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Commission

A commission is a formal written warrant or authorization granting an individual or group the power to perform specific acts or duties, such as in governmental, military, or official capacities.^[1] In a commercial sense, it refers to a fee or remuneration, often calculated as a percentage of the value of goods sold or services rendered, paid to salespeople, agents, or brokers upon successful completion of transactions.^[2]^[3] The term also encompasses the act of entrusting or delegating a task, including commissioning artwork, reports, or investigations by selecting and directing parties to execute specialized work.^[4] Defining characteristics include its role in incentivizing performance in sales through variable pay structures tied to quotas or outcomes, and in institutional settings, where commissions serve as temporary or permanent bodies tasked with inquiry, regulation, or policy implementation.^[5]^[6] While governmental commissions have historically driven significant reforms and investigations based on empirical findings, sales commissions can lead to controversies over calculation methods, fairness, and motivational effects, though they remain a staple for aligning employee efforts with organizational goals.^[1]^[3]

Etymology and Core Definitions

Historical Origins

The term "commission" entered the English language in the mid-14th century, derived from the Latin commissio ("act of committing" or "entrusting"), the noun form of commissus, past participle of committere ("to unite, connect, entrust, or bring together"), which combines the prefix com- ("with" or "together") and mittere ("to send" or "let go").^[7]^[1] This Latin root emphasized delegation or empowerment, reflecting Roman administrative practices where authority was formally entrusted to officials or agents for specific duties.^[7] Borrowed into Middle English as commissioun via Anglo-French commission ("authority" or "mandate") and Medieval Latin commissio ("delegation of business"), the word's earliest recorded use appears in 1344 within a petition, denoting a formal warrant or delegated power.^[8]^[1] By the early 15th century, it commonly signified "delegated authority," often in ecclesiastical or royal contexts, such as papal commissions granting oversight or sovereign mandates entrusting nobles with military command.^[7] This sense evolved from medieval European traditions, where monarchs issued written warrants—precursors to modern commissions—to appoint officers, mirroring earlier Roman practices of formal empowerment for provincial governance or legions.^[9] The commercial connotation of a fee or percentage for services emerged later, around the 1530s, building on the core idea of entrustment in trade agents or factors who handled goods on behalf of principals, with roots traceable to ancient profit-sharing in Mesopotamian and Roman commerce but formalized in English mercantile law during the Renaissance.^[7]^[10] In military applications, the specific sense of a "certificate conferring rank and authority" solidified by the late 15th century, institutionalizing the delegation of command in standing armies as feudal levies gave way to professional forces.^[1] These developments underscore the term's foundational link to causal chains of authority transfer, from ancient entrustment to structured delegation in governance, trade, and warfare.^[7]

Primary Meanings and Conceptual Foundations

The term commission primarily denotes the formal act of entrusting or delegating authority, responsibility, or a specific task to an individual, group, or entity, often accompanied by a warrant or document conferring the power to act on behalf of the principal.^[1] This core sense encompasses both the process of commitment—deriving from the idea of "joining together" or "entrusting" (as in committing resources or duties)—and the resulting empowerment to execute defined functions, such as performing official acts, investigations, or creative works.^[11] In its foundational conception, a commission establishes a principal-agent relationship, where the principal (e.g., a government or employer) transfers decision-making or operational powers to the agent, bounded by explicit terms to maintain accountability and limit overreach.^[12] Conceptually, commissions rest on the principle of delegation, which enables hierarchical organization in complex systems by distributing authority without abdicating ultimate control; this avoids the inefficiency of centralized decision-making while preserving the delegator's ability to revoke or oversee the mandate.^[13] For instance, in legal and administrative contexts, a commission functions as a bounded transfer of powers, where the recipient acts as a fiduciary, bound by the scope of the entrustment to prevent arbitrary exercise of authority.^[14] This framework underpins its application across domains, from military warrants granting officers command over troops—certifying rank and operational discretion—to advisory bodies tasked with fact-finding, where the commission's terms define evidentiary standards and reporting obligations.^[1] Unlike informal assignments, commissions typically require formal documentation to legitimize actions and provide legal recourse if breached, reflecting a causal emphasis on verifiable chains of responsibility rather than implied consent.^[8] A secondary but foundational meaning extends to the verb form, signifying the initiation or activation of such delegated authority, as in commissioning a vessel into service or appointing personnel to execute a mandate, which formalizes the transition from planning to operational reality.^[15] At its root, this conceptual structure prioritizes causal realism in authority flows: delegation succeeds when aligned with the principal's intent, measurable outcomes, and empirical oversight, mitigating risks of agency problems like shirking or opportunism through predefined incentives or termination clauses.^[16] Historical and legal precedents reinforce that commissions are not absolute grants but conditional instruments, revocable upon non-performance or changed circumstances, ensuring they serve as tools for efficient task execution rather than perpetual power transfers.^[17]

Economic and Commercial Contexts

Sales and Performance-Based Remuneration

In sales contexts, commission constitutes a variable component of remuneration directly tied to an individual's performance, typically calculated as a percentage of the revenue or profit generated from transactions they facilitate. This structure motivates salespeople by linking earnings to outcomes such as units sold, deal volume, or gross margins, often supplementing a fixed base salary.^[18]^[19] Common variants include straight commission, where pay derives solely from sales without a base; base salary plus commission, blending stability with incentives; tiered commissions that escalate rates for exceeding thresholds; and revenue-based models focusing on total sales value.^[20]^[21] Empirical analyses indicate that commission-based systems enhance sales performance by aligning agent incentives with principal goals, fostering higher effort and output compared to fixed salaries alone. A field study of retail sales found multi-period incentives under commission plans increased transaction volumes by encouraging sustained goal pursuit, though effects diminished without ongoing adjustments.^[22] Reviews of sales force compensation reveal that performance-contingent pay correlates with elevated productivity, with some studies estimating up to 50% gains in output, attributable to reduced shirking and improved quota attainment.^[23] However, these benefits hinge on plan design; poorly structured commissions can induce risk-averse behavior or short-termism, prioritizing quick closes over long-term customer value.^[24] Commission rates vary by industry and deal complexity, generally ranging from 5% to 20% of sales value, with higher percentages in high-margin sectors to offset variability. In real estate, agents earn 1-3% of property value; software-as-a-service (SaaS) roles command 10-30% due to recurring revenue models; and retail or consumer goods hover at 3-10%.^[25]^[26]^[27] For B2B sales, rates often fall between 5-15%, adjusted for factors like sales cycle length and average deal size as of 2024 data.^[28] Critics argue that heavy reliance on commissions fosters unethical conduct, such as aggressive upselling or misrepresenting product benefits to meet targets, creating agency conflicts where salespeople prioritize personal gain over client needs. Agency theory highlights how straight-commission systems exacerbate moral hazards, potentially leading to customer dissatisfaction or regulatory scrutiny, as evidenced in sectors like insurance where mis-selling scandals have prompted reforms.^[29]^[30] Public perceptions often associate commissioned sales with dishonesty, contributing to stigma, though balanced structures with oversight mitigate these risks without fully eradicating them.^[31]

