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Sebaceous cyst

A sebaceous cyst, more accurately termed an epidermoid cyst, is a benign, encapsulated nodule that develops beneath the skin, typically filled with keratin—a protein produced by skin cells—rather than sebum from sebaceous glands.^[1] These cysts arise from the proliferation of surface epidermal cells within the dermis, often due to blockage of hair follicles or trauma to the skin, and are among the most common noncancerous skin growths, affecting individuals primarily between ages 20 and 60.^[2]^[3] Although the term "sebaceous cyst" is widely used, it is a misnomer, as true cysts originating from sebaceous glands (which produce oily sebum) are rare and distinct, such as those seen in steatocystoma multiplex; instead, most referred to as sebaceous cysts are epidermoid inclusions without glandular involvement.^[2]^[1] They commonly appear as small, round, slow-growing lumps—ranging from 0.25 to over 2 inches in diameter—on the face, neck, trunk, scalp, or genitals, often featuring a central dark punctum (blackhead-like opening) and causing no symptoms unless inflamed or infected.^[3]^[2] Risk factors include male sex, prior skin injury, genetic syndromes like Gardner syndrome, and certain medications such as cyclosporine, though most cases are sporadic.^[1]^[3] Diagnosis is usually straightforward via physical examination, with imaging like ultrasound or biopsy reserved for atypical cases to rule out malignancy, which is exceedingly rare (about 1% risk of squamous cell carcinoma transformation).^[2]^[1] Treatment is often unnecessary for asymptomatic cysts, but options include warm compresses for minor inflammation, steroid injections to reduce swelling, incision and drainage for infected ones, or complete surgical excision to prevent recurrence, though the latter may leave a scar.^[4]^[2] These cysts are noncontagious and generally have an excellent prognosis, persisting indefinitely without intervention but rarely causing complications beyond infection or cosmetic concerns.^[1]

Overview

Definition

A sebaceous cyst, more accurately termed an epidermoid cyst, is a benign, closed sac located beneath the skin that contains keratinous material rather than true sebum. These cysts arise from the obstruction of pilosebaceous units—structures comprising hair follicles and associated sebaceous glands—or from epidermal inclusions where surface skin cells become trapped within the dermis.^[1]^[5] They represent non-neoplastic growths, meaning they do not involve uncontrolled cell proliferation typical of tumors, and are among the most common benign cutaneous lesions encountered in clinical practice.^[6] Histologically, sebaceous cysts feature a wall composed of stratified squamous epithelium resembling the epidermis, complete with a granular layer that facilitates the production and accumulation of keratin flakes within the cyst cavity. This epithelial lining lacks sebaceous elements, underscoring the misnomer in the common name "sebaceous cyst," as the contents are primarily desquamated keratin with a cheesy or waxy consistency, not oily sebum from sebaceous glands.^[1]^[6] The absence of inflammation in uncomplicated cases further distinguishes their benign nature, though rupture can lead to secondary reactive changes.^[5] In terms of morphology, these cysts typically measure between 0.5 and 5 cm in diameter, presenting as firm, dome-shaped nodules that may slowly enlarge over time.^[1]^[5] They most frequently occur on the scalp, face, neck, and trunk, reflecting the distribution of pilosebaceous units.^[7]

Terminology

The term "sebaceous cyst" is a longstanding but inaccurate lay designation for common cutaneous cysts, implying involvement of sebaceous glands and accumulation of sebum, whereas these lesions primarily contain keratin and originate from epidermal elements.^[1]^[7] This misnomer arose in 19th-century dermatology, with Rudolf Virchow credited as the first to apply the term, based on the erroneous assumption that the cysts resulted from retained sebaceous secretions.^[8] In reality, true sebaceous cysts—those deriving from sebaceous glands, such as steatocystoma simplex or multiplex—are rare and distinct from the more prevalent keratin-filled variants.^[9]^[1] Modern medical nomenclature favors "epidermoid cyst" or "epidermal inclusion cyst" to reflect the cysts' epidermal lining and keratinous content, a shift reinforced in contemporary classifications.^[7]^[10] Pilar cysts, a subtype often grouped under this category, are specifically termed trichilemmal cysts due to their origin from the hair follicle's outer root sheath.^[1]^[11]

