Sapote

Sapote is a term derived from the Nahuatl word tzapotl, meaning "soft" or referring to various soft, sweet, and edible fruits, and it is commonly applied to several unrelated species of evergreen tropical trees and their distinctive fruits native primarily to Mexico and Central America.^[1] These fruits are prized for their creamy, custard-like textures and flavors ranging from sweet and peachy to chocolate-like, depending on the variety, and have been cultivated for centuries in their native regions and beyond for culinary, ornamental, and traditional medicinal uses.^[2] The principal types of sapote include the white sapote (Casimiroa edulis), a member of the Rutaceae family (related to citrus) native to central Mexico, featuring green-skinned fruits with pale yellow flesh tasting of banana and peach; the mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota), from the Sapotaceae family and originating in southern Mexico through Central America, known for its large, reddish-brown fruits with salmon-pink, sweet flesh; the black sapote (Diospyros nigra), in the Ebenaceae family (related to persimmons) and native to Mexico and Central America, producing green-skinned fruits whose flesh turns dark brown and resembles chocolate pudding when ripe; and the yellow sapote (also called canistel, Pouteria campechiana), another Sapotaceae species from southern Mexico and Central America, with yellow-orange fruits boasting firm, egg yolk-like flesh that is sweet and apricot-flavored.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] While these sapotes share the common name due to their soft, pulpy qualities, they belong to distinct botanical lineages and vary in size, ripening behavior, and cultivation requirements, contributing to their popularity in subtropical agriculture worldwide.^[7]

Etymology and nomenclature

Origin of the name

The term "sapote" originates from the Nahuatl word tzapotl, used by the Aztecs to denote a soft, edible fruit and applied broadly to various pulpy, sweet fruits native to Mesoamerica.^[2] This linguistic root reflects the fruit's characteristic texture, as documented in 16th-century Nahuatl-Spanish dictionaries like that of Alonso de Molina, who translated tzapotl as "cierta fruita conocida," or a locally known type of fruit.^[8] The name entered European records through Spanish colonizers in the early 16th century during the conquest of Mexico.^[8] In Spanish usage, the term evolved to zapote, retaining its Nahuatl form with phonetic adaptation, and was later anglicized to "sapote" as the fruit gained recognition in English-speaking regions through colonial trade and botanical exchanges.^[8]

Common names and variations

The term "sapote" derives from the Nahuatl word "tzapotl," which broadly referred to soft, sweet fruits, leading to numerous linguistic variations across regions. In Spanish-speaking areas, it is commonly spelled "zapote," encompassing several fruit species and contributing to naming overlaps.^[9] For Manilkara zapota, known as sapodilla in English, regional names include "chico zapote" or "chicozapote" in Mexico and "zapotillo" in Central America, reflecting its smaller fruit size relative to other zapotes. These names highlight the fruit's association with chicle gum production in traditional contexts.^[10]^[9] Pouteria sapota, often called mamey sapote in English, goes by "mamey" or "mamey colorado" in Spanish, with "sapote" or "zapote" as general synonyms; in some areas, it is distinguished as "sapote grande" to differentiate it from the sapodilla.^[4]^[9] In English usage, "sapote" frequently refers specifically to the mamey sapote, causing confusion with other species; for instance, Casimiroa edulis is termed "white sapote" to clarify its pale pulp and distinct Rutaceae family affiliation, while Spanish names like "zapote blanco" emphasize this contrast.^[3]^[7]