Brokerage and Contracting Fees

In financial brokerage, commissions represent the primary fee structure for brokers facilitating the purchase or sale of securities, such as stocks, bonds, or derivatives, acting as intermediaries between clients and markets. These fees compensate brokers for executing trades, providing market access, and offering advisory services, often calculated as a fixed amount per transaction, a percentage of the trade value, or per contract for options and futures. For instance, as of 2024, many online brokers like Charles Schwab charge $0 for U.S. stock and ETF trades but impose $0.65 per options contract, reflecting a shift from traditional per-share commissions to asset-based or zero-commission models driven by competitive pressures and regulatory changes.^[32] Historically, brokerage commissions averaged 1-2% of trade value in the pre-digital era, but zero-commission trading for equities became standard by 2019 following initiatives by firms like Robinhood, though ancillary fees for margin use or inactivity persist.^[33] In real estate brokerage, commissions typically range from 5% to 6% of the property sale price, split between buyer's and seller's agents, with the seller traditionally covering the total; post-2024 National Association of Realtors settlement, however, buyer agents must negotiate fees directly, potentially reducing reliance on seller-paid commissions.^[34] Contracting commissions, by contrast, often manifest as contingent or success-based fees paid to agents, consultants, or finders for procuring contracts, particularly in commercial, government, or defense sectors, where they incentivize performance without guaranteeing payment absent results. In federal contracting under U.S. Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) Subpart 3.4, such commissions are permissible for bona fide selling agencies but prohibited if tied to improper influence, with allowable structures including hourly rates plus success fees (e.g., a fixed amount per awarded contract) to avoid anti-bribery violations.^[35] For example, in defense contracting, selling agents' commissions are charged directly to contracts when independent agents secure sales, typically as a percentage of contract value but capped to ensure cost allowability under Defense Contract Audit Agency guidelines. These fees differ from fixed contracting costs by aligning incentives with outcomes, though they raise scrutiny for potential conflicts, as seen in regulations limiting contingent fees to prevent "influence peddling" in procurement processes.^[36] In private sector contracting, such as construction or services, commissions for sales representatives may range from 2% to 5% of contract value, treated as deductible expenses akin to wages or contract labor, provided they reflect arm's-length transactions.^[37] Both brokerage and contracting commissions embody performance-linked remuneration, fostering efficiency in intermediary roles but subject to market evolution and oversight; for instance, incremental commissions in contract acquisition are capitalizable as assets under accounting standards like ASC 606 if recoverable over the contract term, underscoring their role in revenue recognition.^[38] Regulatory bodies, including the SEC for brokerages and FAR for contracting, enforce transparency to mitigate agency problems, where brokers or agents might prioritize high-commission deals over client interests.^[33]^[35]

Incentives, Efficiency, and Market Dynamics

Commissions in sales and brokerage structures serve as performance-contingent incentives that align the interests of agents with principals, mitigating principal-agent conflicts by rewarding outcomes such as transaction volume or value rather than mere effort. In economic theory, this variable pay mechanism encourages agents to exert higher effort levels, as compensation is directly tied to verifiable results like sales closed, reducing moral hazard where agents might otherwise shirk without repercussions. Empirical reviews of sales force compensation indicate that variable components, including commissions, motivate salespeople to achieve targeted outcomes by fostering goal-directed behavior and increasing overall performance metrics. For instance, field experiments demonstrate that shifting to performance-based plans can elevate retail sales volumes through sustained multi-period incentives.^[39]^[40]^[22] Efficiency gains arise from commissions' role in shifting risk from principals to agents, allowing firms to minimize fixed salary costs and pay primarily for successful transactions, which is particularly advantageous in uncertain environments like infrequent or high-value sales. Studies on sales compensation recommend commission-heavy plans for products with frequent sales cycles, as they optimize resource allocation by linking pay to marginal contributions, thereby enhancing organizational productivity without overcompensating for inputs. In brokerage contexts, such as real estate, commissions—typically 5-6% of transaction value split between agents—facilitate efficient matching by incentivizing brokers to invest in search and negotiation efforts, reducing market frictions like information asymmetry and prolonged buyer-seller matching times. This structure promotes operational efficiency, as evidenced by industry data showing that commission-driven models correlate with higher transaction probabilities despite sellers trading off net proceeds for faster sales.^[41]^[42] Market dynamics under commission regimes foster competition among agents, driving innovations in service delivery and pricing strategies while influencing overall market liquidity and pricing. In real estate brokerage, persistent commission norms around 5.57% as of 2025 reflect a balance where agents compete on expertise and networks rather than rates, sustaining high transaction volumes—over 4 million existing home sales in 2023—by internalizing search costs that individual buyers and sellers might otherwise bear inefficiently. However, this can lead to sticky pricing resistant to downward pressure, as higher offered commissions attract more buyer agents, amplifying sale probabilities in a competitive equilibrium. In stock brokerage, the shift to zero-commission trading since 2019 has altered dynamics by decoupling agent incentives from per-trade fees, redirecting focus toward advisory services and assets under management, which enhances long-term efficiency but reduces short-term transaction-based motivations. Overall, commissions promote dynamic adaptation, with empirical evidence linking incentive-aligned pay to sustained performance uplifts, though outcomes vary by market frequency and regulatory changes.^[43]^[44]^[42]

