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Rock cycle

The rock cycle is a continuous natural process that describes the transformation of the three primary rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—into one another over geological time scales, driven by Earth's internal heat, tectonic forces, and surface environmental interactions.^[1] Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava deep within the Earth or at the surface, such as granite or basalt.^[2] Sedimentary rocks develop from the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediments derived from weathered pre-existing rocks, often in layers like limestone or sandstone.^[1] Metamorphic rocks arise when existing rocks are altered by intense heat, pressure, or chemically active fluids without fully melting, resulting in structures like foliation in gneiss or marble.^[2] These transformations occur through interconnected processes that link Earth's interior dynamics with surface conditions. Weathering and erosion break down exposed rocks into sediments, which are transported and deposited to form sedimentary layers, while burial and tectonic uplift subject rocks to heat and pressure for metamorphism.^[1] Melting of any rock type into magma initiates the igneous pathway, often facilitated by subduction or mantle upwelling.^[2] The cycle is not linear but cyclical, allowing rocks to follow varied paths—such as sedimentary rocks melting into igneous, then metamorphosing, and eventually eroding back to sediments—reflecting the dynamic recycling of Earth's crust.^[3] Plate tectonics plays a central role by driving the movement of lithospheric plates, which recycles oceanic crust through subduction zones and generates new crust at divergent boundaries, thereby influencing the rates and locations of rock formation and transformation.^[2] This interplay between internal (e.g., convection and volcanism) and external (e.g., solar-driven weathering) forces ensures the rock cycle's continuity, preserving Earth's crustal balance and recording its geological history in rock compositions and textures.^[1] Human activities, such as mining and deforestation, can accelerate erosion rates by factors of 10 to 100, potentially disrupting local aspects of the cycle.^[1]

Fundamentals of Rocks

Definition and Overview

The rock cycle is the natural process by which rocks are created, altered, destroyed, and reformed as they transform among the three principal types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—through a series of geological interactions driven by Earth's internal heat and surface processes.^[1]^[4] These transformations occur over geological time scales, typically spanning millions of years, allowing rocks to cycle continuously without a definitive beginning or end./03%3A_Rocks_and_the_Rock_Cycle/3.03%3A_The_Rock_Cycle) The conceptual foundation of the rock cycle emerged in the 18th century through the work of Scottish geologist James Hutton, who emphasized uniformitarianism—the principle that the same natural laws and processes operating today have shaped Earth's geology throughout its history.^[5] Hutton's observations of rock formations in Scotland led him to propose that Earth materials are perpetually recycled through cycles of erosion, deposition, uplift, and metamorphism, challenging earlier views of a static or catastrophically formed planet./01%3A_Introduction_to_Oceanography/1.38%3A_Uniformitarianism) This idea underscored the dynamic nature of Earth's geology, integrating slow, ongoing processes over vast periods to explain the planet's layered rock record.^[5] The rock cycle is fundamental to understanding how Earth's internal forces, such as mantle convection and magmatism, interact with external forces like weathering and erosion to maintain a balance in crustal composition and structure.^[6] It plays a critical role in the formation of natural resources, including minerals concentrated through igneous and metamorphic processes, as well as fossil fuels preserved in sedimentary layers.^[7] By illustrating these interconnected transformations, the rock cycle provides insights into planetary evolution, revealing how Earth's surface and interior have co-evolved over billions of years to support diverse geological features and life-sustaining environments.^[6] A basic representation of the rock cycle is a simplified cyclic diagram depicting the three rock types arranged in a loop, with directional arrows indicating transitions—such as melting from metamorphic or sedimentary rocks to igneous, weathering from igneous to sedimentary, and heat/pressure from sedimentary or igneous to metamorphic—highlighting the perpetual nature of these changes.^[8]

