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Saury

Saury refers to any of the five species of small, elongated marine fish in the family Scomberesocidae, characterized by their slender bodies, beak-like jaws, and series of finlets behind the dorsal and anal fins.^[1] These epipelagic fishes lack a swim bladder, have small scales and teeth, and reach a maximum length of about 46 cm.^[1] The family includes two genera: Scomberesox (with three species: S. saurus, S. scombroides, and S. simulans) and Cololabis (with two species: C. saira and C. adoceta).^[1] Sauries inhabit tropical and temperate marine waters worldwide, often in brackish environments near the surface, where they form schools and migrate seasonally.^[1] They are active, nonguarding oviparous spawners, with eggs typically attached to floating objects via filaments, and their diet consists primarily of zooplankton, small crustaceans, fish eggs, and larvae.^[1]^[2] Predators include larger pelagic fish like tunas, as well as marine mammals and squid, making sauries an important link in oceanic food webs.^[3] The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira), the most widespread and commercially significant species, is distributed across the North Pacific Ocean from subtropical waters off Mexico to subarctic regions near the Gulf of Alaska and Japan.^[2] This highly migratory, pelagic-oceanic fish prefers surface waters between 0 and 230 m deep, thriving in temperatures of 5–18°C and often associating with drifting seaweed during juvenile stages.^[2]^[3] Adults, reaching up to 40 cm in standard length and weighing 180 g, exhibit dark green to blue dorsal coloration with silvery sides and bright blue blotches, a forked caudal fin, and small truncate pectorals.^[2] They live 2–4 years, maturing at 25–28 cm, and are known to glide above the water surface to evade predators.^[2]^[3] Ecologically, Pacific saury play a vital role as forage fish, supporting biodiversity in the North Pacific, but populations have faced challenges from climate variability, with habitat suitability peaking in narrow sea surface temperature ranges of 9–10°C and declining sharply outside 7–15°C.^[4] Commercially, it is one of Asia-Pacific's most important pelagic fisheries resources, harvested for fresh, dried, salted, canned, or frozen products, as well as fishmeal and pet food, particularly in Japan, Korea, and Russia.^[5]^[2] However, global catches declined sharply from a peak of 435,881 tons in 2018 to 92,117 tons in 2021, with Japanese catches dropping over 90% from 355,000 tons in 2008 to around 20,000 tons in 2021, due to environmental shifts; catches remained low at 118,355 tons globally in 2023, driving up prices and prompting research into aquaculture, including a 2025 breakthrough in commercial-scale land-based farming in Japan.^[6]^[7]

Taxonomy

Classification

Sauries are classified within the family Scomberesocidae, which belongs to the order Beloniformes in the class Actinopterygii. The complete taxonomic hierarchy is as follows: Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Class Actinopterygii, Order Beloniformes, Family Scomberesocidae.^[1] This family includes two genera—Cololabis and Scomberesox—comprising a total of five species.^[1] Evolutionarily, the Scomberesocidae form the superfamily Scomberesocoidea, which is the sister group to the family Belonidae (needlefishes) based on shared derived characters such as the presence of finlets and specific osteological features.^[8] Within the broader order Beloniformes, sauries are closely related to flyingfishes (Exocoetidae) and halfbeaks (Hemiramphidae), reflecting a shared ancestry among these elongate, surface-oriented marine fishes.^[9] The family's temporal range spans from the upper Tertiary Miocene epoch to the present day.^[1] Scomberesocids are distinguished as epipelagic marine fishes with slender, elongate bodies adapted to open-ocean life. Key family traits include elongated, beak-like jaws formed by extensions of the premaxilla and dentary, a series of 4–7 finlets positioned behind the dorsal and anal fins, and the absence of a swim bladder, which aids in their high-speed, near-surface swimming.^[8]^[1] The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) represents the most commercially significant species within this family.^[5]

Species

The family Scomberesocidae comprises five extant species across two genera, Cololabis and Scomberesox, all of which are epipelagic fishes adapted to open ocean surface waters.^[8] Cololabis saira, the Pacific saury, is the largest and most widespread in the genus, occurring throughout the temperate North Pacific Ocean and attaining a maximum standard length of about 40 cm; it features moderately elongated jaws forming blunt beaks and is highly migratory.^[10]^[8] Cololabis adoceta, known as the eastern Pacific saury or Pacific dwarf saury, is a smaller congener restricted to the eastern tropical Pacific, reaching only up to 5.1 cm in standard length with shorter, less pronounced beaks; it remains relatively poorly studied compared to its relative.^[11] In the genus Scomberesox, species exhibit longer, more slender beaks relative to Cololabis, with the lower jaw typically exceeding the upper in length. Scomberesox saurus, the Atlantic saury, inhabits temperate waters of the Atlantic, southern oceans, and adjacent seas in an antitropical distribution, growing to a maximum of 45-50 cm; it is occasionally targeted in regional fisheries.^[12]^[8] The dwarf saury, Scomberesox simulans, is the smallest member of the family at up to 13 cm total length, found in warm-temperate regions of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and lacks significant commercial exploitation.^[13]^[8] Scomberesox scombroides, known as the king gar, is distributed circumglobally in temperate waters of the southern hemisphere across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, attaining a maximum length of 50 cm SL; it is of minor commercial importance, primarily used as bait due to sporadic schools.^[14]^[8] Species in Cololabis tend to occupy more strictly pelagic habitats with shorter beaks suited to their feeding ecology, while Scomberesox species display greater beak elongation for capturing prey, though all share similar overall body plans with sizes ranging from 5.1 cm to 50 cm.^[8] Commercially, C. saira overwhelmingly dominates global catches, accounting for the vast majority of saury fisheries in the North Pacific with annual landings often exceeding 200,000 tonnes, whereas the other species are of minor or regional importance and rarely fished at scale.^[5]