Governmental and Legal Applications

Administrative and Regulatory Bodies

In governmental contexts, administrative and regulatory commissions refer to independent agencies or bodies established by legislative authority to implement, enforce, and oversee specific laws or standards within designated sectors, often exercising quasi-legislative, quasi-executive, and quasi-judicial functions.^[45] These entities develop detailed rules to execute broad statutory directives, addressing technical complexities beyond the capacity of legislatures alone.^[45] The origins of such commissions trace to the late 19th century in the United States, with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) established on February 4, 1887, by the Interstate Commerce Act to regulate interstate rail transport and curb monopolistic abuses amid rapid industrialization.^[46] This model proliferated during the Progressive Era and New Deal periods, as Congress sought expert-driven oversight for emerging industries like communications, securities, and trade, creating bodies insulated from direct executive influence to foster stability and impartiality.^[47] Key characteristics include multi-member structures, typically comprising 3 to 7 commissioners appointed by the president with Senate confirmation, serving staggered fixed terms (often 5–7 years) to promote continuity and bipartisanship, with prohibitions on reappointment for outgoing chairs to limit political entrenchment.^[48] Funding often derives from congressional appropriations or industry fees rather than general taxes, enhancing operational autonomy, though this independence has drawn criticism for reducing accountability to elected branches.^[49] Commissioners cannot be removed at will by the president, except for cause such as inefficiency or neglect, a safeguard upheld in cases like Humphrey's Executor v. United States (1935), distinguishing them from purely executive agencies.^[48] These commissions wield authority to promulgate regulations via notice-and-comment rulemaking under the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946, conduct investigations, impose penalties, and adjudicate disputes, thereby balancing industry innovation with public protections.^[45] Prominent examples include the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), created by the Federal Trade Commission Act of September 26, 1914, to combat anticompetitive practices; the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), formed by the Securities Exchange Act of June 6, 1934, to safeguard markets post-1929 crash; and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), established by the Communications Act of June 19, 1934, to allocate spectrum and regulate broadcasting. Internationally, analogous bodies exist, such as the European Commission's directorates for competition and internal market regulation, though national variations emphasize varying degrees of centralization.^[47]

Investigative and Advisory Commissions

Investigative commissions are temporary governmental entities established to examine specific events, failures, or controversies, such as national security lapses or public scandals, by gathering evidence, conducting hearings, and issuing reports with findings and recommendations. These bodies derive their authority from legislative or executive mandates, often including subpoena powers to compel testimony and documents, distinguishing them from routine agency investigations. In the United States, Congress creates many such commissions under its constitutional oversight powers, focusing on events warranting independent scrutiny beyond partisan committees.^[50]^[51] Notable examples include the Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, or Church Committee, authorized by Senate Resolution 21 on January 27, 1975, which investigated intelligence agency abuses including warrantless wiretapping by the FBI's COINTELPRO program and CIA assassination attempts abroad. The committee held 126 committee meetings, 800 interviews, and reviewed 50,000 documents, culminating in a 1976 report that exposed systemic violations of civil liberties and prompted reforms like the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978.^[52] Another instance is the National Commission on the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks, established by Public Law 107-306 on November 27, 2002, which analyzed intelligence failures preceding the attacks that killed 2,977 people, recommending structural changes to the intelligence community later implemented via the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004.^[53] Advisory commissions, by contrast, serve to furnish expert analysis and non-binding policy suggestions on ongoing or prospective issues, drawing on external specialists to inform government decisions without prosecutorial aims. Under the Federal Advisory Committee Act of 1972, these entities must operate transparently, with open meetings and balanced membership to mitigate groupthink, though their influence hinges on alignment with executive or legislative priorities.^[54]^[55] Congressional advisory commissions, chartered via statute, typically comprise 8 to 20 members appointed for fixed terms, tasked with studying complex topics like fiscal policy or regulatory frameworks and delivering reports within one to two years.^[56] They enhance causal understanding of policy challenges by integrating empirical data and stakeholder input, but outcomes vary, with some reports shaping legislation while others languish due to political gridlock.^[57]

Criticisms of Governmental Commissions

Governmental commissions, particularly investigative and advisory bodies, are often criticized for functioning as tools to defer accountability rather than drive substantive reform. By outsourcing complex or politically contentious issues to commissions, governments can project diligence while avoiding direct legislative or executive action, effectively kicking difficult decisions down the road. This approach, as noted in analyses of congressional commissions, allows lawmakers to sidestep responsibility for unpopular outcomes, with commissions frequently established amid public pressure but yielding non-binding recommendations that are ignored when inconvenient.^[58]^[59] Such entities also incur substantial costs without commensurate results, diverting taxpayer funds to protracted investigations, hearings, and reports that rarely translate into enforceable policy changes. For example, U.S. congressional commissions have been faulted for high operational expenses—often in the millions—stemming from staffing, travel, and administrative overhead, even as their outputs remain advisory and subject to selective implementation by Congress.^[58] Critics contend this inefficiency stems from structural flaws, including limited timelines and resources mismatched to the scope of inquiries, leading to superficial analyses rather than rigorous causal examinations.^[51] Partisanship further undermines commission efficacy, as members appointed along party lines prioritize ideological alignment over objective fact-finding. Reports from bodies like U.S. congressional investigatory commissions reveal mixed records, with partisan divisions producing dissenting opinions or compromised conclusions that dilute investigative impact.^[51] In the UK, public inquiries face similar rebukes for failing to compel governmental response, as there is no statutory duty to adopt recommendations, enabling repeated errors—such as in disaster responses or scandals—without systemic correction.^[60] This lack of enforcement power, inherent to most commissions, renders them symbolic gestures prone to capture by prevailing political narratives rather than empirical rigor. Regulatory commissions, a subset of governmental bodies, draw additional scrutiny for regulatory capture and bureaucratic inertia, where industry influences erode public interest mandates. Historical assessments highlight failures in fulfilling statutory functions due to unclear accountability structures and conflicts between prosecutorial, rulemaking, and adjudicative roles, fostering inefficiency and delayed decision-making.^[61]^[62] Overall, these criticisms underscore a causal disconnect: without coercive authority or alignment with executive priorities, commissions often educate or inform without altering behavior, perpetuating the issues they were meant to address.^[63]

Military Applications

Officer Appointments and Authority

A military commission serves as the formal legal instrument granting an officer authority to command personnel and exercise executive powers on behalf of the sovereign or head of state. In the United States, commissioned officers receive their commission directly from the President, acting as the President's representative in military operations and administration.^[64]^[65] This document, often a signed certificate, symbolizes the officer's accountability to the Constitution rather than to a specific superior, distinguishing commissioned officers from enlisted personnel or warrant officers who derive authority through warrants or appointments.^[64]^[9] Appointments to commissioned ranks occur through several pathways, including service academies like the United States Military Academy (established 1802), Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) programs, Officer Candidate School (OCS), and direct commissions for professionals with specialized expertise.^[66] Original appointments in the regular forces are subject to presidential direction and, for higher grades, Senate confirmation, while reserve commissions above O-5 require presidential nomination with Senate advice and consent.^[66]^[67] The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 expanded direct commissioning authority to ranks up to colonel (O-6) for critical billets, enabling rapid integration of civilians such as doctors or lawyers into officer roles without traditional training pipelines.^[68] Eligibility typically requires U.S. citizenship (with limited waivers), minimum age of 18, and commissioning before age 35 for most branches, alongside physical, moral, and educational standards verified by service secretaries.^[69]^[70] Upon commissioning, officers swear an oath to "support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic," binding their authority to constitutional principles over personal or partisan loyalties.^[71] This commission confers command authority over subordinates, including the ability to issue lawful orders enforceable under the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), with precedence determined by rank and date of commission.^[65] Commissioned officers hold inherent powers to direct combat operations, such as authorizing lethal force against enemies, rooted in their role as extensions of presidential executive authority, though all orders must align with law to avoid personal liability.^[72] Historical precedents trace this system to medieval European sovereigns granting commissions to nobility for wartime leadership, evolving in the U.S. to emphasize merit-based selection post-Revolutionary War, as formalized in Article II of the Constitution vesting commissioning power in the President with Senate consent.^[9]^[66] Revocation of a commission, rare and typically for cause like misconduct, reverts the individual to enlisted status or civilian life, underscoring its revocable nature at the President's pleasure, particularly for reserves.^[69]