The Three Principal Rock Types

Igneous rocks originate from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava. They are classified into two main categories based on the location and rate of cooling: intrusive (plutonic) rocks, which form when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth's surface over thousands to millions of years, resulting in coarse-grained textures known as phaneritic, and extrusive (volcanic) rocks, which form when lava cools rapidly at or near the surface, producing fine-grained aphanitic or glassy textures. Representative examples include granite for intrusive rocks, characterized by large visible crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica, and basalt for extrusive rocks, which often exhibit a dense, dark appearance due to minerals like plagioclase and pyroxene.^[9] Sedimentary rocks form through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediments derived from the weathering of pre-existing rocks, minerals, or organic materials, typically in layers on the Earth's surface. They are subdivided into clastic rocks, composed of fragments of older rocks (e.g., sandstone from sand-sized particles of quartz and feldspar); chemical rocks, resulting from the precipitation of minerals from water solutions (e.g., limestone from calcium carbonate); and biogenic or organic rocks, formed from the remains of once-living organisms (e.g., coal from compressed plant matter in ancient swamps). A key feature of sedimentary rocks is their stratification, or bedding, which records environmental changes over time through distinct horizontal layers called strata.^[10]^[11] Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks under intense heat, pressure, or chemically active fluids, without reaching the point of melting. They are categorized as foliated, where minerals align into bands or planes due to directed pressure (e.g., slate derived from shale, showing fine cleavage, or gneiss with pronounced banding of light and dark minerals), or non-foliated, lacking such alignment and often forming from rocks with equidimensional grains (e.g., marble recrystallized from limestone, composed primarily of calcite). The degree of metamorphism, or metamorphic grade, is indicated by index minerals that form under specific temperature and pressure conditions, such as chlorite in low-grade rocks (around 200–320°C) or garnet and staurolite in higher-grade settings, helping geologists map zones of increasing intensity.^[12]^[13] These three rock types are interconnected within the rock cycle, where any can serve as the parent material for the formation of the others through various geological processes.^[14]

Transformative Processes

Weathering, Erosion, and Transport

Weathering is the in situ breakdown of rocks at or near Earth's surface, transforming solid bedrock into smaller particles without involving their relocation. This process occurs through physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms, each influenced by factors such as climate, rock composition, topography, and duration of exposure. Physical weathering involves the mechanical disintegration of rocks without altering their chemical structure, while chemical weathering entails reactions that change mineral compositions, and biological weathering incorporates the actions of living organisms. These processes collectively produce loose, unconsolidated material known as regolith, which serves as the precursor to sediments in the rock cycle.^[15] Physical weathering, also termed mechanical weathering, breaks rocks into fragments via physical forces like temperature fluctuations, pressure release, and freeze-thaw cycles. For instance, frost action occurs when water seeps into cracks and expands upon freezing, widening fractures in cold climates; exfoliation involves the peeling of outer layers from rock masses due to reduced confining pressure, as seen in granite domes. Other examples include thermal expansion from daily heating and cooling in deserts and abrasion by wind-blown particles. Factors accelerating physical weathering include jointed or fractured rock structures, steep slopes that promote unloading, and climates with extreme temperature variations or high moisture levels.^[15]^[16] Chemical weathering decomposes rocks through reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other atmospheric or aqueous agents, often producing secondary minerals like clays. Key processes include hydrolysis, where minerals react with water to form new compounds (e.g., feldspar converting to kaolinite); oxidation, which rusts iron-bearing minerals like olivine into hematite; and dissolution, dissolving carbonates in acidic rainwater. Biological influences can enhance these by supplying organic acids. Influencing factors encompass rock mineralogy—silicate-rich rocks weather faster than quartz—warm, humid climates that increase reaction rates, and exposure time, with rates generally doubling for every 10°C temperature rise.^[15]^[17] Biological weathering, or organic weathering, results from the activities of plants, animals, microbes, and fungi that physically or chemically degrade rocks. Plant roots exert wedging forces as they grow into fissures, expanding cracks in bedrock; lichens and mosses secrete acids that dissolve mineral surfaces, initiating chemical breakdown. Burrowing animals like earthworms further fragment soil and regolith. This type is prominent in vegetated areas and synergizes with physical and chemical processes, with factors including biotic density, soil moisture, and nutrient availability in temperate to tropical environments.^[18] Erosion follows weathering by removing and transporting the loosened material via natural agents, shaping landscapes and redistributing regolith. Agents include gravity, which initiates downslope movement; water, through rainfall splash and stream flow; wind, via abrasion and suspension; and ice, from glacial advance. Examples encompass river incision, where flowing water cuts valleys by scouring beds; glacial plucking, in which ice freezes to rock faces and tears blocks away; and aeolian abrasion, where wind-driven sand polishes and pits exposed surfaces like ventifacts. Erosion intensity depends on agent energy, sediment supply, and surface slope, with high-relief areas experiencing more rapid material removal.^[16]^[19] Transport mechanisms relocate eroded sediments across Earth's surface, sorting them by size, shape, and density during movement. In fluvial systems, rivers carry suspended loads and bedload via traction or saltation, depositing coarser gravel first in high-energy channels and finer silts downstream; this size-based sorting forms graded beds. Wind transports fine particles as dust or sand, building dunes through avalanching on leeward slopes. Glaciers move unsorted debris as till, bulldozing rocks in basal layers or carrying supraglacial loads. Ocean currents and waves shift coastal sands along shorelines via longshore drift. Settling velocity governs deposition: larger, denser grains (e.g., pebbles) settle rapidly in low-velocity waters like lakes, while finer clays remain suspended until quiet conditions prevail.^[20]^[21] The combined effects of weathering, erosion, and transport yield regolith and variably sorted sediments, paving the way for sedimentary rock formation upon eventual deposition. Weathering and erosion rates typically range from 0.01 to 10 mm per year, varying by environment—faster in humid, tectonically active regions (up to several mm/year) and slower in arid or stable settings (fractions of a mm/year). These processes dominate surface modification, with global denudation rates averaging approximately 0.2 mm/year but locally exceeding 1 mm/year in mountainous terrains.^[22]