Description

Physical characteristics

The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira), serving as the primary example within the family Scomberesocidae, possesses an elongated, cylindrical body that is fusiform and laterally compressed, tapering toward both ends to facilitate rapid movement through open water. This structure lacks a swim bladder, a feature absent in the genus Cololabis but present in related genera such as Scomberesox.^[1] The mouth is small and terminal, equipped with weak teeth, and the jaws form short, beak-like projections that are less prolonged than those in Scomberesox species.^[15]^[16] The dorsal fin consists of 9–12 soft rays with no spines, followed by a series of 4–6 small finlets extending toward the tail; the anal fin has 12–15 soft rays and a comparable series of finlets.^[2] The caudal fin is broadly and finely forked, while the pectoral fins are small and truncate with 12–14 soft rays, the first ray notably flattened; pelvic fins are abdominal in position with 6 soft rays.^[2] Dorsally, the body is dark blue-green, shifting to silvery-white ventrally, with small bright blue spots haphazardly distributed along the sides; the fine scales shed easily upon handling.^[2]^[15] Fins on the lower body are pale, whereas others feature darkened rays.^[2] These morphological traits support adaptations for high-speed swimming and surface-jumping to escape predators, including the capacity for brief gliding above the water.^[2] The digestive system is stomachless, with short, straight intestines adapted to a diet dominated by planktonic prey such as copepods, euphausiids, and hyperiid amphipods.^[17]^[2]

Size and growth

The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira), the primary species in commercial fisheries, typically measures 25–30 cm in standard length, with a maximum recorded length of 40 cm and an average weight of approximately 180 g for mature individuals.^[2] Among other saury species, sizes vary significantly; for instance, the eastern Pacific saury (Cololabis adoceta) is much smaller, attaining a maximum standard length of only 5.1 cm, while Scomberesox saurus reaches 38 cm SL and the dwarf S. simulans only 12.5 cm SL.^[2]^[1] Growth in Pacific saury is rapid during the first year of life, with juveniles reaching lengths of about 20–30 cm by the end of this period, driven by high metabolic rates adapted to their epipelagic lifestyle. This accelerated development allows the species to quickly attain sizes suitable for migration and foraging in open ocean environments.^[18] The lifespan of Pacific saury is short, generally 1–2 years. Females exhibit slight sexual dimorphism, tending to grow marginally larger than males, which may influence population dynamics in harvested stocks.^[19]^[5]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Sauries of the family Scomberesocidae inhabit tropical and temperate oceans worldwide, primarily in epipelagic zones.^[1] The genus Cololabis is restricted to the Pacific Ocean, with two recognized species exhibiting distinct regional distributions.^[20] Cololabis saira, the Pacific saury, ranges across the North Pacific from subarctic to subtropical latitudes, extending from the coastal waters of Japan and Russia eastward to Baja California, Mexico, and northward to Alaska.^[21] ^[22] This species is highly migratory within its domain but does not cross into other ocean basins.^[23] In contrast, Cololabis adocetus occupies the eastern and central Pacific, from the Hawaiian Islands eastward to Baja California and southward to northern Chile, including the Galápagos Islands.^[20] ^[24] The genus Scomberesox shows a broader inter-oceanic presence. Scomberesox saurus, the Atlantic saury, is distributed throughout the North Atlantic, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada southward to Brazil in the western Atlantic, and from Iceland and Norway southward through the Mediterranean Sea to South Africa in the eastern Atlantic.^[25] ^[26] Scomberesox scombroides is circumglobal in temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere, occurring in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, primarily between 30° and 40°S.^[27] Scomberesox simulans, the dwarf saury, inhabits scattered tropical and warm-temperate waters, primarily in the Atlantic (from Portugal and the Azores to Sierra Leone and Brazil to Uruguay) and extending into the Indian Ocean.^[28] ^[8] No saury species achieves a true circumglobal distribution, though seasonal migrations facilitate genetic and ecological connectivity among subpopulations within their respective ocean basins.^[29]

Environmental preferences

Sauries primarily inhabit open-ocean pelagic environments within the epipelagic zone, ranging from the sea surface to depths of approximately 230 m, though they are most abundant in the upper 50 m of the water column.^[30] Juveniles, particularly of Cololabis saira, frequently associate with floating seaweed such as Sargassum, which offers protection and foraging opportunities in the early developmental stages.^[2] Temperature plays a critical role in saury distribution, with C. saira exhibiting a strong preference for waters between 15 and 18°C, optimal for their metabolic processes and schooling behavior.^[30] In contrast, C. adocetus occupies warmer regimes typically ranging from 19 to 25°C in the eastern Pacific.^[31] Both species demonstrate sensitivity to warming trends driven by climate change, which can contract suitable habitats and alter migration patterns, as evidenced by projected reductions in C. saira potential range under rising sea surface temperatures.^[32] Sauries thrive in oceanic waters characterized by marine salinities around 33–35 ppt, particularly in regions influenced by large-scale gyres and currents such as the North Pacific Current, which transports them across subtropical to subarctic latitudes.^[33] These dynamic flow systems, including the Kuroshio and Oyashio currents, shape their ecological niches by modulating nutrient availability and thermal gradients.^[5]

