR Index Subscriptions · HFRI Institutional · HFRI 500 · HFRI 400
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Merger Arbitrage Investing: When Deals Fall Through
Feb 16, 2023 · Why we believe a recent failed acquisition is a reminder to think twice about systematic approaches to merger arbitrage.
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HFR Hedge Fund Industry Reports Materials List
HFRI Event-Driven (Total) Index Constituents Risk Return Comparison 12-Month ... HFR Indices Annual Investment Returns – 2015 – YTD Q2 2025. Index ...
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[PDF] The Shrinking Merger Arbitrage Spread: Reasons and Implications
The merger arbitrage spread has declined by more than 400 bps since 2002. This decline, which is both economically and statistically significant, ...Missing: recovery | Show results with:recovery
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Trading The Odds With Arbitrage - Investopedia
May 25, 2022 · Retail investors who engage in risk arbitrage can use Benjamin Graham's risk-arbitrage formula to determine their optimal risk/reward ratio.Concepts of Arbitrage · Market Makers and Arbitrage · Retail Traders and Arbitrage
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Benjamin Graham's Risk-Arbitrage Equation - GrahamValue
Graham's Risk-Arbitrage Equation is from an Appendix to the 1951 edition of his earlier book, Security Analysis. Classic Graham Screener Free!Missing: history | Show results with:history
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Facts, Fiction, and Merger Arbitrage - - Alpha Architect
Apr 28, 2016 · However, in down markets, the market beta for a merger arbitrage portfolio increases to 0.50! In other words, merger arb portfolios grind a ...Missing: 2008 | Show results with:2008
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[PDF] Merger Arbitrage in the American Stock Market - CBS Research Portal
May 15, 2018 · As time passes, and the probability that the outcome of the M&A process is successful increases, the size of the arbitrage spread will decrease ...
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Merger Arbitrage as Diversification Strategy - Alpha Architect
Apr 14, 2023 · Mark Mitchell and Todd Pulvino, authors of the 2001 study “Characteristics of Risk and Return in Risk Arbitrage,” found that “arbitrage returns ...
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How the Pandemic Has Reshaped Merger Arbitrage Opportunities
Aug 17, 2021 · Merger arbitrage strategies have provided consistent returns over both the short and long term. Of the 40 HFRI1 strategies, merger arbitrage has ...Missing: 1990-2020 | Show results with:1990-2020<|separator|>
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The performance of hedge fund indices - ScienceDirect
The global macro index leads the bunch with a Sortino ratio of 0.412 and the merger/risk arbitrage index joins the top three with a Sortino ratio of 0.326.
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Notes from the Desk: Merger Arb Volatility Continues
Mar 18, 2020 · During the 2008 global financial crisis, the Arbitrage Fund's (ARBNX) worst drawdown was -14.42%, reaching its lowest point on 10/9/2008, based ...
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Hedge Fund Strategy Outlook: Fourth quarter 2025
Oct 13, 2025 · Higher dispersion due to artificial intelligence (AI) trends ... merger arbitrage, where generally low implied deal spreads have offset strong ...
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Merger Arbitrage 2025 Performance - LPL Financial
Oct 15, 2025 · Through the end of September, the HFRI Event Driven: Merger Arbitrage Index has gained 8.2%, its best three-quarter start to a year since 2021.
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M&A outlook: stronger US deal market in 2026 despite mixed ... - EY
Oct 28, 2025 · Our M&A outlook predicts US deal volumes over $100m to grow 9% in 2025 and 3% in 2026. We predict corporate M&A deals will rise 10% in 2025 and ...Missing: arbitrage | Show results with:arbitrage
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Famous Mergers And Acquisitions: The Arbitrage Angle
AOL-Time Warner's $164B merger in 2000 is also the biggest merger failure in M&A history. Aiming to fuse internet and media, it lost $99B by 2003 due to the dot ...
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AOL Time Warner Reports $100 Billion Loss | CFO.com
Jan 30, 2003 · AOL's $100 billion loss, which is roughly equal to the gross domestic product of Hungary, breaks the record set by JDS Uniphase's $56 billion ...
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What You Need to Know About the Time Warner and AT&T Merger
Jan 20, 2018 · An acquisition at this price would result in a roughly 19-20% premium since, as of Thanksgiving weekend, Time Warner was trading between $89 and ...
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Risk Arbitrage Trader Profits Rise Most in Months on AT&T Deal
Jun 13, 2018 · Profit from arbitrage trading is up $8.2 billion as of midday · AT&T-Time Warner deal sent ripples across telecom, media firms.Missing: merger
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Microsoft-Activision deal gives merger speculators a new darling
Jan 20, 2022 · Microsoft and Activision gave themselves until June 2023 to complete the transaction, giving hedge funds months to handicap how regulators will ...Missing: initial P&L
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Top Merger Stocks Held By Fund Managers, Mid-Q3 2023
Aug 24, 2023 · Top 10 Merger Arb Stocks Held By Funds. 1) Horizon Therapeutics, Held by 28 funds, 34% IRR. 2) Activision Blizzard, Held by 21 funds, 23% IRR. 3 ...