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Seizure threshold

The seizure threshold refers to the minimum intensity of stimulus or degree of imbalance in neuronal activity required to trigger a seizure, representing an individual's inherent susceptibility to abnormal electrical discharges in the brain.^[1] This threshold exists on a continuum for everyone, influenced by the balance between excitatory (e.g., glutamatergic) and inhibitory (e.g., GABAergic) forces in the brain, where a lower threshold increases the likelihood of seizures occurring under certain conditions.^[1] Individuals with epilepsy typically have a genetically or pathologically lowered seizure threshold, making recurrent, unprovoked seizures more probable compared to the general population, whose higher thresholds protect against such events unless provoked by acute factors.^[2]^[3] Key factors that can lower the seizure threshold include genetic predispositions, such as family history of epilepsy; physiological states like sleep deprivation, stress, or hormonal fluctuations (e.g., during menstruation); and environmental triggers such as flashing lights, fever, or high temperatures.^[3]^[4] Certain medications, including some antidepressants, antipsychotics, opioids, and even over-the-counter drugs like high-dose aspirin, can also reduce the threshold, while antiepileptic drugs work primarily by raising it to prevent seizures.^[1]^[4] Conversely, elements like adequate sleep, stress management, and consistent medication adherence can help maintain or elevate the threshold, underscoring the importance of personalized epilepsy management strategies.^[3] In clinical contexts, understanding an individual's seizure threshold guides treatment decisions, such as electroconvulsive therapy dosing or risk assessment for seizure-provoking procedures, emphasizing its role in neurology and epileptology.^[1]

Definition and Basic Concepts

Definition

The seizure threshold refers to the minimum intensity of an electrical, chemical, or physiological stimulus required to provoke a seizure in a susceptible individual. This concept encapsulates the brain's inherent resistance to excessive neuronal firing, where stimuli below the threshold fail to disrupt normal activity, while those at or above it can initiate synchronized, abnormal discharges characteristic of a seizure.^[1] Individuals vary along a continuum of seizure susceptibility, ranging from high thresholds in those with robust resistance to low thresholds in populations prone to recurrent seizures, such as people with epilepsy.^[1] In epilepsy, this lowered threshold reflects an underlying predisposition that makes seizures more likely under otherwise subthreshold conditions, distinguishing it from isolated, provoked events in non-epileptic individuals.^[2] It was first systematically quantified in animal models during the 1930s, notably through electroshock experiments by Merritt and Putnam, who used controlled stimuli in cats and dogs to measure the precise electrical intensity needed to induce seizures, laying the groundwork for anticonvulsant drug screening.^[5]

Clinical Significance

The seizure threshold represents an individual's susceptibility to developing seizures, positioned on a continuum influenced by various factors, where a lower threshold heightens the risk of spontaneous, unprovoked seizures.^[1] This increased susceptibility can lead to recurrent epileptic events, profoundly impacting quality of life by causing limitations in daily functioning, employment opportunities, and psychological well-being due to fear of seizure occurrence.^[6] Furthermore, a lowered threshold contributes to higher seizure frequency, which is a major risk factor for sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP), with patients experiencing generalized tonic-clonic seizures three or more times per year facing up to 15-fold elevated SUDEP risk compared to those without such seizures.^[7] In diagnostics, the seizure threshold concept aids in distinguishing epilepsy—a chronic condition marked by a persistently lowered threshold and recurrent unprovoked seizures—from acute provoked seizures, where transient factors like metabolic disturbances temporarily reduce the threshold without underlying chronic vulnerability.^[1] It also informs prognosis in neurological disorders; for instance, individuals with a history of brain insults or early-life stress exhibit a reduced threshold, predicting accelerated epileptogenesis and higher comorbidity rates, such as cognitive deficits or depression.^[8] Therapeutically, assessing seizure threshold guides decisions to mitigate unintended seizures, particularly when prescribing psychotropic medications known to lower the threshold, such as certain antidepressants or antipsychotics, thereby preventing precipitation in susceptible patients.^[9] In controlled clinical contexts, this understanding ensures appropriate dosing or interventions to either avoid crossing the threshold or achieve targeted seizure induction for therapeutic benefit, optimizing patient safety and outcomes.^[9]