Tribunals and Judicial Proceedings

Military commissions operate as specialized tribunals empowered to try individuals for violations of the law of war, particularly unlawful combatants such as spies, saboteurs, or guerrillas who fail to qualify for prisoner-of-war status under international norms like the Hague Conventions.^[73] These proceedings address offenses beyond the scope of standard courts-martial, which are reserved for uniformed service members under the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), and are convened by military commanders when civil courts are unavailable or inappropriate due to exigencies of war.^[74] Rooted in English common law traditions of summary justice for battlefield necessities, commissions prioritize operational efficiency, allowing for flexible rules of evidence and procedure not bound by civilian standards, such as admitting hearsay if deemed reliable by the tribunal.^[75] The United States first utilized military commissions during the Revolutionary War, with General George Washington authorizing one in 1778 to convict British Major John André of espionage for aiding Benedict Arnold's plot, leading to André's execution on October 2, 1780.^[73] Subsequent conflicts saw expanded application: in the War of 1812, commissions tried British subjects for violations like privateering without proper commission; during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), they adjudicated local insurgents; and in the Civil War (1861–1865), over 4,000 proceedings targeted Confederate sympathizers, guerrillas, and draft evaders, particularly in Union-occupied border regions.^[73] Key judicial precedents shaped their constitutional bounds. In Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court invalidated a commission's conviction of civilian Lambdin P. Milligan for conspiracy in Indiana, where civil courts functioned, ruling that martial law cannot supplant habeas corpus and due process absent rebellion rendering civilian justice impossible; the 9–0 decision affirmed commissions' legitimacy only in theaters of active invasion or occupation precluding ordinary trials.^[76] By contrast, Ex parte Quirin (1942) upheld commissions for eight Nazi agents landed by U-boat on U.S. beaches in June 1942 to conduct sabotage; classifying them as unlawful belligerents for operating covertly without uniforms, the Court endorsed President Roosevelt's order for their trial, rejecting habeas challenges and permitting execution of six (one pleaded guilty and two were imprisoned) on August 8, 1942, as compatible with congressional authorization under the Articles of War.^[77]^[78] Under Article 21 of the UCMJ (10 U.S.C. § 821), enacted in 1950, commissions retain authority concurrent with courts-martial for law-of-war offenses, drawing from historical practice and explicit non-exclusivity of UCMJ jurisdiction to preserve commander discretion in asymmetric threats.^[74] Panels typically comprise 5–13 commissioned officers acting as triers of both fact and law (unless a judge advocates otherwise), with a military judge overseeing; appeals route through a Court of Military Commission Review, then potentially the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, ensuring oversight while accommodating military imperatives like classified evidence handling.^[75] This framework, affirmed in pre-2001 cases, underscores commissions' role in maintaining discipline against non-state actors, though empirical outcomes varied, with Civil War convictions often swift but post hoc reviews exposing inconsistencies in due process application.^[79]

Post-9/11 Military Commissions and Debates

On November 13, 2001, President George W. Bush issued a military order authorizing the Secretary of Defense to establish military commissions for trying non-U.S. citizens suspected of involvement in terrorism against the United States or its allies, targeting "alien unlawful combatants" captured during the global response to the September 11 attacks.^[80] These tribunals were designed to address offenses like conspiracy and aiding the enemy, which proponents argued fell outside the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) applicable to regular U.S. forces, as al-Qaeda operatives operated as irregular combatants unbound by the laws of war.^[81] Initial proceedings began at Guantanamo Bay in 2004, but faced immediate legal scrutiny over procedural fairness and evidentiary rules allowing hearsay and classified evidence.^[82] The U.S. Supreme Court in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld ruled on June 29, 2006, that Bush's commissions lacked congressional authorization under the UCMJ and violated Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions, which prohibits trials lacking "judicial guarantees recognized as indispensable by civilized peoples."^[83]^[82] The 5-3 decision emphasized that military commissions must conform to historical precedents like those used in World War II, rejecting ad hoc rules that permitted exclusion of defendants from hearings or reliance on unsworn statements.^[83] Congress enacted the Military Commissions Act (MCA) of 2006 on October 17, 2006, authorizing trials for alien unlawful enemy combatants accused of war crimes, including provisions for death penalties, majority voting for convictions, and limits on appeals, while suspending habeas corpus petitions in federal courts for such detainees.^[84] The MCA defined offenses like material support for terrorism and permitted coerced evidence if not obtained through "torture," though it required assessing voluntariness.^[84] A 2009 amendment under President Barack Obama prohibited statements from torture or cruel treatment, expanded judicial oversight, and aligned procedures more closely with courts-martial, but retained commissions for non-citizen terrorism suspects to avoid exposing intelligence sources in civilian trials.^[85] Debates over these commissions have centered on their necessity versus fairness, with supporters arguing they enable secure handling of classified evidence and specialized jurisdiction for irregular warfare not suited to Article III courts or UCMJ proceedings, as evidenced by World War II precedents for Nazi saboteurs.^[81] Critics, including human rights organizations, contend the system permits indefinite detention without charge—over 700 individuals held at Guantanamo since 2002, with only 8 convictions by 2023—and relies on evidence tainted by enhanced interrogations, undermining due process under international standards.^[86]^[87] Empirical delays, such as the 9/11 case pretrial phase exceeding 15 years by 2025 despite MCA reforms, stem from evidentiary disputes over torture-derived confessions and appellate reviews, leading some analysts to question commissions' efficiency compared to alternatives like federal prosecutions, which secured over 500 terrorism convictions without similar stalls.^[88]^[89] As of 2025, the high-profile trial of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and four co-defendants for the September 11 attacks remains in pretrial hearings at Guantanamo, with recent rulings upholding plea agreements amid ongoing challenges to coerced evidence admissibility.^[90]^[91]

