Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Incision and drainage

Incision and drainage (I&D) is a common minimally invasive surgical procedure primarily used to treat cutaneous and subcutaneous abscesses, involving the creation of a small incision in the skin to evacuate accumulated pus, debris, and infected fluid, thereby relieving pressure, reducing pain, and facilitating healing while minimizing the risk of further infection spread.^[1] The procedure is indicated for most uncomplicated skin abscesses of sufficient size, often assessed by ultrasound, particularly those caused by bacterial infections such as Staphylococcus aureus, where conservative management with antibiotics alone is insufficient; smaller superficial collections may resolve with incision alone or antibiotics without formal drainage.^[2]^[1] It is typically performed in emergency departments, outpatient clinics, or primary care settings under local anesthesia, such as lidocaine, and requires universal precautions, informed consent, and verification of tetanus immunization status to prevent complications.^[1] Contraindications include large or deep abscesses near vital structures (e.g., major vessels, nerves, or the face), pulsatile masses suggesting vascular involvement, or suspected underlying conditions like foreign bodies, which necessitate specialist referral.^[1]

Overview

Definition and purpose

Incision and drainage (I&D) is a minor surgical procedure performed to treat localized collections of pus or fluid, such as abscesses, by creating a controlled opening in the overlying skin or tissue to facilitate the evacuation of purulent material. This intervention typically involves a precise incision using a scalpel or similar instrument to access the abscess cavity, followed by manual expression or gentle probing to release the contents, irrigation with sterile saline to cleanse the area, and sometimes the placement of packing material to promote ongoing drainage and prevent premature closure of the wound. The term "incision" derives from the Latin incidere, meaning "to cut into," emphasizing the deliberate and controlled nature of the skin breach, while "drainage" refers to the systematic removal of accumulated fluids, distinguishing it from spontaneous rupture that can lead to uncontrolled spread of infection. The primary purpose of I&D is to alleviate acute symptoms and mitigate complications associated with abscesses, which form through a pathophysiological process where bacterial invasion—often by pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus—triggers an inflammatory response, leading to tissue liquefaction and encapsulation of necrotic debris within a fibrous wall. By removing this bacteria-laden fluid and devitalized tissue, the procedure relieves pressure and pain caused by the expanding abscess, reduces the risk of local tissue destruction or dissemination to adjacent structures, and promotes natural healing through granulation tissue formation. Furthermore, I&D plays a critical role in preventing systemic complications, such as bacteremia or sepsis, by interrupting the infectious process at its localized stage and allowing for targeted antibiotic therapy if needed. This procedure is particularly applicable in soft tissue contexts, where abscesses commonly develop in subcutaneous layers due to the rich vascular supply and potential for bacterial entry via minor trauma or folliculitis, enabling rapid accumulation of purulent exudate. While I&D addresses the mechanical aspects of infection management, its efficacy relies on timely intervention to avoid progression to deeper or more diffuse infections.

Historical development

The practice of incision and drainage traces its origins to ancient civilizations, where surgical interventions for pus-filled swellings were documented. In ancient Egypt, medical papyri from around 1550 BCE describe minor surgical procedures, including incisions to drain or excise abscesses and swellings, often combined with cauterization using hot irons or pastes to prevent reinfection.^[3] These early techniques reflected a practical understanding of the need to release purulent material to promote healing, though without modern antisepsis, outcomes were limited by secondary infections. Greek physicians advanced these methods in the classical era. Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BCE), often regarded as the father of medicine, recommended incision and drainage for abscesses, including thoracic and renal cases, emphasizing timely intervention to evacuate pus and avoid complications like sepsis.^[4]^[5] His writings in the Hippocratic Corpus detail lancing boils and using tubes or natural drainage paths, marking a shift toward systematic observation of wound suppuration and the principle that "where there is pus, let it out."^[4] The 19th century brought transformative changes through the lens of germ theory. Joseph Lister introduced antiseptic techniques in 1867, applying carbolic acid to wounds and surgical sites during procedures, which significantly reduced postoperative infection rates in operations like incision and drainage.^[6] This innovation, detailed in his seminal Lancet papers, shifted surgery from empirical to scientific practice, making I&D safer by minimizing bacterial contamination. Building on this, William Halsted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries refined wound management principles, advocating gentle tissue handling, meticulous hemostasis, and strict asepsis to optimize healing after incisions.^[7] His techniques, applied in abscess treatments, emphasized minimal trauma to surrounding tissues during drainage. In the 20th century, incision and drainage evolved amid wartime experiences and technological advances. Post-World War II, the procedure integrated into standardized emergency and trauma protocols, informed by military surgery emphasizing rapid source control for infected wounds.^[8] Key contributions included the 1938 review by Alton Ochsner and Michael DeBakey on subphrenic abscesses, which analyzed over 3,600 cases and advocated thorough surgical drainage as the cornerstone of treatment.^[9] By the 1950s, formal guidelines emerged in surgical texts, with DeBakey and Welch describing minimally invasive drainage concepts for abdominal abscesses, paving the way for needle aspiration alternatives in select cases.^[10] These developments standardized I&D while adapting it to antibiotic eras and imaging guidance, reducing reliance on open surgery for certain abscess types.^[11]