Deposition, Compaction, and Lithification

Deposition marks the initial stage in the formation of sedimentary rocks, where sediments—derived from the weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks—settle out of transport mediums such as water, wind, or ice in various environments. Terrestrial depositional settings include alluvial fans, formed at the base of mountains where steep gradients cause rapid settling of coarse, angular gravels and sands, and deltas, where rivers deposit layered sands, silts, and clays as flow velocity decreases upon entering standing water. Marine environments encompass continental shelves, characterized by shallow, wave-agitated waters that promote the deposition of well-sorted sands and silts, and deep ocean basins, where fine clays and siliceous oozes accumulate slowly in low-energy conditions on abyssal plains.^[23]^[24] During deposition, grains undergo sorting based on size, shape, and density as they settle; coarser particles settle first in high-energy settings like alluvial fans, leading to poor sorting, while finer particles dominate in low-energy deep marine areas, resulting in better sorting overall. Rounding of grains increases with prolonged transport and settling, as abrasion smooths angular edges—evident in well-rounded beach sands on continental shelves versus angular debris in proximal alluvial fans. These processes reflect the energy regime of the depositional environment, with higher energy promoting greater sorting and rounding.^[23]^[24] Following deposition, compaction occurs as accumulating sediment layers bury underlying material, expelling water and air from pore spaces under the weight of overburden, thereby reducing sediment volume by 40-80%. This mechanical process primarily affects unconsolidated sediments with initial porosities around 70%, compressing clays and causing diagenetic alterations such as the dehydration of clay minerals, which further decreases pore volume. In shales and sandstones, compaction dominates porosity reduction in shallow burial depths up to several kilometers, transitioning to chemical diagenesis at greater depths.^[23]^[25] Lithification completes the transformation into solid rock through cementation and recrystallization, where dissolved minerals precipitate from groundwater into remaining pore spaces, binding grains together. Common cements include silica (quartz overgrowths) and calcite (calcium carbonate), which fill interstices and reduce porosity to less than 10%; for instance, quartz sandstone forms when silica cements rounded quartz grains from fluvial or beach deposits. Recrystallization involves the reorganization of minerals, such as the conversion of unstable aragonite to stable calcite in limestones, enhancing rock cohesion. These diagenetic processes, including compaction and lithification, typically unfold over millions of years under increasing burial depth and temperature.^[23]^[25]

Melting, Magma Formation, and Crystallization

Partial melting occurs when rocks in the Earth's mantle or crust are subjected to conditions that cause only a portion of the material to melt, typically due to an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or the addition of volatiles such as water or carbon dioxide, which lower the melting point without altering temperature or pressure significantly.^[26]^[27] This process generates magma, a molten rock mixture rich in silicates, and is common in the upper mantle where peridotite partially melts to produce basaltic magma.^[28] Magma composition varies based on the source rock and degree of melting, resulting in distinct types: basaltic (mafic, 45-55% SiO₂, low viscosity due to high iron and magnesium content), andesitic (intermediate, 55-65% SiO₂, moderate viscosity), and rhyolitic (felsic, >65% SiO₂, high viscosity from abundant silica).^[29]^[30] Viscosity and dissolved gas content influence eruption behavior; low-viscosity basaltic magma flows easily and produces effusive eruptions, while high-viscosity rhyolitic magma traps gases, leading to explosive events.^[31] As magma cools, minerals crystallize in a specific sequence outlined by Bowen's reaction series, which describes the order based on temperature stability: mafic minerals like olivine and calcium-rich plagioclase form first at high temperatures (>1200°C), followed by pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotite, with felsic minerals such as quartz and potassium feldspar crystallizing last at lower temperatures (<800°C).^[32]^[33] Cooling rates dictate igneous rock texture: slow cooling in plutonic environments, such as deep crustal intrusions, allows for coarse-grained phaneritic textures as crystals grow large over time, whereas rapid cooling at the surface produces fine-grained aphanitic or glassy textures.^[27]^[34] Fractional crystallization further modifies magma composition as early-formed crystals settle or separate, enriching the remaining melt in silica and incompatible elements, which can generate diverse rock types from a single parent magma.^[35] Magma formation predominantly occurs at mid-ocean ridges through decompression melting, hotspots via mantle plumes, and subduction zones where volatiles flux melting of the overlying mantle wedge.^[36]^[37]