Specialized and Other Uses

Artistic and Creative Commissions

An artistic commission refers to an agreement in which a patron or client hires an artist to produce a custom work of art tailored to specific requirements, such as subject matter, size, medium, or theme.^[92] This practice contrasts with artists selling pre-existing pieces, as commissions involve collaborative planning and often legal contracts to outline deliverables, timelines, and payment terms.^[93] Historically, commissions have enabled patrons to assert status or commemorate events while providing artists with financial stability, though they can limit creative freedom compared to independent production.^[94] The tradition traces to ancient civilizations, including Egypt, Greece, and Rome, where rulers commissioned sculptures and murals to glorify their legacies, such as Pharaoh Ramesses II's colossal temple statues at Abu Simbel around 1265 BCE.^[95] During the Italian Renaissance, wealthy families like the Medici in Florence drove a surge in commissions to display power and piety; for instance, they funded Sandro Botticelli's Birth of Venus (c. 1484–1486) and Donatello's bronze David (c. 1440s).^[96] Papal patronage exemplified this era's scale, with Pope Julius II commissioning Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508–1512), a project initially resisted by the artist but yielding one of history's most renowned frescoes despite contractual disputes over scope and payment.^[97] Similarly, Ludovico Sforza commissioned Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper (1495–1498) for the Santa Maria delle Grazie refectory in Milan, blending artistic innovation with religious function.^[94] In modern practice, commissioning artwork typically begins with the client selecting an artist based on portfolio alignment, followed by detailed discussions on vision, budget, and deadlines.^[98] Contracts are essential, specifying non-refundable deposits—often 50% upfront—to secure commitment and cover initial materials, with the balance due upon completion or milestones like preliminary sketches.^[99] Artists may charge hourly rates (e.g., $55–65 per hour for mid-level professionals) or fixed fees accounting for time, materials, and complexity, aiming for 20–40% profit margins after costs.^[100] Challenges include mismatched expectations, requiring clear communication to avoid revisions; successful commissions, however, foster repeat patronage and portfolio enhancement for artists.^[101] Economically, commissions offer artists predictable revenue streams amid market volatility, particularly for emerging creators reliant on direct client work rather than gallery sales, where intermediaries claim 33–50% cuts.^[102] Yet, they demand upfront investment in client revisions without guaranteed sales of unsold inventory, underscoring commissions' role in balancing artistic autonomy with pragmatic income generation.^[103] In contemporary contexts, public and corporate commissions—such as urban installations or office collections—extend this model, prioritizing site-specific utility over pure aesthetics.^[104]

Ecclesiastical and Religious Authorities

In ecclesiastical contexts, a commission denotes either the formal delegation of authority to religious officials for specific duties or the establishment of bodies comprising clergy to oversee defined functions, such as doctrinal oversight, estate management, or enforcement of church discipline. This usage stems from the Latin commissio, implying a mandate or entrustment, often rooted in hierarchical structures where higher authorities appoint subordinates to act on their behalf.^[105] Such commissions have historically served to maintain uniformity and administer church affairs without usurping core doctrinal authority.^[106] A foundational example in Christianity is the Great Commission, recorded in Matthew 28:18-20, where Jesus asserts, "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me," before instructing his disciples to evangelize, baptize, and teach obedience to his commands worldwide. This biblical mandate establishes the paradigm of derived authority, empowering apostles and subsequent church leaders to propagate the faith, a principle central to missionary endeavors and the jurisdictional claims of ecclesiastical bodies.^[107] Protestant traditions emphasize its ongoing applicability to all believers, framing evangelism as an extension of Christ's sovereign commission rather than confined to ordained clergy.^[108] Historically, the Court of High Commission, instituted in England during the 16th century under royal prerogative, exemplified an enforcement body tasked with upholding ecclesiastical laws, suppressing nonconformity, and addressing moral offenses through inquisitorial proceedings.^[109] Revived in modified form in 1686 by James II to discipline Anglican bishops opposing Catholic-leaning policies, it highlighted tensions between monarchical and clerical authority.^[110] In the 19th century, the Ecclesiastical Commission of 1835, initiated under Prime Minister Robert Peel, investigated church revenues and proposed reforms, leading to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners' Act of 1836, which centralized management of Anglican diocesan estates and redistributed resources to underfunded sees, merging into the modern Church Commissioners by 1948.^[111] Within the Catholic Church, commissions operate under papal authority as advisory or executive entities, such as the Pontifical Biblical Commission, founded by Pope Leo XIII on October 30, 1902, via the motu proprio Vigilantiae studi, to safeguard scriptural interpretation amid modernist challenges.^[112] Its rulings, while influential, lack dogmatic force unless ratified by the magisterium, underscoring commissions' role in supporting rather than originating teaching authority.^[113] Doctrinal commissions, convened by bishops' conferences or the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, further exemplify this by fostering theological dialogue and addressing contemporary issues, always subordinate to the pope's ultimate jurisdiction.^[114] In broader religious settings, some Protestant denominations distinguish commissioning from ordination, granting temporary or specialized authority to non-ordained individuals for tasks like preaching or administration, as a pragmatic response to ministerial shortages without implying full sacramental powers.^[115] Ecumenical bodies, such as the World Council of Churches' Commission on Faith and Order, coordinate interdenominational efforts on doctrine, reflecting commissions' utility in collaborative governance amid fragmented authority structures.^[116] These mechanisms prioritize functional efficiency and fidelity to foundational mandates over expansive autonomy.