Indications and contraindications

Common indications

Incision and drainage (I&D) is primarily indicated for the management of localized infections characterized by fluctuant abscesses greater than 0.4 cm in depth on ultrasound, where a palpable fluid collection is accompanied by surrounding erythema, warmth, and tenderness, as this procedure effectively removes purulent material that antibiotics alone cannot adequately address.^[12]^[1] It is particularly recommended when conservative treatments, such as antibiotics, fail to resolve superficial skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), preventing progression to more severe complications like cellulitis.^[1] Common applications include SSTIs such as furuncles and carbuncles, where I&D is employed for larger lesions to drain accumulated pus and promote healing, especially when spontaneous resolution does not occur.^[13]^[14] In hidradenitis suppurativa, I&D serves as an acute intervention for tender, fluctuant abscesses to alleviate symptoms and halt immediate propagation of infection, though it is not curative for the underlying condition.^[15] Dental abscesses, particularly periapical types, warrant intraoral I&D to drain pus and relieve pressure when swelling and pain indicate a contained infection.^[16] Similarly, peritonsillar abscesses in ear, nose, and throat contexts require I&D as the definitive drainage method to resolve the collection and reduce risks like airway compromise.^[17]^[18] Diagnosis relies on clinical signs including localized swelling, severe pain on palpation, and systemic indicators such as leukocytosis, with imaging like ultrasound providing confirmation of a hypoechoic fluid collection in ambiguous cases to guide precise intervention.^[1]^[12] In patient populations like immunocompromised individuals, including those with diabetes mellitus, I&D is prioritized to rapidly evacuate the abscess and avert dissemination to bacteremia or deeper tissue involvement, given their heightened susceptibility to infection spread.^[19]

Contraindications and precautions

Incision and drainage (I&D) of abscesses carries specific absolute contraindications where the procedure should be avoided due to high risk of harm. Uncontrolled coagulopathy, such as an international normalized ratio (INR) greater than 1.5 without correction, represents an absolute contraindication because it significantly increases the risk of uncontrolled bleeding during the procedure.^[20] Similarly, deep abscesses involving vital structures, such as those near major blood vessels, nerves, or critical organs, are absolute contraindications for bedside I&D, as they require specialist intervention or alternative approaches to prevent damage to adjacent tissues.^[1] Relative contraindications warrant careful consideration and may necessitate modifications or alternatives to standard I&D. Active cellulitis without a discrete abscess collection is a relative contraindication, as attempting drainage in such cases can disrupt tissue planes and promote bacterial dissemination, exacerbating the infection.^[1] In pediatric or uncooperative patients, I&D without adequate sedation is relatively contraindicated due to the risk of incomplete procedure performance and patient distress, though conscious sedation has been shown to be safe and effective in cooperative children.^[21] Pregnancy, particularly in regions posing potential fetal risk such as the abdomen, serves as a relative contraindication, with guidelines recommending avoidance of non-essential invasive procedures in the first trimester when possible, though simple superficial I&D is generally considered low-risk.^[22] Several precautions must be observed to optimize safety during I&D. For complex or deep locations, such as a psoas abscess, imaging-guided approaches like ultrasound or CT are recommended to ensure precise access and reduce complications, often favoring percutaneous drainage over open I&D.^[23] Additionally, preoperative assessment for underlying causes, including immunosuppression (e.g., from diabetes, chemotherapy, or HIV), is essential, as these patients may require adjunctive antibiotics or extended monitoring beyond standard I&D.^[24] A thorough risk-benefit evaluation is critical prior to proceeding with I&D, guided by recommendations from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). For instance, in cases of deep or multiloculated abscesses unsuitable for bedside intervention, alternatives such as percutaneous image-guided drainage are preferred to minimize invasiveness while achieving effective source control.^[25]

Procedure

Preoperative preparation

Preoperative preparation for incision and drainage (I&D) begins with a thorough patient evaluation to assess suitability and minimize risks. A detailed history is obtained, focusing on allergies to medications such as lidocaine, epinephrine, or latex, bleeding disorders, and tetanus immunization status.^[1] Comorbidities, including diabetes, are evaluated, with glycemic control assessed via recent HbA1c levels to predict healing potential and infection risk.^[26] The physical examination confirms the presence of an abscess through signs of erythema, induration, tenderness, and fluctuance, while distinguishing it from surrounding cellulitis; the incision site is marked to guide the procedure.^[1] Diagnostic tests are tailored to the patient's presentation. Laboratory studies, such as a complete blood count (CBC) to detect leukocytosis, are indicated in cases with systemic symptoms like fever or chills, or in high-risk patients such as those with diabetes or intravenous drug use.^[12] Blood cultures may be obtained if signs of sepsis are present to identify bacteremia.^[12] Imaging, including bedside ultrasound for superficial abscesses to confirm fluid collection and depth, or computed tomography (CT) for deeper or complex cases, aids in precise localization and procedural planning.^[1] Informed consent is mandatory, with the patient or guardian educated on the procedure's benefits, such as pus evacuation to promote healing, and risks including bleeding, pain, infection, and scarring.^[1] Anesthesia planning involves selecting local agents like 1% lidocaine (maximum dose 4.5 mg/kg without epinephrine or 7 mg/kg with epinephrine) administered via field block to avoid injecting into the abscess cavity; for anxious or pediatric patients, procedural sedation may be considered.^[27] A 5-10 mL syringe with a 25- to 30-gauge needle is typically used for infiltration.^[1] Site preparation ensures sterility and reduces infection risk. Hair removal, if necessary to access the site, is performed with clippers rather than razors immediately before the procedure to avoid microabrasions.^[28] The skin is cleansed with an alcohol-based antiseptic such as chlorhexidine gluconate, applied in concentric circles from the incision site outward, followed by sterile draping to isolate the field.^[12]