Heat, Pressure, and Metamorphism

Metamorphism transforms existing rocks into metamorphic types through solid-state changes driven by heat, pressure, and fluid activity, without reaching melting temperatures. Heat primarily arises from burial under sedimentary layers or proximity to igneous intrusions, increasing rock temperature along a geothermal gradient of approximately 25–30°C per kilometer of depth. Confining pressure, or lithostatic pressure, results from the weight of overlying materials during deep burial, typically reaching 3,000–10,000 bars in the Earth's crust, while directed pressure from tectonic forces causes deformation and mineral reorientation. These agents, often acting together, induce recrystallization and mineral growth, preserving the protolith's chemical identity to a large extent.^[13]^[38] Textural changes during metamorphism include recrystallization, which enlarges and reshapes mineral grains for greater stability under new conditions, and the development of foliation from the alignment of platy or elongate minerals under directed stress. For instance, differential pressure aligns micas into schistosity, a coarse foliation visible in schist rocks, while non-foliated textures like those in quartzite form from quartz sandstone through equigranular recrystallization without strong deformation. Foliation types progress from fine cleavage in slate to banded gneissic layering at higher intensities.^[13]^[38]^[39] Chemical alterations occur mainly through metasomatism, where hot fluids infiltrate the rock and introduce or remove elements, modifying the mineral composition beyond simple recrystallization. Index minerals serve as indicators of metamorphic grade; chlorite appears in low-grade assemblages around 200–320°C, while sillimanite forms in high-grade conditions exceeding 600°C, reflecting progressive dehydration and phase changes. Metamorphic grades are classified as low (e.g., slate from shale, with minimal grain growth), medium (e.g., schist, featuring visible minerals like garnet), and high (e.g., gneiss, with partial melting approaching but not achieving igneous conditions).^[13]^[38]^[39] Metamorphic facies represent specific mineral assemblages stable under defined pressure-temperature conditions, such as greenschist facies at 300–500°C and low to moderate pressures, producing chlorite and epidote in hydrated rocks, or amphibolite facies at higher temperatures above 500°C, yielding hornblende and plagioclase in more anhydrous settings. Contact metamorphism occurs locally around igneous bodies, generating non-foliated hornfels at high temperatures but low pressures, whereas regional metamorphism affects vast areas during orogenic events, producing foliated rocks across a range of grades due to combined burial and tectonic stresses.^[39]^[38]^[13]

Specific Transitions

From Igneous to Sedimentary or Metamorphic

Igneous rocks transition to sedimentary rocks primarily through exposure at the Earth's surface following tectonic uplift, which brings them into contact with weathering agents. Once uplifted and exposed, these rocks undergo physical and chemical weathering, breaking down into fragments and soluble ions that are transported as sediments. For instance, granite, a common intrusive igneous rock composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica, weathers such that its quartz grains remain intact while feldspar hydrolyzes into clay minerals.^[40]^[41] These quartz-rich sediments can accumulate and eventually lithify into quartz arenite, a mature sandstone dominated by well-rounded quartz grains.^[41] In contrast, the pathway from igneous to metamorphic rocks involves burial beneath overlying sediments or thrust faulting, subjecting the rock to elevated temperatures and pressures without reaching melting points. This process recrystallizes minerals and develops foliation or other textures, altering the original igneous fabric. For example, mafic igneous rocks like basalt, rich in plagioclase and pyroxene, transform into greenschist under low- to medium-grade conditions (typically 300–500°C and 2–10 kbar pressure), featuring green minerals such as chlorite, actinolite, and epidote.^[42]^[43] No partial melting occurs, distinguishing metamorphism from igneous processes.^[12] The specific path an igneous rock follows—toward sedimentary or metamorphic—is influenced by its depth of exposure and the prevailing tectonic setting. Shallow uplift promotes surface weathering and erosion, favoring sedimentary formation, while deeper burial in convergent settings drives metamorphism. Additionally, the mineral composition affects resistance: durable quartz in felsic igneous rocks like granite persists through weathering to contribute to sands, whereas more reactive feldspar and mafic minerals break down rapidly, releasing ions that may precipitate elsewhere or form clays.^[44]^[45] Representative examples illustrate these transitions. On volcanic islands, such as those in Hawaii, extrusive igneous rocks like basalt erode rapidly due to steep topography and high rainfall, producing clastic sediments that deposit in surrounding reefs and form biogenic sedimentary rocks like limestone.^[46] In orogenic belts, intrusive igneous rocks like gabbro may be buried deeply during continental collision, metamorphosing into amphibolite or higher-grade equivalents without surface exposure.^[39]