References

[1]
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/commission
[2]
Commissions | U.S. Department of Labor
A sales commission is a sum of money paid to an employee upon completion of a task, usually selling a certain amount of goods or services.
[3]
Commission - Definition, How It Works, Advantages and ...
Commission refers to the compensation paid to an employee after completing a task, which is, often, selling a certain number of products or services.
[4]
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/commission
[5]
commission | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute
A commission is a fee or remuneration paid in return for services rendered. Commission is often calculated as a percentage of the total transaction.
[6]
What is a Commission? Definition and Meaning - OnPay
A commission is money an employee earns for selling goods, services, or subscriptions and is usually tied to a quota.
[7]
Commission - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating in mid-14c. from Latin commissio meaning "act of committing," commission means delegated authority or power and to empower or authorize someone.
[8]
commission, n.¹ meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English ...
Partly a borrowing from French. Partly a borrowing from Latin. Etymons: French commission; Latin commissiōn-, commissiō.
[9]
Know What An Officer Commission Means - U.S. Naval Institute
The commissioning of officers has a long history and can be traced back to the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, sovereigns would offer noblemen commissions to ...
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The origin of the sales commission: Why salespeople have always ...
Mar 3, 2025 · The concept of commissions has roots in ancient trade. In ancient Mesopotamia and Rome, merchants and traders often worked on a profit-sharing ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[11]
Webster's Dictionary 1828 - Commission
1. The act of committing, doing, performing, or perpetrating; as the commission of a crime. 2. The act of committing or sending to; the act of entrusting, as a ...
[12]
Delegation of Authority - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Delegation of authority is when a superior assigns decision-making powers to a subordinate, transferring authority to them.
[13]
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[14]
[PDF] Commission Chairs - Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository
Part I provides the conceptual foundations for the strong-chair model. This. Part describes the legal relationship between chairs and associate commissioners,.
[15]
commission, v. meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English ...
There are 11 meanings listed in OED's entry for the verb commission. See 'Meaning & use' for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence. commission has ...
[16]
Regulation as Delegation | Journal of Legal Analysis
Jun 22, 2015 · Regulation as delegation views government as an agent making personal decisions for us, and regulation as a hypothetical delegation, not an ...
[17]
18 FAM 201.3 DELEGATIONS OF AUTHORITY
Delegations of authority are the primary way to assign legal responsibilities, generally for long-term programmatic tasks, and can be redelegated.
[18]
What Is Sales Commission? Types, Examples, & Formulas | Salesforce
Sales commission is the additional money a sales rep earns on top of a base salary for achieving specific goals. Learn types and agreements.Missing: economics | Show results with:economics
[19]
9 Sales Commission Structures (With Formulas and Examples)
Jul 24, 2025 · Nine types of sales commission structures · 1. Base rate only commission · 2. Base salary plus commission · 3. Draw against a commission · 4. Gross ...Missing: economics | Show results with:economics
[20]
8 Sales Commission Structures, Examples, and Benefits - CaptivateIQ
What are the Three Types of Commissions? · Straight commission: Reps earn a percentage of every sale without no base salary. · Base salary+ Commission: A mix of ...Missing: economics | Show results with:economics
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Commission: Definition, Types, Pros and Cons - Peak Frameworks
Oct 17, 2023 · Types of Commission Structures ; Base Salary + Commission. A mix of fixed salary and commission. Balances security with performance incentives.Missing: economics | Show results with:economics
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A field study of the impact of a performance-based incentive plan
This paper reports on a field test of the multi-period incentive effects of a performance-based compensation plan on the sales of a retail establishment.
[23]
[PDF] The Comprehensive Effects of Sales Force Management: A Dynamic ...
In addition, early empirical studies, relying mainly on survey measures, have generated strikingly mixed findings, ranging from a 50% increase in performance ( ...
[24]
“Double-edged” sword effects on sales performance - ScienceDirect
We explore a “double-edged” sword effect of the efficacy and performance/goal pursuit impact of a new incentive-based sales compensation plan.
[25]
Average Sales Commission Rates by Industry - Updated 2024
Jun 16, 2024 · In some industries, commission rates can be as low as 5%, while in others they can go as high as 45%.
[26]
Typical Sales Commission Rates by Industry (2025 Guide) - Kennect
Apr 21, 2025 · Real Estate, 1-3% of the total property value ; Software as a Service, 10-30% of the total sales volume ; Retail and Consumer Goods, 3-10% of the ...
[27]
Sales Commission Rates By Industry - CaptivateIQ
The average commission rate ranges between 5-20%, though this range will vary depending on your sales commission structure and industry.
[28]
Sales Compensation Statistics 2025: Trends & Insights - Everstage
What is the average commission rate for B2B sales roles? Commission rates for B2B sales roles vary but generally range between 5% and 15%, depending on the ...
[29]
(PDF) The ethical implications of the straight-commission ...
Aug 10, 2025 · According to Kurland (1991) , the commission system creates a conflict of interest for salesperson so they tend to sacrifice the interests of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
Commissions and Their Effect on Sales Behavior
Oct 31, 2024 · One of the key arguments against commission-based incentives is the potential for aggressive sales tactics that compromise customer satisfaction ...
[31]
Overcoming the Stigma of Commission-Based Sales
Jun 1, 2010 · Recent polls suggest that the public continues to hold a dim view of the sales profession and to rate commissioned salespeople as dishonest and unethical.
[32]
Pricing | Account Fees | Charles Schwab
Options · Online Trades. $0 online base commission + $0.65 per contract fee · Broker-Assisted Trades. $0.65 per contract + $25 service charge.
[33]
What Is a Brokerage Fee? How Fees Work and Types - Investopedia
Oct 3, 2024 · A brokerage fee is a fee or commission a broker charges to execute transactions or provide specialized services on behalf of clients.What Is a Brokerage Fee? · Stock Brokerage Fee Breakdown
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Brokerage Fees and Investment Commissions Explained - NerdWallet
Jun 6, 2025 · Brokerage fees are what a broker charges for various services, such as subscriptions, access to premium features or investing data, and additional trading ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[35]
Commissions and Federal Contracts: A Primer - Govology
Jul 21, 2022 · A success fee, such as $10,000 for each contract successfully awarded as a result of the consultant's efforts. · An hourly rate for the ...
[36]
Direct Selling Commissions and Contingent Fees
According to FAR Subpart 3.4, contingent fees and commissions are allowable according to the activities performed by ESTABLISHED SELLING AGENCY on behalf of ...
[37]
What Expense Category Does Sales Commission Come Under? - Fyle
Sales commissions are under Wages/Salaries for employees, or Sales Commissions Expense, Commissions and Fees, or Contract Labor for contractors.
[38]
13.2 Costs of Obtaining a Contract | DART
Commissions are often cited as an example of an incremental cost incurred to obtain a contract. Acknowledging that it may be difficult for an entity to ...
[39]
Principal-Agent Problem Causes, Solutions, and Examples Explained
The principal-agent problem is a conflict in priorities between a person or group of people and the representative authorized to act on their behalf.Overview · Understanding the Problem · Causes · Solutions
[40]
Sales force financial compensation – a review and synthesis of the ...
Our review shows that SFFC, especially variable pay, can motivate salespeople to work harder and increase performance on targeted outcomes.
[41]
Average Real Estate Agent Commission Rates (2025 Survey)