Physiological Basis

Neuronal Mechanisms

The seizure threshold at the neuronal level is fundamentally governed by the balance between excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission. Excitatory neurotransmission, primarily mediated by glutamate acting on ionotropic receptors such as NMDA and AMPA receptors, depolarizes the neuronal membrane by allowing influx of cations like Na⁺ and Ca²⁺, thereby promoting action potential generation.^[10] In contrast, inhibitory transmission via GABA, predominantly through GABA_A receptors, hyperpolarizes the membrane by Cl⁻ influx, counteracting excitatory drive and stabilizing the resting potential.^[11] Disruptions in this excitatory-inhibitory (E/I) balance, such as excessive glutamate release or diminished GABAergic inhibition, lower the seizure threshold by facilitating easier depolarization to action potential firing levels.^[12] Hyperexcitability contributing to a reduced seizure threshold often arises from ion channel dysfunction, particularly in voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs). Mutations in genes encoding VGSC α-subunits, such as SCN1A, SCN2A, and SCN8A, can lead to gain-of-function effects, including persistent sodium currents that prolong depolarization and increase neuronal firing rates.^[13] For instance, these mutations impair channel inactivation, resulting in sustained inward currents that lower the energy required for action potential initiation and promote burst firing.^[14] Such channelopathies are implicated in various epilepsies, where they disrupt normal repolarization and enhance overall membrane excitability.^[15] Synaptic plasticity mechanisms further modulate the seizure threshold by altering synaptic strength in favor of excitation. Activity-dependent changes, such as long-term potentiation (LTP) at glutamatergic synapses, strengthen AMPA receptor-mediated transmission, reducing the activation threshold for postsynaptic action potentials.^[16] Conversely, impaired plasticity in inhibitory synapses, including downregulation of GABA_A receptor expression, weakens restraint on excitatory networks, thereby lowering the overall threshold for seizure initiation.^[17] These plasticity shifts create a pro-epileptogenic environment at the single-neuron level. A simplified conceptual model of neuronal seizure onset illustrates this interplay through membrane potential dynamics. Seizure-like activity emerges when the net excitatory current exceeds inhibitory opposition, such that the change in membrane potential ΔV = I_{excit} - I_{inhib} surpasses the action potential threshold V_{th}, typically around -55 mV relative to a resting potential of -70 mV.^[18]

\Delta V = I_{\text{excit}} - I_{\text{inhib}} > V_{\text{th}} \quad (\text{where } V_{\text{th}} \approx -55 \, \text{mV})

Network Dynamics

The seizure threshold is significantly influenced by hypersynchronization, a state in which large populations of neurons discharge in unison, particularly in the cortex and hippocampus. This phenomenon occurs when neuronal ensembles engage in high-frequency bursts exceeding 100 Hz, such as fast ripples (250–500 Hz) and ripples (80–250 Hz), which reflect pathological synchronization beyond physiological sharp-wave ripples. Such hypersynchronous activity amplifies excitatory signaling through paroxysmal depolarizing shifts across small cortical networks, thereby lowering the threshold for ictal onset by facilitating the recruitment of additional neurons into the discharging population. In epileptic tissue, this synchronization is often aperiodic and local, contrasting with the coordinated, transient nature of normal high-frequency oscillations, and it can propagate to encompass extended cortical areas during seizures.^[19]^[20]^[21] Propagation of seizure activity beyond initial local foci relies on interconnected brain networks, particularly thalamocortical circuits and limbic structures like the amygdala. Thalamocortical loops, involving reciprocal projections between thalamic nuclei (e.g., centromedian and mediodorsal) and cortical regions, enable rapid dissemination of hypersynchronous discharges from temporal lobe origins to contralateral hemispheres, promoting focal-to-bilateral tonic-clonic seizures. The thalamus acts as a hub for synchronization, enhancing interregional coupling through increased connectivity and centrality in epileptic networks, which facilitates the spread of ictal wavefronts. Similarly, limbic pathways, including the amygdala's projections to the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and neocortical areas, contribute to propagation by relaying amygdala-kindled activity via strengthened frontotemporal links and thalamic relays, allowing seizures to evolve from limbic motor patterns to widespread cortical involvement.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Seizure termination is mediated by intrinsic network feedback mechanisms that restore balance and elevate the threshold post-ictally, preventing prolonged ictal states. A key process is the afterhyperpolarization (AHP), particularly the slow AHP (sAHP), which follows bursts of neuronal firing and induces prolonged membrane hyperpolarization (lasting 1–2 seconds) via calcium-activated potassium channels. This hyperpolarization reduces neuronal excitability across synchronized populations in the hippocampus and cortex, creating an inhibitory window that desynchronizes networks and limits further propagation by suppressing action potential generation. In epileptic models, sAHP interacts with GABA_B receptor-mediated inhibition to provide negative feedback, effectively raising the seizure threshold during post-seizure recovery and contributing to the finite duration of most ictal events.^[26]^[27]