From Sedimentary to Igneous or Metamorphic

Sedimentary rocks, characterized by their layered structure and often high porosity, are particularly susceptible to transformation when subjected to increasing depth and tectonic forces. Through burial or tectonic compression, these rocks undergo metamorphism, where heat and directed pressure cause recrystallization without melting, leading to denser structures with new mineral alignments. For instance, shale, a common sedimentary rock, progresses through low-grade metamorphism to form slate under relatively low temperatures (around 200–320°C) and pressures, preserving fine foliation from aligned clay minerals.^[12]^[13] Further burial elevates conditions, transforming slate into phyllite, where mica crystals impart a satiny sheen, as seen in the metamorphism of mudstone or shale along convergent plate boundaries.^[47] In higher grades, continued compression yields schist and gneiss, with migmatite forming at extreme depths through partial melting, blurring the line with igneous processes.^[48] This vulnerability stems partly from sedimentary rocks' porosity, typically ranging from 10% to 30%, which permits fluid infiltration that aids mineral reactions during metamorphism. Fluids, often hot and mineral-rich, percolate through interconnected pore spaces, accelerating recrystallization and altering compositions. Limestone, for example, recrystallizes into marble under these conditions, with calcite grains growing larger and losing original sedimentary textures. Fossils in low-grade metamorphics like slate may remain discernible, though flattened by pressure, but in high-grade forms such as gneiss or migmatite, they become distorted or obliterated due to intense atomic rearrangement.^[49]^[12]^[13] A direct transition from sedimentary to igneous rocks is rare and typically indirect, often involving prior metamorphism before full melting. Deep tectonic burial, such as in subduction zones, can drive partial melting of metasediments, contributing to magma generation; for example, subducted sediments incorporate 5–25% into mantle sources, influencing arc magmas' isotopic signatures like elevated δ¹⁸O in zircons. In the eastern Gangdese arc of southern Tibet, tectonic underthrusting of Late Carboniferous sedimentary rocks led to high-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism and melting at ~850°C and 15 kbar, producing granitic melts that reworked juvenile crust during Neo-Tethys subduction.^[50]^[51]^[48] Regional examples illustrate these processes vividly, as in the Appalachian Mountains, where Paleozoic sedimentary rocks were metamorphosed during the Alleghanian Orogeny from continental collision. Shales and sandstones transformed into slates, phyllites, and quartzites, with thrusting over 160 km westward intensifying alteration near collision zones, such as in Vermont's Green Mountains and Maryland's Catoctin region. These changes highlight sedimentary layers' response to compressive burial, contrasting with denser precursors in other cycles.^[52]

From Metamorphic to Igneous or Sedimentary

Metamorphic rocks, having undergone intense heat and pressure deep within the Earth's crust, can transition back to sedimentary rocks through processes of uplift and exhumation that bring them to the surface, where they become exposed to weathering and erosion. This exposure allows physical and chemical weathering to break down the rocks into sediments, which are then transported and deposited to form new sedimentary layers. For instance, schist, a foliated metamorphic rock rich in mica minerals such as biotite and muscovite, weathers chemically to produce clay minerals like vermiculite, smectite, and kaolinite through hydrolysis reactions that alter the silicate structures.^[53] In mountainous regions, this process is accelerated by rapid erosion, as seen in the Himalayas where gneiss and schist from the High Himalayan Crystalline sequence contribute significantly to the clay-rich sediments of the Ganges River system.^[54] The transition from metamorphic to igneous rocks occurs primarily through anatexis, or partial melting, triggered by extreme temperatures in the lower crust, often exceeding 700–800°C, which causes select minerals to melt while leaving a solid residue. This partial melting is particularly common during continental collisions, where thickened crust leads to elevated heat flow and decompression melting of metamorphic rocks like gneiss, producing magma that can ascend and crystallize into granitic intrusions. For example, in the Himalayan orogen, partial melting of granite gneiss during crustal thickening generates peraluminous granitic melts, recycling the metamorphic material into new igneous rocks.^[55] Such processes are well-documented in orogenic belts, where the melts form leucogranites that intrude the surrounding crust.^[56] Foliation in metamorphic rocks, characterized by aligned mineral layers, influences their resilience to surface processes by facilitating physical breakdown along cleavage planes, thereby increasing susceptibility to weathering compared to non-foliated rocks. While this structure can initially enhance mechanical stability, it promotes water infiltration and frost wedging, leading to more rapid disintegration into finer particles. In the case of schist and gneiss, these planes not only aid splitting but also expose reactive minerals to chemical alteration, hastening the production of sediments.^[57] Uplift driven by plate tectonics plays a key role in this exhumation, linking deeper crustal dynamics to surface recycling.^[58] These transitions illustrate the closure of the rock cycle, positioning metamorphic rocks as key intermediates that are "recycled" through melting or surficial breakdown, ensuring the continuous transformation among rock types over geological timescales. By returning to either igneous or sedimentary forms, metamorphic rocks demonstrate the dynamic interplay of endogenic and exogenic forces in maintaining Earth's crustal balance.^[1]