Sep 3, 2025 · We found that typical realtor commission rates were 5.57%, but ranged from a low of 4.92% to a high of 6.03%. Remember: these rates only ...
[42]
[PDF] The Equilibrium Impacts of Broker Incentives in the Real Estate Market
Apr 2, 2025 · Sellers face a significant trade-off between paying higher commissions for a greater probability of sale and retaining more sales proceeds. The.
[43]
Commissions and Omissions: Trends in Real Estate Broker ...
May 12, 2025 · Although the conventional wisdom is that most sellers offer 2.5 or 3 percent commissions to both their own agent and the buyer's agent, there is ...
[44]
Quick Real Estate Statistics - National Association of REALTORS®
Jul 7, 2024 · Overview of the Real Estate Market · 4,090,000 existing homes were sold in 2023, according to data from the National Association of REALTORS®.Missing: stock | Show results with:stock
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administrative agency | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute
A government body authorized to implement legislative directives by developing more precise and technical rules than possible in a legislative setting.
[46]
Milestones in the Evolution of the Administrative State
Congress created the first modern regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), in 1887. As a 1977 Senate report put it, “for close to 100 years ...
[47]
A Brief History of Regulation and Deregulation
Ever since Congress created the first federal regulatory body more than 130 years ago, people have debated the proper role for what has been called the “fourth ...
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Independence of Federal Financial Regulators: Structure, Funding ...
The financial regulators were created between 1863 (Office of the Comptroller of the Currency [OCC]) and 2010 (Consumer Financial Protection Bureau [CFPB]).
[49]
Make 'Independent' Regulatory Agencies More Accountable To The ...
May 9, 2017 · So-called “independent” regulatory agencies operate outside the normal checks and balances of our constitutional system.
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[PDF] Congressional Commissions: Overview, Structure, and Legislative ...
May 16, 2025 · Investigative Commissions. Investigative commissions, established for the purpose of reviewing specific events, are much less common than ...
[51]
Investigating a Crisis: A Comparison of Six U.S. Congressional ...
Apr 6, 2021 · ... investigative commissions. Their survey addresses design, powers, and outcomes of significant congressionally created investigative commissions.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with ...
The Church Committee investigated and identified a wide range of intelligence abuses by federal agencies, including the CIA, FBI, Internal Revenue Service, and ...
[53]
FBI — 9/11 Commission Recommendations
Among the successes achieved thus far in the war on terrorism, the FBI has made significant progress against both the operational and support arms of terror ...Missing: notable outcomes criticisms
[54]
Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) Management Overview - GSA
Mar 4, 2025 · They are a useful tool for “furnishing expert advice, ideas, and diverse opinions to the Federal Government,” (5 U.S.C. 1002(a)). Federal ...
[55]
The Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) - Congress.gov
Mar 26, 2024 · Federal advisory committees are created by Congress, Presidents, and executive branch agencies to gain expertise and policy advice from individuals outside the ...
[56]
Congressional Commissions: Overview and Considerations for ...
Mar 6, 2025 · Congressional commissions are formal groups established to provide independent advice, recommend changes in public policy, study or investigate ...
[57]
Research Guides: Commission Reports (U.S. Government)
May 29, 2025 · Selected final reports of agencies and special commissions established to study issues and recommend policy options for complex and important issues.
[58]
[PDF] Congressional Commissions: Overview and Considerations for ...
Mar 6, 2025 · On the other hand, critics argue that congressional commissions can be expensive, that they are often formed to take difficult decisions out of ...
[59]
Why public inquiries are often an admission that the other elements ...
May 2, 2021 · The admission of failure is that the other elements of the state – primarily the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary – have failed in their roles.
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Peers criticise failure to follow up on public inquiry ...
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[PDF] The Problem of the Independent Regulatory Commission
"The independent regulatory commissions create a confusing and difficult situation in the field of national administration. There is a conflict of principle ...
[62]
[PDF] Identifying the Causes of Failure of the Regulatory Commissions
It is the thesis of this article that we do not know with any degree of clarity why the regulatory commissions are failing to fulfill their functions and that ...<|separator|>
[63]
[PDF] Explaining the failure of public inquiry recommendations - UQ eSpace
Very often, it is clear, pressure of opinion – which may be that of the general public, of the press, or of politicians – forces the Government to action ...
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Chapter 1 | The Commission and the Oath - NDU Press
Apr 17, 2017 · You become an officer in the Armed Forces of the United States by accepting a commission and swearing the oath of support for the Constitution.Missing: process | Show results with:process
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Duties, Responsibilities and Authority of the NCO - GlobalSecurity.org
Commissioned officers hold a commission from the President of the United States, which authorizes them to act as the President's representative in certain ...<|separator|>
[66]
10 U.S. Code § 531 - Original appointments of commissioned officers
Subject to the authority, direction, and control of the President, an original appointment as a commissioned officer in the Regular Army, Regular Air Force ...
[67]
Officer Appointments (Scrolling) - RAND
Appointment of reserve officers above the grade of O-5 are made by the President with advice and consent of the Senate.Missing: commission | Show results with:commission
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Direct Commissioning - Army Talent Innovation Division
The National Defense Authorization Act of 2019 (NDAA 2019) gave the military services the authorization to direct commission officers up to the rank of Colonel.
[69]
10 U.S. Code § 12203 - Commissioned officers: appointment, how ...
Appointments of Reserves in commissioned grades are for an indefinite term and are held during the pleasure of the President. (Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat ...Missing: process | Show results with:process
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Commissioning Guide > 180th Fighter Wing > Fact Sheets
Requirements for Commissioning · Must be at least 18 years old and a U.S. citizen · Must be commissioned before the age of 35<|separator|>
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Oath of Commissioned Officers - Army Values
I ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic.
[72]
An Officer's Identity: It's Important to Maintain Trust, Authority, Other ...
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Military Commissions History
Military commissions are a form of military tribunal convened to try individuals for unlawful conduct associated with war.
[74]
10 U.S. Code § 821 - Art. 21. Jurisdiction of courts-martial not ...
10 U.S. Code § 821 states that courts-martial do not have exclusive jurisdiction; military commissions, provost courts, and other tribunals have concurrent ...
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Office of Military Commissions > About Us > Legal System Comparison
Military commissions, a form of military tribunal, were born of military necessity. They have taken many forms since their first use in the United States during ...
[76]
Ex parte Milligan - Oyez
Lambden P. Milligan was sentenced to death by a military commission in Indiana during the Civil War for engaging in acts of disloyalty.
[77]
Ex parte Quirin | Oyez
Ex parte Quirin involved German saboteurs tried by military commission. The Supreme Court ruled they were unlawful enemy combatants, and the President did not ...
[78]
Ex Parte Quirin | 317 U.S. 1 (1942) - Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center
Ex Parte Quirin involved German saboteurs landing in the US. The court ruled they were in lawful custody for military trial, and the military commission was ...