Biology and ecology

Reproduction and life cycle

The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is oviparous, with females producing buoyant eggs equipped with long filaments that enable them to entangle and attach to floating objects such as seaweed, debris, or sargassum.^[34]^[35] These eggs are pelagic and adhesive, facilitating their drift in surface waters during early development.^[36] Spawning occurs nearly year-round in subtropical and transitional waters of the North Pacific, though it peaks during winter months (January–February) for northwestern populations, with secondary peaks in spring and autumn.^[34]^[36] Females are multiple spawners, releasing eggs in batches every 1–2 months over 3–5 cycles per season.^[34] Batch fecundity averages about 2,000 eggs per female, leading to a seasonal total of 4,700–18,000 eggs depending on body size and spawning frequency.^[34] Eggs typically hatch after 10–14 days, influenced by water temperatures around 13–19°C in spawning areas.^[34]^[36] The resulting larvae are planktonic, remaining in the epipelagic zone where they drift passively with ocean currents while undergoing rapid morphological changes.^[34] Juveniles transition to schooling behavior around 50 mm in length and exhibit fast growth, attaining sexual maturity as age-0 or age-1 fish within 6–12 months.^[34] The species has a short lifespan of 1–2 years, with most individuals recruiting annually to the adult population and older age classes rare.^[34]^[36]

Diet and feeding

The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is primarily a planktivorous species, with its diet consisting mainly of zooplankton such as copepods (including Neocalanus spp.), euphausiid krill (notably Euphausia pacifica, comprising over 70% of the diet in some regions), and amphipods.^[37]^[38] Adults also consume fish eggs and larvae, reflecting a slight ontogenetic shift toward more substantial prey items while remaining focused on small, abundant pelagic organisms.^[37] This dietary composition supports rapid growth during the saury's short lifespan, particularly in nutrient-rich subarctic waters where boreal zooplankton densities are high.^[39] Feeding occurs predominantly at the ocean surface through particulate capture, where saury actively pursue and ingest individual prey items rather than using gill rakers for bulk filtration.^[40] Activity follows a diurnal pattern, with peak gut fullness and minimal digestion observed at dusk, indicating heightened foraging as light levels decrease, while feeding intensity varies seasonally—decreasing in fall and increasing during winter spawning despite lower overall prey availability in warmer currents.^[41] Larvae, during their planktonic phase, similarly target small zooplankton to fuel early development.^[42] The saury lacks a true stomach, relying instead on a short intestine for rapid digestion of soft-bodied prey, which limits long-term food storage but enables frequent feeding bouts suited to its migratory lifestyle.^[41]^[43] This adaptation aligns with its role as a key mid-level predator in North Pacific pelagic food webs, channeling energy from primary consumers like zooplankton to higher trophic levels while exerting top-down control on lower plankton populations.^[44]^[29]

Migration and behavior

The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is a highly migratory species, exhibiting distinct seasonal movements across the North Pacific Ocean driven by feeding and spawning requirements. In spring and summer, both age-0 juveniles and age-1 adults migrate northward from the subtropical Kuroshio region (around 35°–40°N) toward the subarctic Oyashio waters (up to ~45°N), following ocean currents such as the Kuroshio Extension and the Transition Zone.^[34]^[5] This northward progression supports optimal feeding grounds, with juveniles often drifting passively with flotsam like seaweed, while adults actively follow warmer surface currents. By autumn and winter, the population shifts southward and westward back to the Kuroshio spawning areas (reaching ~35°N by October–November), influenced by intrusions of the cold Oyashio current that can redirect schools toward coastal exclusive economic zones or open high-seas grounds.^[34]^[5] These patterns align with sea surface temperature gradients, where saury prefer ranges of 12–18.5°C, responding to shifts by adjusting migration routes to maintain thermal comfort.^[5] Behaviorally, Pacific saury are surface-oriented and form large, dense schools, particularly offshore in the upper 0–40 m of the water column, which facilitates synchronized movement along currents like the Offshore Oyashio and peripheries of mesoscale eddies.^[2]^[5] Juveniles begin schooling at around 50 mm in length and associate with drifting vegetation for protection during early northward drifts.^[34] To evade predators or pursue prey near the surface, individuals exhibit jumping and skimming behaviors, gliding above the water for short distances using their elongated pectoral fins, which confuses attackers and allows rapid escape.^[2] These schools serve as a primary anti-predator strategy, with natural predators including albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga), yellowtail amberjack (Seriola quinqueradiata), mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus), striped marlin (Kajikia audax), salmon sharks (Lamna ditropis), blue sharks (Prionace glauca), minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus), and sooty shearwaters (Ardenna griseus).^[34]^[2] Sensory adaptations in Pacific saury support their migratory and foraging behaviors in variable low-light conditions typical of their epipelagic habitat. Their visual acuity, which increases with body size from 0.057 cycles per degree in 75 mm fork length individuals to 0.140 in 365 mm ones, enables effective detection of prey and predators in dim surface waters, balancing retinal sensitivity for scotopic vision with spatial resolution.^[45] This adaptation, tied to cone density and lens focal length, aids low-light feeding on zooplankton and in responding to environmental cues like temperature gradients during migrations.^[45]