Driving Mechanisms

Plate Tectonics and Internal Earth Dynamics

The rock cycle is fundamentally propelled by internal Earth dynamics, particularly through mantle convection, which transfers heat from the planet's interior to the surface. This convection arises from two primary heat sources: residual heat from Earth's formation and ongoing radioactive decay of isotopes such as uranium-238, thorium-232, and potassium-40 within the mantle and core.^[59]^[60] These thermal gradients create buoyancy-driven upwellings of hot mantle material and compensatory downwellings via subduction of cooler lithospheric plates, forming a cyclical flow that sustains the asthenosphere's partial melting and overall tectonic activity.^[61] The asthenosphere, a ductile layer beneath the rigid lithosphere, exhibits plasticity due to elevated temperatures and the presence of volatiles or partial melts, allowing tectonic plates to move at rates typically ranging from less than 1 to over 15 centimeters per year.^[62]^[63] Plate boundaries serve as critical interfaces where these internal dynamics manifest in specific rock cycle transitions. At divergent boundaries, such as mid-ocean ridges, rifting thins the lithosphere, facilitating upwelling of asthenospheric mantle that partially melts to produce basaltic magma, which erupts to form new oceanic crust and perpetuates igneous rock formation.^[64]^[65] In contrast, convergent boundaries involve subduction of oceanic plates, where descending sediments and crust dehydrate and partially melt, generating andesitic magmas that rise to form volcanic arcs, while continental collisions induce regional metamorphism through intense pressure and heat, transforming existing rocks into metamorphic varieties.^[66]^[67] Transform faults, where plates slide laterally, produce grinding and shearing that leads to cataclastic metamorphism in localized shear zones, fracturing and recrystallizing rocks without widespread melting.^[68] Additional internal mechanisms further integrate these processes into the rock cycle. Isostasy maintains gravitational equilibrium in the lithosphere, causing crustal rebound after erosion removes overlying mass, as mantle material flows beneath to uplift the crust and expose deeper rocks to surface conditions.^[69] Hotspots, fixed regions of mantle upwelling independent of plate boundaries, drive intraplate volcanism, as exemplified by the Hawaiian Islands chain, where basaltic melts from deep plumes pierce the overriding plate, recycling subducted crustal components and contributing to localized igneous additions.^[70] Over geological timescales, these dynamics operate within supercontinent cycles, periodic assemblies and breakups of continental masses like Pangaea, which began fragmenting around 200 million years ago. Such cycles alter global subduction lengths and divergent activity, thereby modulating rates of rock production; for instance, supercontinent breakup enhances seafloor spreading and mantle cooling, increasing oceanic crust generation while reducing continental metamorphic volumes.^[71]^[72]

Hydrologic Cycle and Surface Processes

The hydrologic cycle plays a pivotal role in the rock cycle by driving surface processes that break down, transport, and chemically alter rocks, facilitating the transition from igneous and metamorphic rocks to sedimentary ones. Precipitation, a key component of this cycle, supplies water that interacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), which accelerates chemical weathering.^[53] This acid reacts with minerals such as feldspars in granitic rocks, hydrolyzing them into secondary minerals like kaolinite clay, soluble ions, and silica, thereby weakening rock structures and promoting erosion.^[73] In regions with high rainfall, these reactions occur more rapidly due to increased water availability and contact time with rock surfaces.^[74] Hydrothermal activity, another water-mediated process, involves the circulation of hot, mineral-rich fluids through the Earth's crust, leading to significant rock alteration. At mid-ocean ridges, seawater penetrates fractured oceanic basalt, heats up, and reacts to form greenstone through the addition of chlorite and epidote, altering the original mafic minerals.^[75] These fluids also deposit vein minerals such as quartz, calcite, and sulfides in fractures, creating economically important ore deposits while recycling elements back into the rock cycle.^[76] Surface waters further modulate the rock cycle by enhancing mechanical and chemical erosion. Rivers and glaciers transport weathered materials, accelerating breakdown in areas of high topographic relief, where flowing water abrades bedrock and carries sediments to depositional basins.^[77] In marine environments, ocean chemistry influences precipitation of evaporites; as seawater evaporates in restricted basins, minerals like halite and gypsum crystallize out, forming chemical sedimentary rocks that record past climatic conditions.^[23] Globally, water influences the rock cycle by lowering the melting points of rocks through flux melting, where volatiles like H₂O reduce the temperature required for partial melting in the mantle and crust, contributing to magma generation.^[78] Additionally, the presence of water enhances the overall speed of the rock cycle in humid regions compared to arid ones, as increased precipitation and soil moisture promote faster weathering and sediment transport rates.^[79]