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The History of the US Court of Military Commission Review describes the significant decisions of that court.Missing: proceedings | Show results with:proceedings
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Handout M: Timeline - Military Justice during the War on Terror
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The Continuing Importance of Military Commissions
While some details in the shape of commissions continue to be challenged, today commissions satisfy the fundamental fairness guarantees of the Geneva ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
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Hamdan v. Rumsfeld | Oyez
Mar 28, 2006 · A case in which the Court found that the rights given by the Geneva Convention to prisoners of war could be enforced by federal court.
[83]
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld | 548 U.S. 557 (2006)
Second, Hamdan contends, the procedures that the President has adopted to try him violate the most basic tenets of military and international law, including the ...
[84]
S.3930 - 109th Congress (2005-2006): Military Commissions Act of ...
Oct 17, 2006 · Allows commissions to impose upon any person found guilty any punishment not forbidden under the UCMJ, including the death penalty. Requires an ...Missing: key | Show results with:key
[85]
Office of Military Commissions > Legal Resources > OMC Documents
Present-day military commissions operate in accordance with documents that include the following: those detailing who may be tried by military commission and ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
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Briefing Paper on U.S. Military Commissions - Human Rights Watch
On July 15, 2005, a U.S. federal appeals court in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld overturned a November 8, 2004 district court ruling that had resulted in the suspension of ...
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Military Commissions | American Civil Liberties Union
The Guantánamo military commission proceedings have been marred by legal and ethical problems from day one. Among other things, the proceedings allow the ...
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Jun 17, 2025 · Three major problems account for the failure of the military commissions: bureaucratic delays and inefficiency, a lack of judicial independence, ...
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MC Cases - Military Commissions
Office of Military Commissions Cases 9/11: Khalid Shaikh Mohammad et al. (2) View case USS Cole: Abd al-Rahim Hussein Muhammed Abdu Al-Nashiri (2) View case
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Office of Military Commissions > Home
Welcome to the Office of Military Commissions. Military Commissions are run by the Department of Defense through the work of five organizations to achieve ...Organization Overview · Daily Transcripts · Contact Us · OMC News
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Court Rules Signed Plea Agreements with Three of the 9/11 ... - ACLU
Nov 7, 2024 · A US military court has agreed that the plea agreement reached with ACLU client Khalid Shaikh Mohammad back in August is valid and must go into effect.<|control11|><|separator|>
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What is a Commission? | A guide to art terminology - Avant Arte
An art commission is when an individual or institution requests that an artist make an artwork especially for them.
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An Introduction to Public Art Commissions - LAPADA
Public art commissions have been around for millennia. Egypt's Pharaoh Ramesses the Great has been immortalised with four colossal sculptures in the temple at ...
[96]
A Brief History of Artwork Commission: Ancient Rome and the Italian ...
An artwork commission is the act of soliciting the creation of an original piece, often on behalf of another. Art pieces can be commissioned by private ...
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Commissioned artwork - The Painters Keys
Mar 13, 2018 · The artist was Michelangelo and the patron was Pope Julius II. The “job” was a three-story tomb with forty bronze and marble statues.
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Art Commissions Guide - Art Prof
1. Inform your client about your art making process · 2. Clients who commission artwork usually have no idea what they want · 3. Write a detailed contract · 4.
[99]
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Apr 16, 2015 · One valuable way to generate a level of predictable income is through commissioned works of art. Standard commission terms call for 50% payment upon signing, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Do's and Don'ts of Commissioning an Artwork
Mar 14, 2017 · Do: initial contact, provide details, have a contract, communicate. Don't: assume artist will accept, be vague, wait to discuss details, lose ...
[102]
Ask a Gallery Owner | Why Do Galleries Get Such High Commissions?
Nov 26, 2024 · Galleries typically take a 50% commission on the sale of two-dimensional artwork – paintings, photos, monotypes, etc., and anywhere from 33.3% to 40% for three ...
[103]
Working with art commissions: what every artist should know
Oct 18, 2024 · Commissions are a way for an artist to expand their income streams while keeping the focus on developing a solid body of work. What are art ...
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The History of Art Commissions - Amanda Desilets
Jun 17, 2024 · Art commissions date back to ancient times, with early examples found in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Pharaohs, emperors, and wealthy ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Ecclesiastical Commissions | Catholic Answers Encyclopedia
Comissions, ECCLESIASTICAL, bodies of ecclesiastics juridically established and to whom are committed certain specified functions or charges.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Ecclesiastical Commissions
Ecclesiastical Commissions are bodies of ecclesiastics juridically established and to whom are committed certain specified functions or charges.
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What is the Great Commission? | GotQuestions.org
Oct 28, 2024 · The Great Commission instructs us to make disciples while we are going throughout the world. The instructions to “go,” “baptize,” and “teach” are indirect ...
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Gospel Breadth: An Ambition to Obey the Great Commission
Jan 31, 2017 · The Great Commission at the end of Jesus earthly ministry makes all the sense in the world. It is in fact exactly where the biblical message has been going.
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Court of High Commission | English Ecclesiastical Court History ...
Oct 13, 2025 · Court of High Commission, English ecclesiastical court instituted by the crown in the 16th century as a means to enforce the laws of the ...
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Ecclesiastical Commission | Encyclopedia.com
Ecclesiastical Commission, 1686. The Court of High Commission, to impose uniformity in the church, was abolished in 1641 by the Long Parliament.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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The Ecclesiastical Commission of 1835 - History Home
Mar 4, 2016 · The Ecclesiastical Commission established by Peel in February 1835 was intended to uncover defects, propose remedies to the legislature, and supervise their ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|separator|>
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Pontifical Biblical Commission - The Holy See
The body which today is known as the Pontifical Biblical Commission was constituted by Leo XIII with the apostolic Letter Vigilantiae studiique of 30th October ...
[113]
Authority of the Pontifical Biblical Commission | Catholic Answers Q&A
The Pontifical Biblical Commission was essentially a low-ranking Congregation. Its decisions, though, were not considered to be dogmatic or doctrinal.
[114]
The Role and Functions of Doctrinal Commissions - The Holy See
A Doctrinal Commission has the mission of promoting Catholic theology. Therefore, it should foster good rapport among Bishops and Theologians, especially ...
[115]
Status—Ordained, Commissioned, or Licensed | Church Law & Tax
Commissioning is a procedure followed by some churches which do not recognize formal ordination. It is usually an investiture of authority to perform religious ...
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Commissions and Joint Consultative Bodies
Commission on Faith and Order · Commission on World Mission and Evangelism · Commission on Education and Ecumenical Formation · Commission of the Churches on ...Missing: religious ecclesiastical