Fishery and commercial importance

Harvesting methods

Saury, particularly the Pacific saury (Cololabis saira), is harvested using methods that target its surface-schooling behavior during migrations, enabling efficient capture of dense aggregations in the upper water column.^[6] Primary techniques include purse seines and lampara nets, which encircle surface schools; these have been employed sporadically in regions like the U.S. Pacific Coast since the mid-20th century, though with variable success.^[6] Night fishing often incorporates light attraction, using LED lamps to aggregate saury near the surface before dipping or encircling, a practice that has gained prominence for its energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact compared to traditional incandescent lights.^[46] Historically, drift nets were used in some Pacific saury fisheries, but they were largely phased out following the 1991 United Nations moratorium on large-scale pelagic driftnetting due to concerns over non-target species entanglement.^[47] In the Northwest Pacific, where the majority of commercial harvesting occurs, stick-held dip nets have become the dominant gear since the mid-20th century, operated from vessels that lower nets vertically into illuminated schools.^[6] This method accounts for over 97% of Japan's catch since 1995 and is widely adopted by other fleets for its selectivity in targeting saury at depths of 0-20 meters.^[6] Regional variations reflect fleet scales and operational preferences: Japan employs smaller, specialized stick-held dip net vessels, often supplemented by coastal set nets, while China and Korea utilize larger-scale dip net operations on distant-water fleets to pursue high-seas schools.^[48] Fisheries across these nations focus seasonally on autumn migrations from August to November, aligning with saury's southward movement into warmer waters east of 165°E.^[6] By-catch in saury fisheries remains minimal, primarily due to the targeted nature of surface-oriented gear like dip nets and purse seines, which limits interactions with deeper-dwelling or non-schooling species.^[49] In Canadian and U.S. waters, incidental captures average under 6 kg annually in non-target gears such as trawls and longlines, underscoring the low entanglement risk in primary saury operations.^[6]

Production and trade

Global production of Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) peaked at over 500,000 metric tons annually during the 1980s, driven primarily by Japanese fisheries that accounted for nearly 98% of catches at the time.^[50] Catches declined to 100,085 metric tons in 2022 and rose slightly to 118,355 metric tons in 2023, with the species comprising the vast majority of saury harvests worldwide.^[6] Major producers include Japan, China, Taiwan, South Korea, and Russia, though Japan's share has diminished significantly due to reduced domestic yields. In 2022, Japan recorded a historic low of approximately 18,000 metric tons, while China harvested 35,477 metric tons; Taiwan contributed over 40,000 metric tons, and South Korea around 18,000 metric tons.^[51]^[52]^[53] In 2023, Japan's catch increased to approximately 24,500 metric tons, Taiwan's to around 45,000 metric tons, and South Korea's remained below 10,000 metric tons. Japan's catch rebounded further to 38,695 metric tons in 2024. As of November 1, 2025, reported catches for the year reached 117,310 metric tons against a high-seas total allowable catch (TAC) of 121,500 metric tons.^[54]^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58] Pacific saury is traded internationally mainly as frozen, canned, or dried products, with key exports originating from Taiwan and China to markets in Japan and South Korea. Japan, facing domestic shortages, increasingly imports frozen saury from these producers to meet demand. The global trade value for Pacific saury products exceeds $600 million annually as of 2025, reflecting its economic importance in East Asian fisheries despite fluctuating volumes.^[53]^[59] Catches have declined steadily since the 2010s, attributed in part to climate-driven shifts in ocean temperatures and migration patterns that have reduced stock availability in traditional fishing grounds. The North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC) has implemented management measures, including annual catch limits and total allowable catches (TACs), to address overfishing; for 2025, the overall quota for the entire area was reduced by 10% to 202,500 metric tons amid ongoing stock concerns, marking the first time Japan's national TAC fell below 100,000 metric tons at 95,623 metric tons. The high-seas TAC is 121,500 metric tons.^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63]

Culinary uses

In East Asia

In Japan, Pacific saury is known as sanma and is a staple of autumn cuisine, prized for its rich, fatty flavor during the seasonal migration.^[64] The most traditional preparation is shioyaki, where the fish is salted and grilled until the skin crisps, typically served with grated daikon radish to balance the richness and a squeeze of citrus like sudachi.^[64] It is also featured in sanma-zushi, a pressed sushi originating from preservation techniques, where fermented sanma is layered with vinegared rice and enjoyed at autumn festivals and gatherings.^[65] Fresh sanma can be prepared as sashimi, often lightly vinegared (shime-sanma) to reduce fishiness, or incorporated into miso soup as meatballs or fillets for a hearty broth.^[66]^[67] Events like the Meguro Sanma Festival highlight its cultural significance, distributing thousands of grilled sanma to celebrate the harvest.^[68] Nutritionally, sanma is valued for its high omega-3 content, providing about 0.4 g of EPA and DHA per 100 g serving, supporting heart health.^[69] In Korea, saury is called kkongchi and features prominently in coastal dishes, often using fresh or canned varieties for accessibility. A popular winter specialty is gwamegi, half-dried Pacific saury fermented slightly for a chewy texture and umami depth, traditionally produced in regions like Pohang's Guryongpo.^[70] Key preparations include kkongchi-jorim, a braised dish simmered in soy sauce with radish, onions, and chili for a savory side (banchan).^[71] Grilled kkongchi-gui involves salting and pan-frying or grilling the fish whole, enhancing its natural oils with a simple lemon squeeze to cut the richness.^[72] Raw kkongchi-mulhoe, a cold salad-like soup, mixes thinly sliced saury with vegetables, gochujang, and vinegar for a refreshing summer dish, especially from Ulleung Island.^[73] It also appears in tteokguk, rice cake soup, where fillets add protein to the clear beef or anchovy broth during Lunar New Year celebrations.^[73] In China, saury is commonly prepared using simple, flavorful methods that highlight its tenderness, often with canned versions for convenience in home cooking. Stir-frying is prevalent, as in dishes combining drained saury with bitter melon, fermented black beans, and spices for a quick, savory stir-fry that balances bitterness with the fish's mild taste.^[74] Steaming preserves the fish's natural juices, typically seasoned with ginger, soy, and scallions in a style akin to classic Chinese whole-fish preparations.^[75] Production of canned saury has grown, with manufacturers exporting significant volumes to meet domestic and international demand.^[76]