Intraoperative steps

The intraoperative phase of incision and drainage (I&D) begins after sterile preparation and local anesthesia infiltration, typically using 1% to 2% lidocaine administered as a field block around the abscess or along the planned incision line to minimize pain while avoiding direct injection into the infected cavity.^[29]^[12]^[1] A linear incision, approximately 1 to 2 cm in length, is made with a scalpel (often a #11 blade) directly over the point of maximum fluctuance, parallel to skin tension lines to optimize healing and ensure access to the purulent cavity.^[12]^[29]^[1] Blunt dissection follows using a curved hemostat inserted into the incision and opened in multiple directions to break up any loculations, allowing complete evacuation of the abscess contents.^[12]^[29]^[30] Pus is then expressed manually by squeezing the surrounding tissue or using gentle suction if available, followed by irrigation of the cavity with 100 to 200 mL of sterile normal saline via syringe to remove residual debris and dilute remaining infection.^[29]^[12]^[30] A sample of the drained fluid is routinely collected for culture and Gram stain to identify pathogens, with Staphylococcus aureus (including methicillin-resistant strains) being the most common isolate in cutaneous abscesses.^[1]^[30]^[12] The wound is generally left open to heal by secondary intention, promoting ongoing drainage and reducing the risk of reaccumulation; for deeper cavities exceeding 5 cm, loose packing with iodoform gauze may be placed to prevent premature closure, with approximately 2 cm protruding for easy removal.^[1]^[12]^[30] The entire procedure typically lasts 10 to 30 minutes and is performed in an outpatient clinic or emergency department setting.^[31]^[12]^[1]

Instrumentation and techniques

The instrumentation for incision and drainage (I&D) typically includes a sterile setup with a scalpel equipped with a #11 or #15 blade for precise incision over the point of maximal fluctuance, allowing for controlled entry into the abscess cavity while minimizing tissue trauma.^[32]^[29] A curved Kelly hemostat is commonly used for blunt dissection to break up loculations within the abscess, facilitating complete evacuation of purulent material without sharp instrumentation that could damage surrounding structures.^[1] Irrigation is performed using a syringe fitted with an angiocatheter to deliver normal saline gently under pressure, ensuring thorough cleansing of the cavity while reducing the risk of pushing debris deeper into tissues.^[1] A culture swab is routinely employed to obtain samples for microbiological analysis prior to irrigation, aiding in targeted antibiotic selection if needed.^[1] Advanced techniques enhance precision and efficacy, particularly for deeper or complex abscesses. Ultrasound-guided I&D involves real-time imaging to localize the abscess, confirm its fluid-filled nature, and direct the incision, which improves success rates and reduces incomplete drainage in subcutaneous collections.^[33] For patients unsuitable for traditional open procedures, minimally invasive percutaneous drainage uses a trocar or catheter under imaging guidance to access and drain the abscess, often reserved for deeper or multi-loculated cases to avoid general anesthesia.^[34] Packing materials vary based on abscess size and location to promote ongoing drainage and prevent premature closure. Plain gauze or iodoform-impregnated gauze is used for larger cavities greater than 5 cm to maintain patency, though packing is generally avoided for smaller abscesses as it does not improve healing outcomes and increases patient discomfort during changes.^[1] Medicated options, such as gauze impregnated with 3% bismuth tribromophenate (Xeroform), provide antimicrobial properties and a non-adherent barrier, reducing infection risk and facilitating easier removal.^[35] Loop drainage systems, utilizing a vessel loop or Penrose drain looped through the incision and secured externally, allow for continuous drainage in larger abscesses, decreasing the need for frequent repacking and lowering treatment failure rates compared to traditional packing.^[36] Techniques are adapted by anatomical site to optimize healing and cosmesis. For facial abscesses, smaller linear incisions parallel to skin tension lines are preferred to minimize scarring, with careful dissection to preserve cosmetic contours.^[29] Cruciate incisions are generally avoided in cutaneous abscesses due to their association with poorer wound healing and increased scarring risk, favoring linear approaches instead for better secondary intention closure.^[1]