Factors Modulating Seizure Threshold

Endogenous Factors

Endogenous factors refer to intrinsic biological elements that modulate an individual's seizure threshold, influencing neuronal excitability without external influences. Genetic variations play a primary role, particularly mutations in ion channel genes that disrupt normal membrane potentials and increase seizure susceptibility. Mutations in the SCN1A gene, which encodes the Nav1.1 voltage-gated sodium channel, are a leading cause of genetic epilepsies such as Dravet syndrome. These loss-of-function mutations predominantly affect GABAergic interneurons, reducing sodium currents by approximately 50% compared to wild-type, thereby lowering the seizure threshold and promoting hyperexcitability. Similarly, mutations in the KCNQ2 gene, encoding a potassium channel subunit responsible for the M-current that stabilizes neuronal firing, reduce current amplitude by 20-40% in affected models, resulting in decreased seizure thresholds and early-onset neonatal seizures in syndromes like benign familial neonatal epilepsy or epileptic encephalopathies. Carriers of these mutations exhibit a markedly heightened risk of spontaneous seizures due to impaired inhibitory control. Age significantly influences seizure threshold, generally increasing it in adulthood, particularly in contexts like electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) where physiological changes such as increased cerebrospinal fluid volume due to brain atrophy are associated with higher thresholds required to induce seizures.^[28] However, in the general population, age-related brain atrophy and other structural changes can contribute to increased epilepsy risk after age 60 due to comorbidities and lesions, despite potential rises in intrinsic threshold.^[29] Sex differences also contribute, with males typically displaying higher thresholds than females, potentially linked to baseline hormonal profiles. Females experience cyclical variations, where estrogen exerts proconvulsant effects by enhancing excitability and lowering the threshold, while progesterone acts as an anticonvulsant, elevating it during phases like the luteal period. Hormonal states during puberty can transiently lower the seizure threshold through surges in estrogen and other sex steroids, often coinciding with epilepsy onset in susceptible individuals. Metabolic conditions, such as uncontrolled diabetes, further modulate threshold via glucose imbalances; hyperglycemia reduces it by altering neuronal energy homeostasis and increasing GABA metabolism, heightening seizure risk. Electrolyte disturbances, including hypocalcemia from endocrine disorders, similarly decrease threshold by destabilizing membrane potentials and promoting neuronal firing.