In other regions

In Russia, particularly in the Far East region, Pacific saury is processed into canned products packed in oil or salt, as well as smoked varieties, supporting local consumption and export.^[77]^[78] These preparations are valued for their convenience and nutritional content, including essential fatty acids.^[79] Production has faced challenges from regulatory restrictions on high-seas fishing, including catch reductions by the North Pacific Fisheries Commission as of 2024.^[80] In the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe, saury—often the Pacific species—is widely used as frozen bait known as "blueys" for sea fishing, targeting species like rays, dogfish, and whiting due to its oily texture and scent trail.^[81]^[82] Direct consumption remains limited, with the fish rarely featured in local cuisines beyond occasional use in niche markets.^[83] Outside these areas, the Atlantic saury supports minor local fisheries in the western Atlantic, including off Brazil, where it is under-exploited and suitable for basic processing like canning.^[84] Emerging markets in North America, such as the United States and Canada, show growing interest in imported canned and smoked saury products for convenience foods, driven by demand for healthy seafood options.^[59]^[85] However, saury lacks significant culinary traditions elsewhere, remaining peripheral compared to East Asia's dominance in global production.^[59]

Conservation

Population status

The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) populations, primarily assessed in the North Pacific Ocean, have experienced low stock levels since the mid-2000s, with notable declines intensifying through the 2010s. According to the 2024 North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC) stock assessment, the estimated biomass for 2023 was 398,750 metric tons, while the 2024 ensemble average reached 527,630 metric tons, both substantially below historical averages from the early 2000s when biomass indices were significantly higher.^[6] These levels reflect a spawning stock biomass (B/B<sub>MSY</sub>) averaging 0.345 (80% CI: 0.235–0.470) over 2022–2024, indicating the stock is below the biomass at maximum sustainable yield.^[6] Current spawning stock biomass highlights a prolonged period of reduced abundance compared to mid-2000s peaks. In 2024, total catches were approximately 155,000 metric tons, and as of November 8, 2025, cumulative 2025 catches reached 123,342 metric tons against a total allowable catch (TAC) of 121,500 metric tons.^[62]^[58] Trends in Pacific saury populations show declines primarily linked to poor recruitment, characterized by high interannual variability that has led to inconsistent year-class strength since the 2010s. The 2024 NPFC assessment indicates vulnerability, with fishing mortality (F/F<sub>MSY</sub>) averaging 1.008 (80% CI: 0.755–1.435) over 2021–2023, exceeding sustainable levels and contributing to stock instability.^[6] Although not listed on the IUCN Red List (Not Evaluated), Pacific saury is monitored as a transboundary resource under the NPFC framework, with ongoing efforts to refine age-structured models for better prediction.^[2] Resilience to these low biomass conditions varies according to stock-recruitment models, such as the Beverton-Holt formulation, where estimates of steepness (h)—a measure of productivity at low stock sizes—suggest moderate to high potential for recovery depending on environmental and recruitment dynamics.^[86] Populations of other saury species, such as the Atlantic saury (Scomberesox saurus), remain stable and are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, though they are understudied with limited formal stock assessments available. In contrast to Pacific saury, where catches have declined sharply from over 500,000 metric tons in the early 2000s to below 200,000 metric tons in recent years, Atlantic saury fisheries report no similar trends of depletion.^[87]

Threats and management

Pacific saury populations face significant threats from climate change, which has driven habitat shifts and reduced recruitment success due to warmer ocean temperatures altering migration patterns and spawning grounds in the North Pacific.^[88]^[4] Overfishing exacerbates these pressures, with catches exceeding sustainable levels despite existing quotas, leading to depleted stocks and historically low biomass.^[60]^[89] Ocean acidification, a byproduct of climate change, indirectly impacts saury by disrupting phytoplankton communities—their primary prey—through reduced nutrient availability and shifts in species composition.^[90]^[91] By-catch in saury fisheries remains minimal compared to other pelagic species, owing to targeted light-based harvesting methods.^[5] Management efforts are coordinated through the North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC), which implements conservation and management measures including catch limits and effort restrictions, with 2025 proposals reducing allowable catches by 10% to promote stock recovery.^[92]^[93] In Japan and Taiwan, major saury fishing nations, fleets have transitioned to energy-efficient LED fishing lights, significantly lowering fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining catch efficacy.^[46]^[94] Research on historical regime shifts in the late 1980s and early 2000s has informed adaptive strategies, revealing how climatic oscillations influence saury abundance and distribution through changes in ocean productivity.^[29]^[95] Recent advancements include machine learning models that predict saury fishing grounds by integrating environmental variables like sea surface temperature and eddy fields, enabling more precise and sustainable harvesting.^[87] Looking ahead, experts advocate for harvest strategies targeting biomass levels at 1.2 times the biomass at maximum sustainable yield (BMSY) to build resilience against ongoing environmental variability, alongside enhanced international cooperation under the NPFC to address the migratory nature of saury stocks.^[96]^[97]