Postoperative care

Immediate aftercare

Following incision and drainage (I&D), the wound is typically covered with a sterile dressing to protect it and promote initial healing by secondary intention.^[1] Patients are instructed to keep the dressing clean and dry for the first 24 hours, after which gentle cleaning with mild soap and water is permitted, followed by patting dry to avoid irritation.^[37] If packing was placed during the procedure, it is usually removed by the healthcare provider within the first 48 hours to allow ongoing drainage; thereafter, patients may be taught to perform daily packing changes if needed, using sterile technique.^[1] Gentle warm saline or water soaks for 10-15 minutes twice daily are recommended starting 24 hours post-procedure to facilitate further drainage and prevent re-accumulation of pus, with the wound then covered by fresh gauze.^[38] Pain management in the immediate postoperative period involves oral analgesics such as ibuprofen at doses of 400-600 mg every 6-8 hours as needed, or acetaminophen for milder discomfort, to control localized soreness and inflammation.^[12] Patients should monitor for signs of worsening infection, including fever exceeding 101°F (38.3°C), increased redness or swelling beyond the incision site, or excessive purulent drainage, and seek prompt medical evaluation if these occur.^[37] Activity restrictions emphasize rest to support healing, with avoidance of strenuous activities, heavy lifting, or exercise for 24-48 hours post-procedure to minimize strain on the wound.^[37] The site should remain dry during this time, precluding baths, swimming, or hot tub use until cleared by the provider; showers are generally allowed after 24 hours, provided the wound is not soaked.^[38] Discharge from the facility typically occurs once vital signs are stable, pain is adequately controlled with oral medications, and the patient demonstrates understanding of home wound care instructions, including soak techniques and recognition of warning signs.^[1] A follow-up visit is arranged within 2-3 days to assess progress and remove any remaining packing.^[1]

Long-term management and follow-up

Following incision and drainage (I&D) of cutaneous abscesses, patients typically require re-evaluation within 48 to 72 hours to assess wound progress, remove or replace packing if used, and ensure adequate drainage.^[24] Subsequent follow-up visits occur weekly until healthy granulation tissue forms and the wound begins to close, with complete healing generally achieved in 1 to 4 weeks for uncomplicated cases. Healing is assessed by monitoring for signs of resolution, such as decreased purulent drainage, reduced surrounding erythema and swelling, diminished pain, and progressive epithelialization of the wound edges.^[24] If initial wound cultures identify a specific pathogen, antibiotics may be extended beyond the standard 5-day course—up to 10 to 14 days—based on clinical response and susceptibility results, particularly in cases with associated cellulitis or immunosuppression. To prevent recurrence, underlying predisposing factors must be addressed, including patient education on hygiene practices such as regular handwashing and avoiding shared personal items for those with recurrent furunculosis.^[24] For patients with conditions like diabetes, optimizing glycemic control through lifestyle modifications and medical management is essential to reduce the risk of repeated infections. In cases of multiple recurrences linked to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), decolonization strategies—such as intranasal mupirocin and chlorhexidine body washes for 5 days—may be recommended. Referral to a specialist, such as a wound care clinic or dermatologist, is indicated if the wound shows no signs of healing after 2 weeks, persistent drainage beyond 7 to 10 days, or evidence of underlying structural issues like hidradenitis suppurativa.^[24] Patients with systemic symptoms or failure to improve within 48 hours should be promptly reevaluated to rule out complications requiring further intervention.

Complications and risks

Common complications

Incision and drainage (I&D) procedures, while generally safe for managing abscesses, are associated with several common local complications. Minor bleeding, often presenting as oozing from the incision site, is the most frequent issue and can typically be controlled with direct pressure or packing.^[39] Pain is another prevalent adverse outcome, usually peaking within the first 24 hours post-procedure and manageable with analgesics, though it is well-tolerated in most cases.^[1] Recurrent abscess formation occurs in approximately 10% of cases, particularly if loculations—pocketed collections of pus—are not fully addressed during drainage, leading to incomplete resolution.^[1] Infection-related complications include secondary bacterial infections, which can arise from inadequate post-procedure hygiene, and extension of cellulitis if drainage is incomplete, potentially spreading inflammation to surrounding tissues.^[1] Scarring is common, with hypertrophic or keloid formation more likely in cosmetically sensitive areas such as the face, though incisions aligned with skin tension lines can minimize aesthetic impact.^[1] Overall, major complications in outpatient I&D for skin and soft tissue infections are infrequent.^[1]

Prevention and management of complications

Adherence to aseptic technique during incision and drainage (I&D) procedures is essential to prevent postoperative infections, involving the use of sterile equipment such as povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine for skin preparation, along with universal precautions including gowns, gloves, and protective eyewear.^[1] Intraoperatively, complete breakdown of loculations through a centered linear incision, blunt dissection with a curved hemostat, and irrigation with sterile normal saline ensures thorough drainage and reduces the risk of residual infection pockets.^[1] Patient education plays a key role in preventing recurrence, emphasizing proper hygiene practices such as frequent handwashing, avoiding sharing of towels or personal items, daily wound cleaning with mild soap and water, and applying warm compresses to promote healing without disrupting the site.^[40]^[1] If bleeding occurs post-procedure, initial management involves applying direct pressure with sterile gauze for 10-15 minutes; persistent hemorrhage may require suture ligation or electrocautery.^[41] For recurrence, repeat I&D or imaging such as ultrasound to identify undrained collections is indicated, particularly in cases linked to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), where decolonization with intranasal mupirocin twice daily for 5-10 days combined with chlorhexidine body washes is recommended if infections persist despite hygiene measures.^[42]^[1] In instances of spreading infection, antibiotic escalation is warranted, such as adding MRSA coverage with vancomycin or clindamycin to initial therapy, especially if systemic signs like fever or tachycardia develop.^[43] Monitoring tools include obtaining wound cultures during I&D to guide targeted therapy, particularly for purulent collections or severe cases.^[44] Early intervention thresholds involve reassessment within 48 hours; escalation to infectious disease consultation or hospitalization is advised if fever persists beyond 48 hours, worsening erythema occurs, or no clinical improvement is noted.^[44]^[43] These strategies align with Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines for skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), which recommend adjunctive antibiotics for 5-7 days post-I&D in complicated cases and emphasize prompt surgical re-evaluation for inadequate response.^[43]^[44]