Taxonomy

Species in Sapotaceae

The Sapotaceae family, placed in the order Ericales, comprises approximately 65–70 genera and around 1,250 species of mostly tropical trees and shrubs characterized by their production of milky latex, simple alternate leaves, and flowers with united petals forming a tube.^[11] These plants are predominantly found in tropical regions worldwide, with many species exhibiting evergreen foliage and hard wood used in various applications.^[12] Within this family, several species are commonly referred to as sapotes due to their soft, edible fruits, though the term derives from the Nahuatl word for soft fruits.^[13] The sapodilla, scientifically known as Manilkara zapota, is a prominent species in the genus Manilkara, recognized for its evergreen habit and slow growth to heights of 40 to 60 feet with a dense, pyramidal to rounded canopy.^[14] It produces milky latex from all parts, which historically served as a source for chicle gum, and its fruits are oval to round with rough, brown skin enclosing sweet, granular flesh surrounding 1 to 6 hard, black seeds that contribute a gritty texture when eaten.^[14] Native to southern Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, this species thrives in subtropical to tropical climates and is distinguished taxonomically by its leathery leaves clustered at branch tips and small, white flowers in axillary clusters.^[15] Mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota) belongs to the large genus Pouteria and grows as a large, erect evergreen tree reaching up to 60 feet tall with a thick trunk and spreading branches forming an open canopy.^[4] Its fruits are ellipsoid to round, up to 8 inches long, with thick, reddish-brown, leathery skin and orange to reddish, creamy flesh that is sweet and aromatic, typically containing a single large, shiny brown seed.^[4] Taxonomically, it features elliptic to obovate leaves up to 12 inches long, spirally arranged, and inconspicuous greenish-white flowers borne in clusters on older branches, with the species native to Central America and southern Mexico.^[16] Yellow sapote, or canistel (Pouteria campechiana), is another Pouteria species forming a smaller evergreen tree, typically 25 to 30 feet high, though it can exceed 60 feet in optimal conditions, with a compact crown and yellowish-brown bark.^[6] The fruits are yellow to orange-skinned, spindle- to heart-shaped, and 2 to 4 inches long, containing sweet, yellow, fibrous pulp that resembles the texture of a boiled egg yolk, with 1 to 6 smooth, brown seeds.^[6] Key identifiers include its alternate, glossy green leaves up to 8 inches long and small, tubular flowers in short racemes, with the species originating from southern Mexico and Central America.^[17] Green sapote (Pouteria viridis) is a less common Pouteria species, resembling mamey sapote in form as an evergreen tree growing to about 40 feet tall with dense, dark green foliage and a straight trunk.^[18] Its fruits are oval, 3 to 6 inches long, with thin, green to brownish skin and soft, orange, custard-like flesh that is sweeter and less fibrous than mamey sapote, enclosing 1 to 2 large seeds.^[18] Botanically, it is marked by obovate leaves 4 to 8 inches long and axillary flower clusters, native to Central America where it inhabits tropical forests up to 2,100 meters elevation.^[19]

Species in other families

The term "sapote" extends beyond the Sapotaceae family to describe certain soft-fleshed fruits from unrelated plant groups, reflecting a common Nahuatl origin for denoting edible, pulpy produce.^[20]^[21] Black sapote refers to Diospyros nigra, a species in the Ebenaceae family and a close relative of persimmons (Diospyros genus).^[22]^[23] This evergreen tree produces tomato-shaped fruits, typically 5–10 cm in diameter, with green skin that turns brownish-black when ripe and contains dark green to black, custard-like pulp surrounding several seeds.^[5] White sapote is the fruit of Casimiroa edulis, belonging to the Rutaceae family alongside citrus species.^[7]^[3] Native to Central America, this evergreen tree yields round to oval green fruits, 5–10 cm across, featuring thin edible skin and creamy, custard-like white flesh with 3–6 large seeds.^[24]^[25] Cultivars such as 'Suebelle' are noted for their sweet flavor and vigorous growth.^[7] South American sapote, or chupa-chupa, comes from Quararibea cordata (synonym Matisia cordata) in the Malvaceae family, formerly classified under Bombacaceae.^[26]^[27] This fast-growing, semi-deciduous tree, reaching up to 30 m tall, bears large, ellipsoid fruits up to 15 cm long with thick, brown, velvety skin and sweet, white to yellowish pulp that evokes a chocolate-like texture in some descriptions, though it contains numerous seeds.^[28]^[29] These species earned the "sapote" designation due to convergent evolution in fruit characteristics—namely, their soft, sweet, and easily scoopable pulp—despite distinct genetic lineages unrelated to the Sapotaceae, the primary family associated with the term's origin.^[21]^[20]