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Multi-decadal variation in cohort specific sex ratios and otolith ...
Otolith increment growth patterns do not conform to the known sexual dimorphism. · Otolith increment widths vary inter-annually and reflect a decreasing growth.
[19]
CAS - Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes
Species in the genus Cololabis: [ 3 ] records. adocetus, Cololabis Böhlke ... Original genus should have been Scomberesox. •Synonym of Cololabis saira ...
[20]
Geographical variation in spawning histories of age-1 Pacific saury ...
Mar 27, 2019 · We considered that geographical differences in growth rates of first year fish would be reflected in the different ROA of age-1 fish, and ...
[21]
(PDF) Geographical Distribution and Abundance of Pacific Saury ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira, hereafter saury) is an important pelagic fish widely distributed in the North Pacific Ocean and was ...Missing: adocetus Scomberesox
[22]
Cololabis adoceta, Saury - FishBase
Inhabits surface waters (Ref. 583). Life cycle and mating behavior Maturity | Reproduction | Spawning | Eggs | Fecundity | ...
[23]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253475467_Geographical_Distribution_and_Abundance_of_Pacific_Saury_Cololabis_saira_Brevoort_Scomberesocidae_Fishing_Stocks_in_the_Northwestern_Pacific_in_Relation_to_Sea_Temperatures
[24]
Scomberesox saurus (Walbaum, 1792) - WoRMS
Distribution Gulf of St. Lawrence to North Carolina and Bermuda. Distribution Gulf of St. Lawrence to North Carolina and Bermuda [details]. Taxonomic citation.
[25]
Scomberesox simulans, Dwarf saury - FishBase
Size / Weight / Age. Maturity: Lm ? range ? - ? cm. Max length : 13.0 cm TL male/unsexed; (Ref. 5288); common length : 9.0 cm SL male/unsexed; (Ref. 6531) ...
[26]
Non-stationary response of Pacific saury (Cololabis saira ... - Frontiers
Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is a small pelagic fish that is widely distributed throughout the subtropical and subarctic regions of the North Pacific ( ...
[27]
Spatial and temporal variability of the Pacific saury (Cololabis saira ...
Jan 15, 2013 · SST, Chl a, and NPP increased substantially from the early fishing season (June and July) to the main fishing season (September and October) in ...
[28]
Cololabis adoceta summary page
### Summary for Cololabis adocetus
[29]
Influence of climate-driven sea surface temperature increase on ...
Influence of climate-driven sea surface temperature increase on potential habitats of the Pacific saury (Cololabis saira). – ICES Journal of Marine Science ...
[30]
[PDF] NOAA Predicting potential fishing zones for Pacific saury (Cololabis ...
Jun 2, 2016 · The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is widely distributed in the west- ern North Pacific from subarctic to subtropical waters and is one of the.
[31]
None
### Summary of Pacific Saury Biology (Cololabis saira)
[32]
Reproduction and Development in Epipelagic Fishes - DOI
Both species of Scomberesox develop an elongate beak; the snout increases in length in S. simulans throughout its life span and in S. saunis until a length of ...
[33]
[PDF] Larval Production and Mortality of Pacific Saury, Cololabis
The saury is reported to be a multiple spawner that spawns in 2 mo intervals in the spawning season (Hatanaka 1955) with a batch fecundity of 500-3,000 egg/ ...
[34]
Mercury bioaccumulation and trophic transfer in Pacific Saury from ...
Sep 15, 2024 · Additionally, its diverse diet often includes plankton, krill (e.g., Euphausiids (E. Pacifica)), and the eggs and larvae of small fish (Miller ...
[35]
Geographic variation in feeding of Pacific saury Cololabis saira in ...
Aug 26, 2020 · Although small euphausiids occurred in guts, guts were also often empty, suggesting feeding was less active at higher sea surface temperatures (> ...Missing: system | Show results with:system
[36]
Draft genome sequence and tissue expression panel of Pacific ... - NIH
Apr 3, 2024 · Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is a small pelagic teleost (Scomberesocidae, Beloniformes) and an important commercial species in several ...
[37]
Geographic variation in feeding of Pacific saury Cololabis saira in ...
Although small euphausiids occurred in guts, guts were also often empty, suggesting feeding was less active at higher sea surface temperatures (>ca 14°C).
[38]
Daily rhythm and seasonal variation of feeding habit of Pacific saury ...
Dec 20, 2004 · A high gut fullness and low degree of digestion of the gut contents were frequently observed during the dusk period during the 24-h cycle for ...
[39]
Environmental factors affecting larval growth of Pacific saury ...
Dec 20, 2004 · In this paper, we estimated the recent growth rate during the larval stage of individual Pacific saury, Cololabis saira, using otolith increment ...
[40]
[PDF] Grant Depository - the NOAA Institutional Repository
no stomach during the adult s ta;.e. Because of. the firm texture and ... '<n»c<tated references on the Pacific saury, Cololabis saira. Spe<.. S< i ...
[41]
Using novel spawning ground indices to analyze the effects of ...