Specific applications

In cutaneous and subcutaneous abscesses

Cutaneous and subcutaneous abscesses are typically community-acquired infections that present as localized collections of pus in the skin and underlying soft tissues, often resulting from bacterial entry through minor trauma or folliculitis. These abscesses are most commonly caused by Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains (MRSA), though polymicrobial infections involving anaerobes and other gram-positive organisms can occur, particularly in areas with higher bacterial colonization such as the trunk, extremities, groin, axillae, or buttocks.^[1]^[12] The technique for incision and drainage (I&D) in these superficial abscesses is adapted to minimize tissue disruption while ensuring complete evacuation of purulent material. A linear incision of 0.5 to 1 cm is usually sufficient for smaller, superficial lesions, made directly over the point of maximum fluctuance and parallel to skin tension lines to optimize healing and cosmesis. Prior to the procedure, application of warm compresses for 10 to 20 minutes several times daily can help localize the abscess, promote spontaneous drainage in early cases, and soften the overlying skin for easier incision. After incision, a blunt probe or hemostat is used to break up internal loculations, followed by gentle expression of pus; packing with iodoform gauze may be placed loosely to maintain drainage patency, changed every 1 to 2 days until granulation occurs.^[12]^[45]^[1] Outcomes for I&D in uncomplicated cutaneous and subcutaneous abscesses are generally favorable, with resolution rates exceeding 80% following the procedure alone, and up to 90% or higher in select cases using modified techniques like loop drainage, particularly when combined with appropriate wound care. In the context of rising MRSA prevalence in community settings, I&D remains the cornerstone of management, reducing the need for systemic antibiotics in many instances and lowering recurrence risks when thorough drainage is achieved. Failure rates are low (around 10%) but may increase with inadequate loculation breakdown or host factors.^[1]^[46]^[24] Special considerations apply in obese patients, where excess adipose tissue can cause abscesses to extend deeper into subcutaneous layers, potentially requiring a slightly larger incision for access and more meticulous exploration to ensure complete drainage. In such cases, packing may need to be retained longer (up to 3 to 5 days or more) to prevent premature wound closure and re-accumulation of pus, with close follow-up to monitor healing in the deeper planes.^[1]^[47]

In incisional surgical site infections

Incisional surgical site infections (SSIs) represent a significant postoperative complication, classified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) into superficial and deep incisional categories based on the extent of tissue involvement. Superficial incisional SSIs are confined to the skin and subcutaneous layers of the incision and must occur within 30 days after the surgical procedure. In contrast, deep incisional SSIs extend to the fascial and muscle layers, also occurring within 30 days post-surgery or up to one year if prosthetic material is implanted. These infections arise from bacterial contamination during or after surgery, leading to localized inflammation, pus accumulation, and potential systemic effects if untreated.^[48]^[49] Key risk factors for incisional SSIs include patient-specific elements such as obesity, which impairs wound perfusion and immune response, increasing infection odds by at least 50% in procedures like colorectal surgery compared to normal-weight individuals. Procedure-related factors, including prolonged operative time exceeding standard durations, further elevate risk by allowing greater bacterial exposure and tissue trauma. Other contributors, such as diabetes and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) scores of 3 or higher, compound these vulnerabilities, emphasizing the need for targeted preoperative optimization in high-risk cases.^[50]^[51]^[52] The application of incision and drainage (I&D) in incisional SSIs requires tailored modifications to the standard technique to address the iatrogenic nature of the wound. The incision is made parallel to the original surgical scar, following natural skin creases to optimize drainage while preserving cosmetic outcomes and avoiding disruption of deeper structures. Intraoperatively, thorough exploration of the wound cavity is essential to identify and excise foreign materials, such as retained sutures or necrotic debris, which can harbor biofilms and perpetuate infection. Following evacuation of purulent material and irrigation, negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) is commonly applied over the debrided site; this adjunct promotes granulation tissue formation, reduces edema, and lowers reinfection rates by continuously removing exudate and bacteria.^[39]^[53]^[54] Timing of I&D intervention is crucial for favorable outcomes, with early drainage recommended within 7-10 days of symptom onset to halt progression from superficial to deep or organ-space involvement, thereby averting sepsis or hardware compromise. This approach aligns with the typical onset of SSIs in the second or third postoperative week and necessitates close coordination with the original surgical team to review operative details, imaging, and implant status. Delays beyond this window increase the likelihood of chronicity, particularly in contaminated fields.^[55]^[56] Prognosis after I&D for incisional SSIs is generally positive with prompt management, though recurrence rates are notably higher—up to 16-25%—when surgical hardware is present, often requiring subsequent reoperation or explantation due to biofilm formation. In such cases, retention of instrumentation succeeds in only about 90% of early-onset infections but drops significantly for late-onset ones. Timely I&D mitigates the morbidity of SSIs, which otherwise prolong hospital stays by up to 9.7 days, facilitating faster recovery and lowering healthcare costs.^[57]^[58]^[59]