Botanical description

Tree characteristics

Sapote trees, encompassing species from the Sapotaceae family such as Manilkara zapota (sapodilla) and Pouteria sapota (mamey sapote), as well as others like Diospyros nigra (black sapote) from the Ebenaceae and Casimiroa edulis (white sapote) from the Rutaceae, are generally evergreen or semi-evergreen, exhibiting slow to moderate growth habits. These trees typically attain heights of 10 to 30 meters, with trunk diameters up to 1.5 meters in mature specimens, forming pyramidal to rounded or spreading canopies that provide substantial shade.^[13]^[4]^[5]^[3] The leaves are alternate, leathery, and glossy, often elliptic to obovate in shape and clustered toward branch tips, measuring 5 to 30 centimeters in length depending on the species; for instance, sapodilla leaves are oblong and 8 to 12 centimeters long, while mamey sapote leaves can reach 30 centimeters.^[13]^[4] The bark of sapote trees in the Sapotaceae is rough, furrowed, and dark brown to gray, exuding a milky white latex when cut, a characteristic feature of the family. This latex, particularly abundant in Manilkara zapota, has been historically harvested for chicle, the natural gum base used in chewing gum production until synthetic alternatives emerged in the mid-20th century.^[13]^[30] Non-Sapotaceae species like black sapote have blackish, fissured bark without notable latex production.^[5] Flowering occurs in small, inconspicuous clusters along branches or in leaf axils, with greenish-white to yellowish blooms typically 0.5 to 1 centimeter wide. Reproduction varies by species: many Sapotaceae members, such as sapodilla and mamey sapote, bear hermaphroditic flowers that are self-fertile, while black sapote is often dioecious or polygamous, requiring cross-pollination for fruit set in some cases.^[31]^[4]^[5] Sapote trees demonstrate notable environmental adaptations, including wind resistance and extensive root systems that enhance stability in tropical regions. Species like sapodilla exhibit drought tolerance once established, thriving in well-drained sandy or loamy soils with pH 6.0 to 8.0, though they perform poorly in waterlogged conditions; similar preferences hold for mamey and black sapote, which favor humid tropics but tolerate occasional dry spells.^[32]^[13]^[4]

Fruit morphology

Sapote fruits, encompassing several species referred to by this common name, are typically berry-like structures in the Sapotaceae family, though some belong to other families and exhibit drupe-like characteristics. They generally range from 5 to 20 cm in diameter, with a rind varying from thin and smooth to thick and woody. The exterior rind often changes color as the fruit matures, serving as a key ripeness indicator alongside softening of the flesh.^[4]^[3] The pulp is characteristically creamy to fibrous in texture, surrounding 1 to 6 large seeds that are often glossy and brown. In Sapotaceae species, the seeds frequently feature small hooks or spines adapted for animal dispersal, embedded within a central cavity. Ripeness is marked by distinct color shifts in the pulp and rind—such as from green to brown in mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota), where the thick, russet-brown rind conceals salmon-pink to reddish-brown flesh that softens over days post-harvest—or from green to yellow in white sapote (Casimiroa edulis), with its thin, golden-yellow peel over smooth, off-white pulp.^[4]^[3]^[14] Variations among sapote types highlight diverse morphologies. Black sapote (Diospyros nigra) produces oblate to globose fruits up to 15 cm across, with a dull green rind and pudding-like, dark brown to black pulp that achieves a soft, custard consistency upon ripening. In contrast, yellow sapote or canistel (Pouteria campechiana) yields spindle- to obovate-shaped fruits, 8–13 cm long, featuring a thin, waxy orange rind and firm, mealy to creamy yellow flesh that remains relatively dry even when ripe. Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), another Sapotaceae member, forms round to oval berries 5–10 cm in size, with scurfy brown skin enclosing juicy, granular yellow-brown pulp and multiple hooked seeds.^[5]^[6]^[14]