As an intermediate-trophic-level species, Pacific saury plays an important role in the pelagic ecosystem, both as a predator on zooplankton and as a prey ...
[42]
Visual acuity of Pacific Saury Cololabis saira for understanding ...
Jun 2, 2008 · The visual acuity (VA) depends both on the focal length of the lens and the number of cones in the retina. The lens diameter increased linearly ...Missing: sensory | Show results with:sensory
[43]
None
### Summary of Fishing Methods, Gear, Techniques, and Related Details for Pacific Saury
[44]
Most saury fishing vessels using energy-saving LEDs - Taipei Times
Dec 7, 2023 · The majority of Taiwan's long-distance saury fishing vessels have switched to LEDs for environmental reasons, the Kaohsiung City Government's Marine Bureau ...
[45]
Driftnet fisheries and their impacts on non-target species
Driftnets were also reportedly used for Pacific saury, herring, mackerel and salmon. ... phased out by 1991. In fact, only 19 Japanese vessels participated ...
[46]
None
### Summary of Harvesting Methods and Fishing Techniques for Pacific Saury
[47]
PACIFIC SAURY | WWF Seafood Guide
PACIFIC SAURY This harvest method is operated from the surface in the upper water column by hand or mechanically. Endangered, threatened, protected (ETP) ...
[48]
Modelling ecological responses of Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) to ...
Jul 24, 2013 · Commercial catch of Pacific saury fluctuated between 0.17 and 0.60 million tonnes during 1980–2008 and the share of the total catch by Japan ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] Stock assessment report for Pacific saury - NPFC
Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is widely distributed from the subarctic to the subtropical regions of the North. Pacific Ocean. The fishing grounds are west of ...Missing: global | Show results with:global
[50]
Japanese government reports indicate significant dips in wild ...
Aug 15, 2023 · The saury catch in 2022 totaled 18,400 MT, down 8.4 percent from the previous year but down a staggering 96.8 percent from the record level set ...
[51]
[PDF] 12th Meeting of the Small Scientific Committee on Pacific Saury ...
China presented its fisheries status (NPFC-2023-SSC PS12-IP02). Total catch in 2022 was. 35,477 MT. In 2023, China reached its catch limit stipulated in CMM ...Missing: global | Show results with:global
[52]
Dwindling Catches Drive Up Pacific Saury Prices in Japan
Sep 17, 2025 · Pacific saury is a traditional autumn favorite in Japan, but poor catches in recent years are sending prices soaring.Missing: commercial importance
[53]
Overview of Global Frozen Pacific Saury Market - Tridge
Discover export data of Frozen Pacific Saury. Get export value, price data, trends, and more. The information below is based on the HS code 030389 (Fish; ...
[54]
Climate change heavily affecting fish stocks in Japan, resulting in ...
Sep 18, 2024 · Japanese catch totals of important seafood species have fallen dramatically, and climate change is the suspected cause, according to new reports.Missing: 1980s 2020s management
[55]
[PDF] CMM 2025-08 For Pacific Saury
May 1, 2025 · In 2025, the annual total allowable catch (TAC) of Pacific saury in the Convention Area shall be limited to 60% of the annual catch limit in the ...
[56]
Japan, China and others agree on 10% cut to saury catch limit
Mar 28, 2025 · Japan caught 38,695 tonnes of saury last year, according to Tokyo-based national saury fishery cooperative Zen-Sanma. Volume plunged 60% from ...Missing: major producers
[57]
Sanma Shioyaki (Salt-Grilled Pacific Saury) さんま塩焼き
Rating 5.0 (6) · 20 minSanma Shioyaki is an easy Japanese grilled fish recipe of Pacific saury with grated daikon radish dipping sauce for the autumn season.
[58]
Sanma zushi ｜ Our Regional Cuisines : MAFF
Sanma-zushi was originally made to preserve rice and fish, and was a feast served at autumn festivals, New Year's, and other gatherings.
[59]
Vinegard sanma sashimi 〆さんま - Norio on Wine and Food
Sep 28, 2015 · The shime sanma tasted very similar to shime saba or mackerel. The vinegar was a bit sweeter than I would like but my wife thought it was fine.
[60]
Pacific Saury Ball Miso Soup - Fundokin
365 Days Miso Soup ; Sanma, 2 ; Mitsuba (Japanese honeywort), 4 pieces ; Dashi stock, 800 cc ; Miso, 3-1/2 tablespoons ; <Combined seasoning> Ginger Potato starch
[61]
Meguro Grilled Pacific Saury Festival - Tokyo Cheapo
About 7,000 grilled Sanma (pacific saury) will be given away to mark the beginning of the season. You'll have to wait in perhaps the longest queue you have ever ...
[62]
Pacific saury nutrition: calories, carbs, GI, protein, fiber, fats
All nutrients for Pacific saury per 100g ; Omega-3 - EPA, 0.11g, N/A, 34%, 6.3 times less than Salmon Salmon ; Omega-3 - DHA, 0.29g, N/A, 34%, 5.1 times less than ...
[63]
Winter Gwamegi: “Fishy” Has Never Been Tastier - MICHELIN Guide
Jan 8, 2018 · Gwamegi is semi-dried Pacific herring or Pacific saury produced predominantly in the village of Guryongpo in Pohang, Gyeongsangbukdo Province.
[64]
Braised Saury (Kkongchi-jorim) recipe by Maangchi
Rating 5.0 (438) Ingredients · a can of saury · 1 cup's worth Korean radish (or daikon) peeled and sliced thinly (⅛ inch thick, about 8-10 discs) · 1 medium sized onion, sliced (1 ...