Clinical Features

Signs

Sebaceous cysts, more accurately termed epidermoid cysts, typically present as smooth, rounded, subcutaneous nodules that are firm yet compressible to palpation.^[12] These lesions are often flesh-colored or slightly yellowish and range in size from 0.5 cm to several centimeters in diameter.^[1] A central punctum, appearing as a small blackhead-like opening due to the plugged pore, is classically visible in many cases, representing the site of keratin accumulation.^[3] The overlying skin is generally normal in appearance and texture, without tethering to underlying structures, allowing the cyst to move freely beneath the surface.^[12] However, if the cyst becomes inflamed or infected, the skin may exhibit localized erythema and swelling, and the lesion can feel more fixed during examination.^[1] In such instances, there may be associated tenderness upon palpation.^[12] These cysts most commonly occur on the face, scalp, neck, trunk, and upper back, though they can arise anywhere on the body, rare on the palms and soles.^[1]

Symptoms

Sebaceous cysts, also known as epidermoid cysts, are typically asymptomatic and present as painless subcutaneous lumps that patients often discover incidentally during self-examination or routine activities.^[2]^[13] These cysts generally cause no discomfort and may remain stable in size for extended periods without requiring intervention.^[3] When symptoms do occur in uncomplicated cases, they are usually mild and include localized tenderness upon palpation, pruritus (itching) at the site, or cosmetic concerns due to the visible lump, which may prompt patients to seek medical advice.^[2]^[13] In instances of rapid growth, inflammation, or infection, more pronounced symptoms arise, such as increasing pain, surrounding swelling, and potential discharge of foul-smelling, cheese-like keratin material if the cyst ruptures.^[3]^[2] These complications can lead to significant local discomfort and may necessitate prompt treatment to prevent secondary infection.^[13] In rare cases, sebaceous cysts may be associated with genetic syndromes such as Gardner syndrome, where multiple cysts occur alongside other manifestations; however, any systemic symptoms like gastrointestinal discomfort, anemia, or abdominal pain stem from the syndrome's intestinal polyposis rather than the cysts themselves.^[14]^[3]

Pathophysiology

Causes

Sebaceous cysts, commonly referring to epidermoid cysts, primarily develop due to obstruction of the pilosebaceous duct or hair follicle, which leads to the accumulation of desquamated keratin and subsequent proliferation of epidermal cells within the dermis.^[1] This blockage prevents the normal shedding of skin cells and sebum, resulting in the formation of a cyst lined by stratified squamous epithelium that produces keratinous material.^[7] Acquired causes are frequent and often stem from trauma that implants epidermal elements into deeper skin layers, such as surgical scars, crushing injuries, or inflammatory conditions like acne vulgaris, where comedones disrupt the follicular structure.^[7] In these cases, the displaced epithelium continues to desquamate, forming a cyst over time. Developmental origins, in contrast, arise from congenital occlusion of the pilosebaceous unit in utero, typically through the sequestration or trapping of epidermal rests during embryonic closure lines.^[7] Such cysts may present at birth or early childhood and are less common than acquired forms. Certain genetic syndromes significantly predispose individuals to multiple cysts through specific mutations. In Gardner syndrome, a variant of familial adenomatous polyposis, germline mutations in the APC gene on chromosome 5q21 disrupt tumor suppression and lead to epidermoid cysts in up to 50-65% of cases, often appearing on the face, scalp, or extremities.^[14] Similarly, in basal cell nevus syndrome (Gorlin syndrome), heterozygous mutations in the PTCH1 gene on chromosome 9q impair hedgehog signaling, resulting in epidermal inclusion cysts or sebaceous cysts alongside other manifestations like odontogenic keratocysts.^[15]^[16]

Risk Factors

Sebaceous cysts, encompassing epidermoid and pilar variants, most commonly develop in adults between the ages of 20 and 50 years.^[6] They are rare in children, occurring primarily in the context of syndromic conditions such as Gardner syndrome.^[3] Regarding gender distribution, epidermoid cysts show a male predominance (2:1 ratio).^[1] In contrast, pilar cysts exhibit a slight female predominance.^[17] Environmental factors that increase susceptibility include chronic skin trauma, as experienced by individuals in occupations involving repeated injury like barbers or gardeners, which heightens risk by promoting epidermal inclusion.^[7] Additionally, conditions associated with oily skin, such as acne vulgaris, contribute through hair follicle disruption and pore blockage.^[5] Familial patterns are notable in pilar cysts, with cases involving multiple lesions showing a positive family history consistent with autosomal dominant inheritance.^[17] Syndromic associations, such as with Gardner syndrome, are rare across both epidermoid and pilar types.^[3]