Exogenous Factors

Exogenous factors refer to external influences that can transiently alter the seizure threshold, often by disrupting neuronal excitability or inhibitory mechanisms. These modifiable elements include lifestyle-related triggers, pharmacological agents, and environmental insults, which may lower the threshold in susceptible individuals, increasing seizure risk. Unlike endogenous factors, which are more stable and internal, exogenous ones can be mitigated through behavioral changes or medical interventions. Lifestyle triggers such as sleep deprivation significantly lower the seizure threshold by increasing cortical excitability and reducing inhibitory processes. Sleep deprivation promotes seizures and interictal epileptiform discharges, potentially through diminished GABA-mediated tonic inhibition, which facilitates neuronal hyperexcitability. Similarly, acute stress elevates cortisol levels, which hypersecretion decreases the seizure threshold, particularly in temporal lobe epilepsy, by altering GABA receptor modulation and promoting neuroinflammation. Alcohol withdrawal disrupts GABAergic signaling, leading to hyperexcitability and a lowered seizure threshold, often manifesting as generalized tonic-clonic seizures within 6-48 hours of cessation. Certain pharmacological agents act as proconvulsants by enhancing monoaminergic activity, thereby reducing the seizure threshold. For instance, bupropion, a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor, lowers the seizure threshold in a dose-dependent manner, with risks increasing at higher doses due to its effects on excitatory neurotransmission. Tramadol, which inhibits serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake alongside opioid agonism, is associated with seizures, particularly in overdose, through monoamine-mediated hyperexcitability. In contrast, anticonvulsants like valproate raise the seizure threshold by enhancing GABAergic inhibition and modulating voltage-gated ion channels, providing therapeutic protection against seizures. Environmental insults further contribute to threshold modulation via physiological disruptions. Fever and infections lower the seizure threshold through cytokine release, such as IL-1β and IL-6, which enhance neuronal excitability and promote inflammation in the brain. In photosensitive epilepsy, exposure to flashing lights or flickering patterns can provoke seizures by inducing epileptiform activity, with maximal risk at frequencies of 10-25 Hz due to reduced inhibition in visual processing networks. Electrolyte disturbances, notably hyponatremia, acutely lower the seizure threshold by causing cerebral edema and neuronal swelling, often triggering generalized seizures when serum sodium falls below 115 mEq/L.

Clinical Applications

In Epilepsy Management

In epilepsy management, assessing the seizure threshold is essential for accurate diagnosis, particularly in distinguishing epileptic seizures from nonepileptic events. Video-electroencephalography (video-EEG) monitoring, often incorporating provocation techniques such as hyperventilation, intermittent photic stimulation, or sleep deprivation, can elicit epileptiform discharges that indicate a reduced seizure threshold, supporting the confirmation of epilepsy. These methods are particularly valuable in cases where routine EEGs are inconclusive, as they increase the likelihood of capturing ictal activity and clarifying the epileptic nature of events.^[30] Treatment strategies in epilepsy focus on optimizing the seizure threshold to minimize seizure occurrence. Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), such as carbamazepine, elevate the threshold by stabilizing neuronal membranes and reducing hyperexcitability, with studies demonstrating significant increases in the current required to provoke seizures in experimental models. For instance, carbamazepine effectively raises the threshold more prominently in cortical regions compared to subcortical areas like the amygdala. In drug-resistant cases, vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) provides long-term modulation of the seizure threshold by altering cortical excitability, often resulting in sustained reductions in seizure frequency over years of therapy.^[31]^[32] Patient education emphasizes maintaining a higher seizure threshold through lifestyle modifications and trigger avoidance, which empowers individuals to proactively manage their condition. Common triggers, such as sleep deprivation, can lower the threshold and precipitate seizures, so advising patients to prioritize consistent sleep and identify personal precipitants—via seizure diaries—helps mitigate risks. In responsive individuals, such strategies can substantially decrease seizure frequency by interrupting potential cascades of hyperexcitability.^[33]^[34]