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Sediment transport is the movement of particles by water, while sediment deposition is when particles settle out of the water, often when flow slows.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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Sediment - National Geographic Education
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[22]
Weathering Rate - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Rates of chemical denudation measured in alpine Colorado and Scandinavia are ~ 0.2–5 mm per 1,000years (higher in carbonates than crystalline rocks), similar to ...
[23]
Sedimentary Rocks - Tulane University
Apr 28, 2018 · Each environment has its own energy regime and sediment delivery, transport and depositional conditions that are reflected in the sediment ...
[24]
38. 6.3 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins
Table 6.3 provides a summary of the processes and sediment types that pertain to the various depositional environments illustrated in Figure 6.17.
[25]
[PDF] Porosity and Bulk Density of Sedimentary Rocks
Total porosity measures all void space, while apparent porosity measures interconnected void space communicating with the surface of the test specimen.
[26]
4.1 Molten Materials – Dynamic Planet - Maricopa Open Digital Press
The addition of the volatiles does not change the pressure or temperature of the rock, but it does lower a property called the melting point. The decrease in ...
[27]
Magmas and Igneous Rocks - Tulane University
Sep 3, 2015 · If the raised geothermal gradient becomes higher than the initial melting temperature at any pressure, then a partial melt will form.Missing: cycle | Show results with:cycle
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Experimental evidence supports mantle partial melting in the ...
May 20, 2016 · Our data provide new experimental evidence under relevant pressure and temperature conditions of the LVZ, supporting the partial melt hypothesis ...
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Volcanoes, Magma, and Volcanic Eruptions - Tulane University
Sep 14, 2015 · Types of magma are determined by chemical composition of the magma. Three general types are recognized: Basaltic magma -- SiO2 45-55 wt%, high ...
[30]
Magma Melts and Eruption Types - Grand Canyon-Parashant ...
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[31]
Physicochemical Controls on Eruption Style - How Volcanoes Work
As a general rule, therefore, nonexplosive eruptions are typical of basaltic-to-andesitic magmas which have low viscosities and low gas contents, whereas ...
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4.2: Bowen's Reaction Series - Geosciences LibreTexts
Aug 25, 2025 · 1 : Olivine, the first mineral to crystallize in a melt. Bowen's Reaction Series describes the temperature at which minerals crystallize ...
[33]
3.3 Crystallization of Magma – Physical Geology - BC Open Textbooks
The sequence in which minerals crystallize from a magma is known as the Bowen reaction series (Figure 3.10 and Who was Bowen). Of the common silicate minerals, ...
[34]
7. 4.2 Crystallization of Magma - Maricopa Open Digital Press
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LEGO® Magma Crystallization Activity - SERC (Carleton)
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Types of Metamorphism
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[40]
Rock resistance to weathering - The Physical Environment
Both quartz and feldspar are hard minerals, but feldspar is less stable under ... The feldspar readily weathers to become clay in humid conditions. The ...
[41]
5 Weathering, Erosion, and Sedimentary Rocks - OpenGeology
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[42]
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Greenschist
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[45]
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The rock cycle shows that both igneous and sedimentary rocks can become metamorphic rocks. ... Burial metamorphism occurs when rocks are buried at depths ...
[46]
From volcanoes to sedimentary systems - Lyell Collection
The carbonate component of these sediments is derived from erosion of island shelves, and is one of the ways through which carbonate factories and volcanic ...
[47]
Phyllite | Geology 1501 | ECU
Phyllite. Type, Metamorphic Rock. Texture ... Shale or Mudstone. Metamorphic Environment, Low grade regional metamorphism along a convergent plate boundary ...
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shale, slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, migmatite, granite
Barrovian metamorphism produces a sequence of metamorphic rocks that goes through slate, and then through phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
[49]
14.1 Groundwater and Aquifers – Physical Geology – 2nd Edition
Sedimentary rocks generally have porosities in the range of 10% to 30%, some of which may be secondary (fracture) porosity. The grain size, sorting, compaction, ...
[50]
Tectonic burial of sedimentary rocks drives the building of juvenile ...
Mar 17, 2022 · We propose that tectonic burial of sedimentary rocks is a key mechanism driving the building and reworking of juvenile crust of magmatic arcs ...
[51]
Reworking subducted sediments in arc magmas and the isotopic ...
Oct 1, 2022 · Sediment subduction alters the isotopic composition of source arc magmas during a major continent-forming magmatic event. Abstract. Since the ...
[52]
Rocks of the Appalachians and Piedmont - Earth@Home
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[53]
Weathering & Clay Minerals - Tulane University