Classification

Epidermoid Cysts

Epidermoid cysts, the most common type of cutaneous cyst previously mislabeled as sebaceous cysts, arise from the infundibular portion of the hair follicle epidermis.^[1] These benign lesions form through proliferation of surface epidermal cells or implantation of epidermal elements following trauma, resulting in a cyst lined by stratified squamous epithelium without hair matrix components.^[18] They contain laminated layers of keratin produced by the cyst wall, distinguishing them from other cyst variants that may include adnexal structures.^[1] These cysts typically occur on hair-bearing areas of the body such as the face, neck, trunk, and extremities, but can rarely occur on the palms and soles due to trauma.^[19] They are typically solitary, measuring 0.5 to 5 cm in diameter, though multiple lesions may appear in association with genetic syndromes or chronic skin conditions like acne.^[1] The cyst contents consist of flaky, white to yellowish keratin paste that has a characteristic cheesy or malodorous quality when expressed.^[18] Histologically, epidermoid cysts feature a thin wall of epidermal lining with a prominent granular layer containing keratohyalin granules, and the lumen is filled with orthokeratotic, laminated keratin flakes lacking rete ridges or appendages.^[18] This structure confirms their benign nature, with malignant transformation being exceedingly rare.^[20] Epidermoid cysts account for approximately 85% to 90% of all excised benign skin cysts historically termed "sebaceous cysts."^[20] Complete surgical excision results in low recurrence rates, typically under 5% when the entire cyst wall is removed.^[1]

Pilar Cysts

Pilar cysts, also known as trichilemmal cysts, represent a distinct subtype of benign cutaneous cysts derived from the outer root sheath of the hair follicle, undergoing trichilemmal keratinization without formation of a granular layer.^[21]^[22] Like epidermoid cysts, they are fundamentally benign lesions but exhibit unique histologic and genetic profiles.^[17] These cysts predominantly manifest on the scalp, comprising over 90% of reported cases, and are more prevalent in females than males.^[21] They typically present as firm, smooth, subcutaneous nodules averaging 0.5 to 5 cm in diameter, though most measure 1 to 2 cm, and are solitary in approximately 30% of patients while multiple in 70%, with familial cases sometimes featuring numerous lesions exceeding 10 in number.^[23]^[22] Occurrence is estimated at 5-10% in the general population, with onset often during adolescence or early adulthood.^[21] Histologically, pilar cysts are characterized by a wall of stratified squamous epithelium resembling the isthmus of the hair follicle, filled with compact, thick eosinophilic keratin that lacks a granular layer, distinguishing them from other cyst types.^[21] Calcification within the cyst content or wall is a frequent finding, observed in up to 65% of cases in ultrasonographic studies, contributing to their firm texture.^[24] Genetically, pilar cysts follow an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern in familial instances, mapped to a locus on chromosome 3p24-p21.2, with a family history reported in a substantial proportion of multiple-lesion cases, approaching 50% in some cohorts.^[22] Sporadic cases also occur, but the hereditary form underscores their predisposition in affected kindreds.^[21]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