[65]
https://www.maff.go.jp/e/policies/market/k_ryouri/search_menu/1762/index.html
[66]
Ulleung Hand Caught Saury - Arca del Gusto - Slow Food Foundation
... mul-hoe (cold raw fish soup) and ddeok-guk (rice cake soup). In an area where livestock was rare, saury fish provided an excellent local source of protein.Missing: kkongchi | Show results with:kkongchi
[67]
https://www.fundokin-english.com/misosoup082.php
[68]
Steamed Fish, the Chinese Way (清蒸鱼) - Red House Spice
Rating 5.0 (80) · 13 minSep 25, 2020 · A fresh whole fish steamed to a tender texture, seasoned with a delicious dressing, Chinese steamed fish requires little cooking skill but tastes incredible.
[69]
Canned Saury - Tropical Food Manufacturing (Ningbo) Co., Ltd.
Company exports amounted to more than US$60 million in last year, enjoys high reputation in the aquatic products industry. Contact: Ms. Sunny Wang. Hot Products.
[70]
Smoked Pacific Saury in oil - Доброфлот.РФ
Smoked Pacific Saury in oil. Smoked Pacific Saury in oil. sayra. Telephone: +7 (423) 230-80-30, +7 (495) 781-44-14, Email info@dobroflot.info.
[71]
https://www.maangchi.com/recipe/kkongchi-jorim
[72]
Benefit-risk ratio of canned pacific saury (Cololabis saira) intake
Aug 7, 2025 · Canned saury is a valuable source of essential polyunsaturated FA - eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[73]
Bluey (Pacific Saury) - British Sea Fishing
Bluey is a bait which has become very popular in UK sea fishing in recent years. It is a versatile bait which can be used in smaller sections as a general sea ...Missing: Europe | Show results with:Europe
[74]
Bluey 3 per packet large - Online Baits UK
In stockBluey's (Pacific Saury) are blue/silver, oily fish, 3 per packet, good for Pike, Rays, Dogfish, and Whiting. They are more oily than Mackerel.
[75]
I'm saury. - Something Fishy Going On
May 3, 2023 · Most UK sea anglers will probably be familiar with the Pacific saury, it's sold here frozen as "bluey" and is used as a very oily fish bait.
[76]
Scomberesox saurus, Atlantic saury : fisheries, bait - FishBase
It is an under-exploited fish in many parts of its range and suitable for canning and other inexpensive uses.Missing: Brazil | Show results with:Brazil
[77]
Pacific Saury
Oct 20, 2025 · Fishing Techniques · Selective Purse Seining: The primary method—targets large saury schools, minimizing bycatch and ensuring fresh, intact catch ...
[78]
Global Canned Saury Market Landscape: Future Trends ... - LinkedIn
Oct 8, 2025 · In North America, the U.S. leads in consumption, driven by convenience food trends, while Canada shows a growing interest in healthy seafood ...
[79]
On the probable distribution of stock-recruitment resilience of Pacific ...
Apr 2, 2024 · This study estimates the distribution of steepness for Pacific saury using a simulation approach based on evolutionary ecology and reproductive biology.
[80]
Predicting Pacific saury fishing sites using machine learning and ...
Sep 16, 2025 · Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) is one of the most commercially significant pelagic fish species in the North Pacific Ocean. It is primarily ...
[81]
How Harvest Strategies Can Build Climate Resiliency for Pacific Saury
Jul 9, 2024 · At the 2024 Commission meeting, the NPFC adopted an HCR for Pacific saury, which constrains the limits of the maximum change in catch (MAC) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[82]
Soaring Prices and Scarcity Threaten Japan's Beloved Pacific Saury ...
Sep 18, 2025 · The numbers reveal the dramatic decline. From 2001 to 2014, Japan's annual catch volume consistently reached around 200,000 tons. This fell ...
[83]
Ocean acidification may cause dramatic changes to phytoplankton
Jul 20, 2015 · Study finds many species may die out and others may migrate significantly as ocean acidification intensifies.
[84]
Ocean Acidification in Coastal Upwelling Regions Shown to Impact ...
Nov 17, 2023 · Increased acidification shown to limit iron availability, a critical element for the survival of phytoplankton.
[85]
North Pacific Fisheries Tightens Limits: Saury and Mackerel Catches ...
The total catch limit across the entire distribution area will be 202,500 tons, reduced from 225,000 tons. Chub Mackerel Resource Management: An agreement was ...
[86]
Majority of Taiwan's saury fishing boats switch to LEDs
Dec 5, 2023 · A majority of Taiwan's long-distance saury fishing vessels have switched to using light emitting diodes (LEDs) to conduct saury fishery in the Pacificfor ...
[87]
Decadal variability in the abundance of Pacific saury and its ...
The abundance of other major small pelagic species also changed greatly around 1989, suggesting that the regime shift in the late 1980s occurred in the pelagic ...
[88]
[PDF] Restoring Pacific saury to a predictable and productive fishery
PACIFIC SAURY IS A SMALL, SHORT-LIVED FISH that plays a big role in the North Pacific Ocean. While being a culturally significant autumnal food fish in some ...
[89]
North Pacific Fishery Managers Can Help Prized Fish—and ...
Mar 21, 2024 · Pacific saury are critical prey for predators including tunas, sharks and salmon and are culturally important as well. Historically, saury has ...