Nov 18, 2014 · Clay minerals are an important group of minerals because they are among the most common products of chemical weathering.
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The Influence of Weathering, Water Sources, and Hydrological ...
The headwaters of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers drain metamorphic rocks (high-grade schist, gneiss, quartzite, and carbonate rocks), felsic intrusives, and ...
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Participation of the Granite Gneiss in the Crustal Anatexis of the ...
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Melting of Crustal Rocks During Continental Collision and Subduction
This chapter discusses the nature of the melts and solid residues likely to be formed in response to continental collision.Melting Of Crustal Rocks... · Chapter Pdf · Similar Content Being Viewed...
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Weathering Processes and Mechanisms of Low‐Grade ...
Feb 22, 2023 · These processes may cause the rock to lose both its mechanical and physical qualities and fracture along its foliations.Introduction · Materials and Methods · Results · Discuss
[58]
Miocene to Holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal wedges in ...
Feb 6, 2004 · Active exhumation of deep crustal rocks along the Sutlej Valley is spatially correlated with the high erosional potential of this major trans-Himalayan river.
[59]
Some unanswered questions [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]
Jul 11, 2025 · Convection cannot take place without a source of heat. Heat within the Earth comes from two main sources: radioactive decay and residual heat.Missing: core | Show results with:core
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3.3 Earth's Interior Heat – Physical Geology – H5P Edition
The main source of the radiation heating Earth is the decay of the radioactive isotopes uranium-235 (235U), uranium-238 (238U), potassium-40 (40K), and thorium ...
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[PDF] The generation of plate tectonics from mantle convection
At a few hundred kilometers depth beneath the lithosphere, mantle heat loss is primarily due to the downward injection of cold material by sub- ducting slabs ( ...
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Sep 15, 2020 · A weak asthenosphere caused by volatiles or melt could enable plate tectonic style convection, allow multiple scales of convection, and ...
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Plate Tectonics in a Nutshell
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Understanding plate motions [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]
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[65]
2 Plate Tectonics – An Introduction to Geology - OpenGeology
At divergent boundaries, sometimes called constructive boundaries, lithospheric plates move away from each other. There are two types of divergent boundaries, ...
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Oceanic/Continental: The Andes - The Geological Society
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7.3 Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism – Physical Geology
Magma is produced at convergent boundaries and rises toward the surface, where it can form magma bodies in the upper part of the crust. Such magma bodies, at ...Missing: andesite | Show results with:andesite
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Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks
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9.4 Isostasy – Physical Geology - BC Open Textbooks
When that weight is removed by erosion over tens of millions of years, the crust rebounds and the mantle rock flows back (Figure 9.17, right). The crust and ...Missing: crustal | Show results with:crustal
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[PDF] Recycling of oceanic crust and the origin of intraplate volcanism
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New directions in Wilson Cycle concepts - GeoScienceWorld
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Breakup of supercontinent Pangea cooled mantle and thinned crust
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2.3 - Types of Weathering - Chemical
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Weathering, Erosion, and Sedimentary Rocks – Introduction to Earth ...
Chemical weathering includes carbonic acid and hydrolysis, dissolution, and oxidation. Erosion is a mechanical process, usually driven by water, wind, gravity, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] A New Insight Into Seawater-Basalt Exchange Reactions Based on ...
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[PDF] Geol. 656 Isotope Geochemistry - Department of Earth and ...
STABLE ISOTOPES IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS. Ridge Crest Hydrothermal Activity and Metamorphism of the Oceanic Crust. Early studies of “greenstones” dredged from ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Chapter 10 - Sedimentary Rocks - GotBooks.MiraCosta.edu
Sediments can become lithified into sedimentary rocks once they've been deposited in a stable setting where burial, compaction, and cementation can take place.
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3.2 Magma and Magma Formation – Physical Geology
If a rock is close to its melting point and some water (a flux that promotes melting) is added to the rock, the melting temperature is reduced (solid line ...
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Chapter 9 - Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting
The chemical breakdown of rocks is most rapid where warm and humid climatic conditions persist. Mechanical weathering processes dominate in cold settings where ...