In Electroconvulsive Therapy

In electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), the seizure threshold plays a crucial role in balancing therapeutic efficacy and minimizing adverse effects when treating severe psychiatric disorders such as major depression. Determining the individual patient's seizure threshold during the initial session allows clinicians to tailor stimulus intensity, ensuring a generalized seizure of adequate quality while avoiding excessive dosing that could heighten cognitive side effects. This personalized approach enhances the safety and effectiveness of ECT by accounting for interpatient variability influenced by factors like age, sex, and electrode placement.^[35] Threshold determination typically employs a dose titration method in the first treatment session, beginning with a low stimulus charge of 20-50 millicoulombs (mC) and incrementally increasing until a generalized seizure is elicited, defined as at least 15 seconds of motor convulsion (measured via cuff technique) and 25 seconds of electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. This process identifies the minimal electrical charge required to provoke a therapeutic seizure, guiding subsequent dosing to multiples of this threshold for optimal outcomes. Once established, adjustments to stimulation parameters, such as electrode placement, can further modulate the threshold; bilateral ECT elevates it approximately twofold compared to right unilateral placement, necessitating higher absolute doses for equivalent seizure induction despite the increased threshold.^[36]^[35]^[37] In cases of high seizure threshold or inadequate seizure quality, pharmacological augmentation with agents like caffeine can lower the threshold (e.g., by approximately 35%), facilitating seizure elicitation at reduced electrical intensities and improving treatment for refractory patients. Recent studies as of 2025 indicate that intravenous caffeine safely enhances seizure quality and length without increasing adverse effects. Delivering stimuli at 2-6 times the seizure threshold has been shown to enhance antidepressant response rates, with higher multiples particularly beneficial for unilateral ECT to achieve efficacy comparable to bilateral approaches. Over the course of an ECT series, the seizure threshold can rise substantially, often by 20-50% or more due to adaptive neuroplastic changes, such as enhanced neuronal resilience and altered network excitability, requiring progressive increases in stimulus dose to maintain seizure adequacy.^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]

In Pharmacology

In pharmacology, the seizure threshold serves as a critical parameter for evaluating the anticonvulsant or proconvulsant properties of drugs, influencing their selection, dosing, and development to mitigate convulsive risks. Anticonvulsant drugs, such as phenytoin, elevate the seizure threshold primarily through blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels, which stabilizes neuronal membranes and reduces the propensity for hyperexcitable firing that initiates seizures.^[43] Other classes, including benzodiazepines and phenobarbital, achieve similar effects by enhancing inhibitory neurotransmission via gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-A receptor potentiation, thereby increasing the electrical stimulus required to provoke a seizure.^[43] In contrast, proconvulsant agents like certain fluoroquinolone antibiotics (e.g., ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin) lower the seizure threshold by antagonizing GABA-A receptors, which diminishes inhibitory signaling and heightens neuronal excitability, potentially precipitating seizures even at therapeutic doses.^[44]^[45] Preclinical safety screening for potential anticonvulsants routinely employs the maximal electroshock (MES) model in rodents to quantify a drug's ability to raise the seizure threshold. In this paradigm, an electrical stimulus is applied via corneal or auricular electrodes to induce tonic hindlimb extension, mimicking generalized tonic-clonic seizures; the effective dose 50 (ED50)—the dose protecting 50% of subjects from seizure manifestation—is calculated to assess potency, with lower ED50 values indicating stronger threshold elevation.^[46] For instance, established anticonvulsants like phenytoin exhibit MES ED50 values around 10-20 mg/kg in mice, providing a benchmark for novel compounds during early drug development.^[5] This model prioritizes drugs effective against focal and generalized seizures, guiding lead optimization to favor those with broad-spectrum threshold-raising efficacy while minimizing neurotoxicity.^[47] Clinical guidelines emphasize avoiding or cautiously using proconvulsant drugs in patients with epilepsy to prevent breakthrough seizures, recommending alternatives with neutral or elevating effects on the threshold.^[48] For example, tramadol is contraindicated in those with a seizure history due to its inherent proconvulsant potential via opioid receptor and serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibition, and its coadministration with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) further amplifies this risk by 2- to 6-fold through synergistic serotonergic effects and reduced seizure inhibition.^[49]^[50] Monitoring for such pharmacodynamic interactions is standard, with dose adjustments or discontinuation advised when threshold-lowering agents (e.g., certain antibiotics or antidepressants) are unavoidable, ensuring therapeutic safety in vulnerable populations.^[48]