Distribution and cultivation

Native and wild distribution

Sapote species, encompassing several genera within and outside the Sapotaceae family, are primarily native to the tropical regions of Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, where they occupy diverse ecological niches in wild habitats.^[4] Within the Sapotaceae, Manilkara zapota, commonly known as sapodilla or chico sapote, originates from southern Mexico, including the Yucatán Peninsula, extending through Belize and Guatemala into parts of Central America up to Costa Rica.^[30]^[33] Similarly, Pouteria sapota, or mamey sapote, is indigenous to southeastern Mexico and Central America, with its range reaching southward to Costa Rica and into northern South America, including Venezuela.^[34]^[35] The yellow sapote (also called canistel, Pouteria campechiana) is native to southern Mexico, including the Yucatán Peninsula, and Central America through El Salvador and Panama, thriving in tropical lowlands and dry forests below 800 meters.^[6] These species thrive in tropical lowlands and rainforests, often at elevations below 1,000 meters, where they form part of the canopy in humid, evergreen forests.^[13] Species referred to as sapote but belonging to other families exhibit more restricted native distributions. The white sapote (Casimiroa edulis, Rutaceae) is native to the highlands of central Mexico, with extensions into Central America, favoring subtropical and tropical dry forests at elevations typically ranging from 800 to 2,000 meters.^[3] The black sapote (Diospyros nigra, Ebenaceae), meanwhile, originates from southwestern Mexico through Central America, reaching as far south as Colombia in northern South America, and inhabits lowland tropical rainforests and semi-evergreen forests up to about 1,000 meters.^[36]^[37] Across these habitats, sapote trees demonstrate adaptations such as evergreen foliage and deep root systems suited to seasonal rainfall variations in tropical environments.^[5]

Commercial cultivation practices

Commercial cultivation of sapote primarily focuses on species such as sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota), white sapote (Casimiroa edulis), and black sapote (Diospyros nigra), with sapodilla and mamey sapote being among the most extensively grown for market purposes globally. Propagation methods emphasize vegetative techniques to ensure uniformity and reduce the long juvenile period inherent to these trees. Sapodilla is typically propagated by seeds, which remain viable for several months, though veneer grafting is used for superior varieties to ensure uniformity.^[14] For mamey sapote, grafting—such as veneer or cleft methods—is the standard practice for commercial plantations, using seedling rootstocks to produce trees that fruit in 3–5 years, compared to 7 or more years from seed.^[4] Seeds are occasionally used for rootstocks or wild varieties but lose viability within 7–14 days and do not produce true-to-type offspring.^[4] Similarly, white sapote is propagated by budding or grafting onto seedling rootstocks during warm seasons, while black sapote relies on budding, grafting, or air-layering to select superior varieties, as seedlings take 5–6 years to bear fruit and vary genetically.^[3]^[5] Sapote trees thrive in tropical and subtropical climates with temperatures ranging from 20–30°C and require well-drained soils such as sandy loams or limestone-based types to prevent root rot.^[38] Mamey sapote demands full sun exposure and even rainfall distribution, with irrigation essential during dry periods at rates of 1–2 inches per week to support establishment.^[4] White and black sapotes tolerate a broader range, including high-pH soils and occasional dry spells, but all species avoid waterlogged conditions and benefit from mulching to retain moisture.^[3]^[5] Planting occurs in holes 3–4 times the container size, with spacing of 20–30 feet between trees to allow for mature canopies reaching 40–60 feet.^[4]^[5] Global cultivation expanded from native Central American ranges in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with introductions to Florida (USA), Hawaii, Australia, and Southeast Asia.^[38] In Florida, particularly Miami-Dade County, mamey sapote dominates commercial production, accounting for over 95% of U.S. output on well-drained limestone soils.^[38] Australian cultivation, mainly in Queensland, includes mamey and green sapote (Pouteria viridis) in subtropical regions, while Southeast Asian countries like the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vietnam grow mamey sapote in lowland humid tropics for local markets.^[38] Hawaii supports small-scale plantings of all major sapote types, adapted to volcanic soils with irrigation.^[4] Key challenges in commercial cultivation include the extended juvenile phase of 5–8 years for many varieties, necessitating grafted stock to accelerate productivity, and susceptibility to pests such as fruit flies, scales, and borers.^[4] Mamey sapote faces additional issues like anthracnose disease and cold sensitivity below 32°F, limiting expansion to frost-free zones, while white and black sapotes contend with self-incompatibility requiring cross-pollination and occasional scab infections.^[38]^[3]^[5]