The clinical evaluation of a sebaceous cyst, more accurately termed an epidermoid cyst, begins with a detailed patient history to assess the lesion's characteristics and potential underlying factors. Patients typically report a slowly enlarging subcutaneous lump present for months to years, often without associated pain unless recent trauma or rupture has occurred.^[1] Inquiry into the growth rate is essential, as gradual progression is common, while a history of preceding skin trauma, such as injury or surgical scarring, may indicate an epidermal inclusion cyst formation from entrapped keratinocytes.^[5] Family history should be explored for genetic syndromes, such as Gardner syndrome, which can present with multiple cysts alongside other features like colonic polyps.^[1] Symptoms like intermittent foul-smelling discharge from a central opening or sudden inflammation following manipulation further support the diagnosis.^[5] Physical examination involves systematic inspection and palpation to confirm the lesion's benign nature. The cyst appears as a well-circumscribed, mobile subcutaneous nodule, typically measuring 0.5 to 5 cm in diameter, with a characteristic central punctum visible on the overlying skin, as detailed in the signs section.^[1] Palpation assesses for fluctuance, tenderness, and fixation to underlying tissue; uninflamed cysts are nontender and freely movable, whereas infected ones exhibit erythema, warmth, and induration.^[5] Transillumination may be attempted in suspected cystic lesions to evaluate for fluid content, though epidermoid cysts often yield negative results due to their keratinous filling. Measurement of size and documentation of location, commonly the face, trunk, or extremities, aid in monitoring and differentiating from other subcutaneous masses.^[5] Red flags warranting further investigation include rapid growth over weeks, adherence to deep structures suggesting possible malignancy, or the presence of multiple lesions indicative of syndromic associations like Gardner syndrome. Additional concerning features encompass sudden pain, ulceration, bleeding, or atypical discharge, which may signal infection or rare malignant transformation to squamous cell carcinoma.^[25] These findings prompt expedited referral rather than routine observation.

Laboratory and Imaging

Laboratory and imaging studies are typically not required for the routine diagnosis of sebaceous cysts, also known as epidermoid cysts, as the condition is primarily clinical; however, they may be employed when the presentation is atypical, complications such as infection are suspected, or to evaluate for deeper extension or multiplicity in syndromic cases.^[26] No routine laboratory tests are indicated for uncomplicated sebaceous cysts, but in cases of suspected infection or abscess formation, white blood cell count may be elevated due to secondary bacterial cellulitis, and culture and sensitivity testing of aspirated or drained fluid can identify pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus to guide antibiotic therapy.^[27]^[26] Biopsy is reserved for uncertain diagnoses or to rule out rare malignant transformation; fine-needle aspiration cytology often reveals anucleated keratin flakes, squamous debris, and nucleated keratinocytes, confirming the benign nature without need for further intervention in most cases.^[26] If malignancy is suspected due to rapid growth, ulceration, or irregular borders—occurring in less than 0.05% of cases with transformation to squamous cell carcinoma—excisional biopsy is performed for histopathological evaluation showing atypical squamous proliferation.^[28] Ultrasound serves as the initial imaging modality for superficial cysts, demonstrating a well-defined, hypoechoic or anechoic mass with posterior acoustic enhancement and no internal vascularity, aiding in differentiation from solid tumors or abscesses.^[26] For deeper or multiple cysts, particularly in association with genetic syndromes like Gardner syndrome, magnetic resonance imaging reveals a well-circumscribed lesion with low signal intensity on T1-weighted sequences, high signal on T2-weighted sequences, and possible restricted diffusion due to keratin content.^[26]

Management

Conservative Measures

For small, asymptomatic sebaceous cysts, observation is the recommended approach, as these lesions often remain stable without causing issues or complications.^[29] Patients should be educated to monitor for changes such as rapid growth, pain, redness, or discharge, which may indicate infection or other concerns requiring further evaluation.^[30] This watchful waiting strategy avoids unnecessary interventions for benign, non-problematic cysts.^[2] In cases of inflammation or infection, conservative measures focus on symptom relief and controlling the acute episode. Warm compresses applied several times daily for 10-15 minutes can promote drainage, reduce swelling, and alleviate discomfort by softening the cyst contents.^[2] For infected cysts, oral antibiotics are commonly prescribed to target bacterial involvement, typically from Staphylococcus or Streptococcus species, though their use should be guided by clinical signs and culture results if available.^[31] These measures help resolve acute inflammation without invasive procedures, but lancing or squeezing should be avoided to prevent scarring or recurrence.^[32] Topical therapies have limited efficacy for sebaceous cysts due to their encapsulated nature, but intralesional corticosteroid injections, such as triamcinolone acetonide (2.5-5 mg/mL), can effectively reduce inflammation in mildly symptomatic or recurrently inflamed lesions by suppressing local immune response.^[29] This approach is particularly useful for cysts causing cosmetic concerns or tenderness, providing temporary relief without excision.^[33] If conservative strategies fail to control symptoms or prevent complications, surgical intervention may be considered.^[34]