Role of adjunct antibiotics

Incision and drainage (I&D) primarily addresses the purulent collection in abscesses by removing the infectious source, but adjunct antibiotics are employed to target any residual bacteria, mitigate the risk of systemic spread, and prevent recurrence in select cases. According to the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) 2014 guidelines on skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), antibiotics are not routinely recommended following I&D for uncomplicated superficial abscesses without associated cellulitis, systemic symptoms, or host factors that impair immunity, as drainage alone suffices in most instances.^[60] This approach helps preserve antimicrobial stewardship by avoiding unnecessary exposure that could foster resistance.^[25] Selection of adjunct antibiotics depends on local epidemiology, patient risk factors, and clinical presentation. In regions with high prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), empiric coverage is prioritized using agents such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) at a dose of 1-2 double-strength tablets twice daily for 5-7 days, particularly for purulent infections.^[60] For polymicrobial or deeper infections, therapy is guided by culture results from the drained material, favoring broad-spectrum options like beta-lactams with anaerobic coverage if gastrointestinal or genitourinary sources are suspected, followed by de-escalation.^[25] Antibiotics are specifically indicated post-I&D in patients with comorbidities such as diabetes, immunosuppression, or extensive disease involving multiple sites.^[61] Evidence from meta-analyses supports a modest benefit of adjunct antibiotics in improving outcomes for higher-risk scenarios. A 2018 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that systemic antibiotics after I&D increased clinical cure rates from 83.9% to 92.3% (risk difference 7.4%, 95% CI 2.8%-12.1%) compared to drainage alone.^[62] Conversely, in simple, small abscesses without systemic involvement, antibiotics do not significantly enhance resolution and may increase adverse events like gastrointestinal upset, underscoring the need to reserve them for complicated cases to curb antimicrobial resistance. The duration of adjunct antibiotic therapy is typically short to minimize resistance risks, often limited to 3-5 days in patients showing a favorable systemic response post-I&D, though 5-10 days may be used for recurrent or severe cases per IDSA recommendations.^[60] Monitoring involves clinical reassessment for resolution of fever, leukocytosis, and local inflammation, with de-escalation or discontinuation guided by repeat cultures if initial results indicate a narrow-spectrum option suffices.^[25] In diabetic patients or those with large abscesses, follow-up cultures from persistent drainage help tailor therapy, ensuring targeted coverage while avoiding prolonged broad-spectrum use.^[61]