Culinary and other uses

Edible applications

Sapote fruits are typically consumed when fully ripe, with the soft pulp scooped out from the skin using a spoon for direct eating or further preparation. The pulp's custard-like texture makes it ideal for fresh consumption in fruit salads or as a simple snack. For optimal ripeness, fruits are allowed to mature at room temperature until the skin yields to gentle pressure, a process that can take several days post-harvest depending on the variety.^[5] In culinary applications, sapote pulp is versatile and often blended into beverages and desserts. Mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota) is commonly pureed and incorporated into milkshakes, smoothies, or ice cream, where its sweet, apricot-like flavor enhances creamy bases; it can also substitute for pumpkin in pies or be used in icebox cakes. Black sapote (Diospyros nigra), known for its chocolate-like taste, serves as a natural mousse or pudding base when whipped with sugar and cream, and is added to cakes, pies, or milkshakes for a pudding fruit effect. Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) pulp is eaten fresh or processed into marmalade.^[39]^[5] Storage practices emphasize post-ripening preservation to maintain quality. Once ripe, sapote fruits can be refrigerated for up to one week, though black sapote holds particularly well for several days in the fridge after softening. Unripe fruits should not be refrigerated, as cold temperatures hinder ripening; instead, they are stored at room temperature away from direct sunlight. Freezing the scooped pulp extends usability for recipes like shakes or baked goods.^[5] Varietal differences influence preparation methods. White sapote (Casimiroa edulis) is best in chilled desserts like ice cream due to its banana-pineapple notes and soft texture when ripe. Yellow sapote, or canistel (Pouteria campechiana), is baked into pies or used in custards for its egg yolk-like firmness, though overripe pulp suits smoothies. Green sapote (Pouteria viridis) appears in fresh salads for its pear-pumpkin profile or is roasted like its seeds for added nutty depth.^[40]^[41]

Traditional and medicinal uses

Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) latex, known as chicle, has been harvested traditionally by Indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica for centuries, serving as a natural chewing gum to clean teeth and suppress hunger. The ancient Maya and Aztecs boiled and molded the sap into gum-like balls, a practice that persisted into the 20th century when it formed the base of commercial chewing gums like those produced by the Wrigley Company until synthetic alternatives largely replaced it.^[32]^[42] In traditional Mayan medicine, decoctions of sapodilla bark and leaves have been used to treat diarrhea and dysentery due to their astringent properties, reflecting the plant's role in addressing common gastrointestinal ailments in the region. Similarly, white sapote (Casimiroa edulis) seeds have been employed in Mexican folk medicine as sedatives and tranquilizers, with their narcotic alkaloids, such as casimiroine, contributing to effects that promote sleep and relieve anxiety or insomnia when prepared as teas or extracts.^[43]^[44]^[45] For mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota), leaves are brewed into teas in Costa Rican traditional practices to manage hypertension and arteriosclerosis, purportedly aiding blood pressure regulation, though scientific validation remains limited. Beyond medicinal applications, sapodilla wood, prized for its durability and reddish hue, has been utilized in tool handles, furniture, and construction elements like railway ties, showcasing its practical value in Indigenous craftsmanship.^[46]^[45]^[32] In Aztec culture, white sapote fruits held symbolic importance, associated with deities like Xochipilli, where they evoked themes of sensuality and fertility in rituals tied to pleasure and renewal. Leaves of various sapote species, including black sapote (Diospyros nigra), have also served as animal fodder in tropical agroforestry systems, providing nutritional browse for livestock.^[47]^[48]