Surgical Interventions

Surgical interventions are the definitive treatment for sebaceous cysts, indicated when cysts cause symptoms such as pain, recurrent inflammation, cosmetic disfigurement, or infection that does not resolve with conservative measures.^[35] These procedures are typically recommended following a clinical evaluation to confirm the diagnosis and assess cyst characteristics.^[1] The standard technique is complete surgical excision, which involves making an elliptical incision over the cyst to remove the entire lesion, including its intact capsule, to achieve a cure rate approaching 100% by preventing regrowth from residual epithelial cells.^[5] This method is performed under local anesthesia in an outpatient setting and results in a linear scar that fades over time.^[4] For smaller cysts (typically 1-2 cm), minimal excision techniques, such as punch biopsy incision, offer a less invasive alternative by creating a small puncture to express and extract the cyst contents and wall, yielding low recurrence rates of less than 10% while minimizing scarring.^[36] In cases of ruptured or acutely infected cysts, initial incision and drainage may be used to evacuate contents and reduce pressure, often followed by curettage of the cavity or delayed complete excision once inflammation subsides, as immediate full removal can increase complication risks.^[4] Postoperative care includes wound cleaning with mild soap and water, application of antibiotic ointment if prescribed, and monitoring for signs of infection or dehiscence; non-absorbable sutures are removed after 7-14 days.^[4] Recurrence occurs in 3-10% of cases if cyst wall fragments are inadvertently left behind, emphasizing the importance of meticulous dissection.^[37]

Complications and Prognosis

Common Complications

Sebaceous cysts, also known as epidermoid cysts, can lead to infection when bacteria enter the cyst, particularly if it ruptures or becomes inflamed spontaneously.^[2] This complication presents with redness, swelling, warmth, and pain, potentially progressing to abscess formation or cellulitis if untreated.^[1] In clinical studies, postoperative infection rates following cyst excision have been reported at approximately 5%, often associated with cyst wall rupture or high-tension sites like the back or neck.^[38] Treatment typically involves incision and drainage for abscesses, combined with oral or intravenous antibiotics to resolve the infection and prevent spread.^[13] Recurrence is a frequent issue after incomplete removal of the cyst wall during surgical intervention, with reported rates varying from less than 1% to 11% depending on technique, location, and completeness of removal.^[1] The risk is higher in inflamed or previously infected cysts, where scarring may tether the cyst to surrounding tissue, complicating complete excision. To minimize recurrence, surgical techniques emphasize intact removal of the entire cyst capsule, often using minimal incision methods for better outcomes.^[39] Scarring is a common sequela of surgical management, resulting in linear marks at the excision site that generally fade over time but can lead to cosmetic concerns, especially for visible areas like the face or scalp.^[2] In individuals predisposed to keloid formation, such as those with darker skin tones or genetic factors, postoperative keloids may develop, characterized by raised, thickened scar tissue extending beyond the original wound. Large cysts on the scalp, if excised, can cause noticeable deformities or hair loss in the scarred area, though preventive measures like intralesional corticosteroids can mitigate hypertrophic scarring.^[1]

Prognosis

Isolated sebaceous cysts, also known as epidermoid cysts, are benign lesions with no malignant potential in more than 99% of cases, as malignant transformation to squamous cell carcinoma is exceedingly rare, occurring at rates of 0.011% to 0.045%.^[40]^[41] Following complete surgical excision, these cysts achieve full resolution with low recurrence rates, typically less than 5% when the cyst wall is fully removed.^[2] In syndromic contexts, the prognosis is more guarded. When sebaceous cysts occur as part of Gardner syndrome, an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by multiple colorectal polyps, the associated risk of colorectal cancer approaches 100% if polyps are not prophylactically managed, necessitating lifelong multidisciplinary surveillance including gastroenterology and oncology follow-up.^[14]^[42] Similarly, in basal cell nevus syndrome (Gorlin syndrome), multiple epidermal cysts accompany a markedly elevated lifetime risk of basal cell carcinomas and other skin cancers, requiring regular dermatologic monitoring and potential interventions to mitigate malignancy development.^[43] Overall, isolated sebaceous cysts have no impact on life expectancy, and even in syndromic cases, appropriate management of associated conditions preserves a normal lifespan.^[2] Recurrence of the cysts themselves can be effectively prevented through meticulous complete excision during initial treatment.^[2]

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