References

[1]
Incision and Drainage - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jul 24, 2023 · Incision and drainage is a painful procedure that, in addition to local anesthetic, may also require oral or even parenteral analgesia.
[2]
Abscess Size and Depth on Ultrasound and Association with ... - NIH
Skin abscesses >0.4 centimeters (cm) in depth may require a drainage procedure, while those <0.4 cm may be safely treated with antibiotics alone. Additional ...
[3]
Incision, Drainage, and Debridement Technique
Aug 25, 2020 · A skin incision is made with a No. 11 or 15 surgical blade in the most prominent and fluctuant part of the abscess.
[4]
Ancient Egyptian Surgery - The Past
Dec 14, 2023 · The ancient Egyptian medical texts – the medical papyri – refer to minor surgical procedures, such as incisions to drain or excise swellings, cauterisation, ...
[5]
A History of Thoracic Drainage: From Ancient Greeks to Wound ...
Apr 9, 2015 · Hippocrates left the drain in place for up to two weeks and was able to successfully treat inflammation with this procedure. Galen (c. 129-200 ...
[6]
The final frontier of subdiaphragmatic abscess management
Hippocratic era, the cornerstone of abscesses treatment has been surgical incision and drainage of the purulent material. In the past, the presence of pus ...
[7]
Joseph Lister (1827-1912): A Pioneer of Antiseptic Surgery - PMC
Dec 21, 2022 · Joseph Lister was a prominent British surgeon and medical scientist who established the study of antisepsis.Missing: drainage | Show results with:drainage
[8]
William Halsted - LITFL
Jul 14, 2025 · Halsted was summoned in haste to his mother's bedside at Albany and arrived in time to operate at 2am, he saved her life by draining an empyema ...Missing: management | Show results with:management
[9]
[PDF] Surgery in World War II. Volume 2. General Surgery. - DTIC
Closed drainage was established at once, and the wound was packed tightly with vaseline gauze. The patient became deeply cyanotic, in spite of these measures, ...
[10]
Percutaneous Abdominal Abscess Drainage: A Historical Perspective
Ochsner A, DeBakey M. Subphrenic abscess: a collective review and an analysis of 3,608 collected and personal cases. Int Abstr Surg 1938; 66:426 –438.Missing: lung | Show results with:lung
[11]
The evolution of percutaneous abdominal abscess drainage: A review
Apr 11, 2025 · The approaches included a simple incision and drainage for superficial collections or open surgery for deep seated abscesses.
[12]
The evolution of percutaneous abdominal abscess drainage: A review
Apr 11, 2025 · Abdominal abscesses are commonly treated using percutaneous abscesses drainage (PAD). Despite PAD becoming commonplace in clinical practice, ...
[13]
Abscess incision and drainage - SAEM
Jan 6, 2023 · Indications. The indication for abscess incision and drainage is a fluctuant abscess with a large enough pocket of purulence to drain.
[14]
Boils and carbuncles - Diagnosis & treatment - Mayo Clinic
For larger boils and carbuncles, treatment may include: Incision and drainage. Your doctor may drain a large boil or carbuncle by making an incision in it.Missing: indications | Show results with:indications
[15]
Folliculitis, Boils, and Carbuncles - Cedars-Sinai
Moderate to severe boils and carbuncles are often treated by draining. A healthcare provider cuts into the sore and drains the fluid (pus) inside. This is ...
[16]
Surgical Treatment in Hidradenitis Suppurativa - PubMed Central
Apr 21, 2022 · 3.1. Incision and Drainage (I and D). Incision and drainage can be used as a treatment modality in acute cases with tender fluctuant abscesses ...
[17]
Dental Abscess - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
If there is a periapical dental abscess, it may require incision and drainage. Incision and drainage can be performed in the emergency department or the clinic ...
[18]
Peritonsillar Abscess - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Intraoral incision and drainage are carried out in a sitting position to prevent aspiration of pus. Oral and laryngeal mucosa is anesthetized with lidocaine 10% ...Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
[19]
Peritonsillar Abscess - AAFP
Apr 15, 2017 · Some type of drainage procedure is appropriate for most patients who present with a peritonsillar abscess. Exceptions include small abscesses ( ...
[20]
Diabetic Foot Infections - AAFP
Aug 1, 2013 · Surgical interventions may include incision and drainage of an abscess, extensive debridement of necrotic and devitalized tissue, resection ...
[21]
Abscess Drainage - PMC - NIH
Two reasonable drug regimens would include a second- or third-generation cephalosporin or ampicillin/sulbactam (vancomycin or clindamycin in case of penicillin ...
[22]
The Safety of Conscious Sedation in Peritonsillar Abscess Drainage
Incision and drainage of a PTA in the pediatric population under conscious sedation is safe. In 2 combined studies, there were no major and 4 minor ...Missing: precautions | Show results with:precautions
[23]
Protocol for management of pregnant patients requiring emergency ...
Feb 28, 2023 · ① In general, it is advisable to avoid surgical procedures during the first trimester if possible. The same treatment should be avoided in the ...
[24]
Psoas muscle abscess | Radiology Reference Article
Dec 23, 2024 · This is often treated with image-guided percutaneous drainage, typically CT due to the retroperitoneal location. Nevertheless, ultrasound guided ...
[25]
When is antibiotic prophylaxis required for dermatologic surgery?
Aug 29, 2023 · “Based on their analysis, they suggest antibiotic prophylaxis for all procedures below the knee and groin, wedge excisions of the lip and ear, ...
[26]
Skin abscesses in adults: Treatment - UpToDate
Nov 27, 2024 · No systemic signs of toxicity (eg, fever >100.5°F/38°C, hypotension, or sustained tachycardia). ... No immunosuppression or other comorbidities.
[27]
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections - IDSA
Jul 15, 2014 · Incision and drainage is the recommended treatment for inflamed epidermoid cysts, carbuncles, abscesses, and large furuncles, mild (Figure 1) ( ...Missing: precautions | Show results with:precautions
[28]
PROACTIVE PROTOCOL-BASED MANAGEMENT OF ... - NIH
Patients without a diabetes diagnosis are screened for the condition with an HbA1c check if their random blood glucose is greater than 150 mg/ dL at the pre- ...
[29]
Lidocaine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Aug 16, 2024 · Solutions of 0.05% to 0.1% can be injected subcutaneously in large volumes to provide tumescent local anesthesia. This results in swelling and ...
[30]
[PDF] GUIDELINE FOR PREVENTION OF SURGICAL SITE INFECTION ...
for Preoperative Skin Preparation and Surgical Scrubs. 257. Table 7. Surgical Wound Classification. 259. Table 8. Parameters for Operating Room Ventilation ...
[31]
How To Incise and Drain an Abscess - Injuries - Merck Manuals
Have the patient begin warm soaks and gentle hydrostatic debridement at home (ask the patient to hold the skin incision open and direct the shower or faucet ...Missing: intraoperative | Show results with:intraoperative
[32]
Abscess Drainage - TeachMeSurgery