Nutritional profile

Macronutrients and calories

Sapote fruits exhibit variation in macronutrient profiles across species, generally providing moderate caloric energy primarily from carbohydrates, with low fat and protein content, and high water levels typical of fresh fruits. The following table summarizes key macronutrients and caloric values per 100 g of raw edible portion for representative sapote types, based on established analyses:

Nutrient	Mamey Sapote (Pouteria sapota)	Black Sapote (Diospyros nigra)	White Sapote (Casimiroa edulis)	Yellow Sapote (Pouteria campechiana)
Calories (kcal)	124	134	78	139
Water (g)	64.9	79.5–83.1	78.3	67
Protein (g)	1.45	0.62–0.69	1.14	1.7
Total Fat (g)	0.46	0.01	0.03	0.1
Carbohydrates (g)	32.1	12.9–15.1	20.6	37
Dietary Fiber (g)	5.4	~3 (pulp)	0.9	10

Mamey sapote stands out with higher carbohydrate and caloric density, contributing 15–25 g of carbohydrates per 100 g mostly as sugars and fiber, making it a more energy-dense option among sapotes. In contrast, black sapote features moderate fiber levels, supporting its role as a source of dietary fiber despite lower overall carbohydrates. White sapote aligns with the lower end of the caloric range (80–150 kcal per 100 g across species), with its composition emphasizing hydration from 70–85% water content and minimal protein (1–2 g per 100 g) or fat (0.5–1 g per 100 g). These profiles position sapotes as low-fat, hydrating fruits suitable for energy provision in tropical diets.^[49]^[50]

Vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds

Sapote fruits, encompassing species such as mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota), black sapote (Diospyros nigra), white sapote (Casimiroa edulis), and yellow sapote (Pouteria campechiana), exhibit notable micronutrient profiles that vary by species and maturation stage. Ripeness influences nutrient levels, with ascorbic acid content often peaking during full ripeness due to reduced enzymatic degradation.^[51]^[52] Among vitamins, mamey sapote stands out for its ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content, providing approximately 23 mg per 100 g of raw fruit, which supports immune function and acts as an antioxidant.^[51] Black sapote offers approximately 192 mg of vitamin C per 100 g, alongside vitamin E, contributing to oxidative stress mitigation.^[5] White sapote is enriched with B-complex vitamins, including thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), and niacin (B3), which play roles in energy metabolism.^[53] Yellow sapote contains significant vitamin A precursors, primarily beta-carotene, derived from its carotenoid profile, aiding vision and cellular protection.^[54] Key minerals in sapote fruits include potassium, present at 454 mg per 100 g in mamey sapote, supporting cardiovascular health and electrolyte balance.^[51] Black sapote provides potassium, while white sapote seeds and pulp contribute calcium (up to 37.86 mg per 100 g in fruit) and iron (3.35 mg per 100 g), essential for bone integrity and oxygen transport.^[55]^[56] Mamey sapote also supplies iron at 0.78 mg per 100 g and calcium at 18 mg per 100 g.^[51] Bioactive compounds in sapote fruits include antioxidants such as phenolic compounds in black sapote, exemplified by caffeic acid, which exhibit free radical-scavenging properties.^[57] The Sapotaceae family, to which several sapote species belong, contains triterpenoid saponins with demonstrated anti-inflammatory potential through modulation of inflammatory pathways.^[58] Additionally, latex-derived compounds in mamey sapote contribute to its antioxidant capacity, with carotenoids like sapotexanthin showing provitamin A activity and potential anti-inflammatory effects in preclinical models.^[59] These phytochemicals underscore the fruits' role in dietary antioxidant intake, though levels fluctuate with ripeness and environmental factors.^[60]