Mar 18, 2019 · Make a stab incision, then open the abscess cavity fully either extending the incision or making a cruciate incision and taking off the edges ( ...Missing: intraoperative | Show results with:intraoperative
[33]
Abscess incision and drainage | healthdirect
The operation usually takes 10 to 20 minutes. Your surgeon will make a cut on your skin over the abscess. This allows the pus to drain out. Once the pus has ...Missing: intraoperative | Show results with:intraoperative
[34]
Carbuncle - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
A carbuncle is an infection of the hair follicle(s) that extends into the surrounding skin and deep underlying subcutaneous tissue.
[35]
Comparison of ultrasound-guided puncture drainage and incision ...
Puncture drainage of neck abscess guided by B-ultrasound is a safe and effective treatment method and can reduce the patient's hospital stay.
[36]
Percutaneous Abscess Drainage - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 8, 2025 · Percutaneous abscess drainage is a minimally invasive procedure used to evacuate infected fluid collections from various anatomical sites.
[37]
Cardinal Health™ Xeroform™ Occlusive Dressing
Xeroform™ occlusive dressings use 3% Bismuth Tribromophenate in a special petrolatum blend on fine mesh gauze, allowing it to cling and conform to all ...
[38]
Comparison of the Loop Technique With Incision and Drainage for ...
Oct 9, 2020 · The loop drainage technique is associated with reduced treatment failures when compared with conventional incision and drainage. Future studies ...
[39]
Incision & Surgical Wound Care - Cleveland Clinic
Avoid soaking your surgical site in water; showers are the best method to wash. Pat the wound dry if it gets wet. How do I change a wound dressing? Your ...
[40]
[PDF] Post-Operative instructions for incision and drainage of an abscess
1) Remove outer dressing 24 hours after surgery,. 2) Under the outer dressing you will find that your surgical wound may be packed with gauze, you need to soak.Missing: immediate | Show results with:immediate
[41]
[PDF] Surgical Site Infection Event (SSI) - CDC
Jan 1, 2025 · All procedures included in the NHSN monthly surveillance plan are monitored for superficial incisional, deep incisional, and organ/space SSI ...
[42]
[PDF] TREATMENT OF YOUR ABSCESS - UHS Berkeley
Wash your hands every time you touch the area. Do not share towels or soap. If your abscess was opened with an Incision and Drainage: Keep the abscess covered ...
[43]
[PDF] Post-Operative Instructions after Incision and Drainage of a Dental ...
Nov 23, 2020 · Drain: You may have a drain placed to help get rid of the infection. It is important to leave this drain in place until removed by your dentist ...
[44]
IDSA Guidelines on the Treatment of MRSA Infections in Adults and ...
Aug 15, 2011 · Decolonization may be considered if a patient develops a recurrent infection despite good personal hygiene and wound care, or if other household ...
[45]
[PDF] 2014 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America - IDSA
Oct 16, 2018 · 9. After obtaining cultures of recurrent abscess, treat with a 5- to 10-day course of an antibiotic active against the pathogen isolated (weak, ...
[46]
[PDF] Skin and Soft Tissue Infections: Treatment Guidance
Cultures should be obtained if debridement or incision and drainage (I & D) is performed and/or if there is a discrete collection of pus or drainage that would ...
[47]
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections | EM Cases
Apr 24, 2018 · Randomized trial comparing wound packing to no wound packing following incision and drainage of superficial skin abscesses in the pediatric ...
[48]
The Treatment of Cutaneous Abscesses: Comparison of Emergency ...
In a study with 115 patients, using 2 small incisions (4–5 mm) far apart on the abscess and a loop drain tied on top of the skin, the success rate was 94.5%, as ...
[49]
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections - AAFP
Sep 15, 2015 · Avoid antibiotics and wound cultures in emergency department patients with uncomplicated skin and soft tissue abscesses after successful ...
[50]
Surgical Site Infections | Johns Hopkins Medicine
Signs and symptoms of surgical site infections · A superficial incisional SSI may produce pus from the wound site. · A deep incisional SSI may also produce pus.
[51]
Factors Contributing to Surgical Site Infections: A Comprehensive ...
Dec 28, 2023 · Additional risk factors include open fracture, obesity, smoking, diabetes mellitus [27], ASA class 3 or higher, and an intraoperative ...1.2. Risk Factors · 2.1. Study Design And... · Table 3
[52]
Review Article Association Between Obesity and Wound Infection ...
Overweight and obese patients carry at least 20% and 50% higher odds of developing SSI after colorectal surgery compared to normal weight patients, respectively ...Review Article · Discussion · Appendix
[53]
Risk factors for surgical site infection in patients undergoing ...
Oct 28, 2021 · The study showed that 12 factors (male sex, diabetes mellitus, obesity, ASA score ≥3, cigarette smoking, wound classification >2, IBD, open ...
[54]
Postoperative Wound Infections - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Postoperative wound infections are a common complication following surgery, characterized by complex and multifactorial pathophysiology.Missing: labs | Show results with:labs
[55]
Outcomes of Negative Pressure Wound Therapies in the ... - NIH
The current protocol treatment for SSIs for most surgeries is irrigation and debridement (I&D) followed by appropriate antibiotic therapy. Spine surgeons ...
[56]
Time of developing surgical site infections and its association with ...
The most critical period for developing SSI is probably the second or third post-operative weeks, with considerable variation between studies and type of ...
[57]
2018 WSES/SIS-E consensus conference: recommendations for the ...
Dec 14, 2018 · Incisional SSIs should always be drained, irrigated, and if needed, opened and debrided. If fascial disruption is suspected, drainage should ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Risk factors associated with reoperation and recurrent... : Spine Open
Sep 15, 2025 · The findings suggest that patients undergoing surgical I&D for SSIs following multilevel spinal fusion face substantial risks of reoperation and ...
[59]
Fate of Hardware in Spinal Infections - Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
Case no. ... 90% early-onset infections cured with I&D and IV antibiotics. 85% late-onset infections had removal of hardware. ... 35% had removal of hardware, only ...
[60]
Surgical Site Infection in Cardiac Surgery - PMC - NIH
Nov 26, 2022 · In the USA, SSIs cause over 90,000 readmissions, extend the average length of hospital stay by up to 9.7 days and increase medical costs by $700 ...
[61]
Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Skin and ...
It is recommended that the treatment duration for most bacterial SSTIs should be 7–14 days (strong, moderate). Surgical intervention is recommended for drainage ...
[62]
WSES/GAIS/WSIS/SIS-E/AAST global clinical pathways for patients ...
Jan 15, 2022 · Surgical Infection Society 2020 updated guidelines on the management of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Surg Infect (Larchmt) ...