Assessment Methods

Direct Measurement Techniques

Direct measurement techniques for seizure threshold involve clinical procedures that provoke and confirm seizures in controlled therapeutic environments to quantify the minimum stimulus required to elicit a generalized seizure. These methods are primarily employed in settings like electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) to individualize dosing and optimize outcomes while minimizing risks. Due to ethical and safety concerns, such direct provocation is restricted to therapeutic contexts and is not used for routine diagnostic assessment in epilepsy patients. In ECT, dose titration is a standard approach where electrical charge is incrementally increased from a low starting dose, such as 24 millicoulombs (mC), until a seizure is induced and confirmed via electroencephalography (EEG). The process typically begins with age-adjusted minimal stimuli—often 5% of maximum device charge (approximately 25 mC) for younger adults—and doubles or escalates stepwise (e.g., to 10%, 20%, 40%) until EEG evidence of seizure activity appears. In large cohorts of adults undergoing right unilateral brief-pulse ECT, the mean charge required to reach threshold averages around 75 mC, though values range widely from 8 mC to over 500 mC depending on factors like electrode placement and patient characteristics; bilateral ECT thresholds are generally higher, around 100-126 mC on average. This titration occurs during the first session to establish the individual threshold, with subsequent treatments delivering 1.5-6 times that value for therapeutic efficacy. Historically, pharmacological provocation using pentylenetetrazol (PTZ), a GABA_A receptor antagonist, was used in humans to assess seizure threshold through controlled intravenous infusion. The technique involved timed administration of a dilute PTZ solution (e.g., 1% w/v) at a constant rate, monitoring the latency to the onset of specific seizure behaviors or EEG changes to calculate the threshold dose in mg/kg.^[51] Employed in convulsive therapies until the mid-20th century, PTZ is no longer used in human clinical practice due to significant risks; it persists in select preclinical animal research protocols as a quantifiable proxy for central nervous system excitability, with shorter latencies indicating lower thresholds. EEG monitoring is integral to confirming threshold crossing in both ECT and pharmacological methods, capturing ictal patterns such as initial high-frequency polyspike activity followed by rhythmic spike-wave complexes. A successful seizure is typically defined by EEG duration exceeding 15 seconds, with optimal therapeutic seizures lasting 30-50 seconds and exhibiting distinct phases: polyspikes (<5 seconds), regular spike-waves, and postictal suppression. Shorter durations (<15 seconds) often lack adequate generalization and are deemed inadequate, while prolonged monitoring ensures safety and verifies the absence of subclinical events.

Indirect and Research Approaches

Indirect and research approaches to estimating seizure threshold rely on surrogate measures of cortical excitability and preclinical models, avoiding direct provocation in humans. These methods provide insights into underlying neuronal vulnerability without inducing seizures, facilitating drug development and risk stratification. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) assesses cortical excitability through the motor threshold (MT), defined as the minimal stimulus intensity required to elicit a motor evoked potential of at least 50 μV in the target muscle. In epilepsy patients, a lower MT correlates with increased cortical hyperexcitability, inversely relating to seizure threshold, as evidenced by reduced thresholds shortly after seizures or in symptomatic cases. For instance, untreated patients with partial epilepsy exhibit decreased MT compared to treated individuals or controls, indicating a state of heightened susceptibility. This non-invasive technique thus serves as a proxy for estimating seizure proneness, particularly in monitoring treatment effects where antiepileptic drugs elevate MT. Animal models offer standardized platforms for quantifying seizure threshold via afterdischarge threshold (ADT), the minimal current intensity eliciting an electrographic afterdischarge lasting at least 3 seconds. In the amygdala kindling model in rats, ADT is measured in microamperes (μA) through focal electrical stimulation, typically starting at 60 Hz for 2 seconds, and progressively decreases with repeated subthreshold stimulations, reflecting kindling-induced lowering of seizure threshold. Pre-kindling ADT values often range from 200-300 μA, dropping significantly over weeks due to implantation effects or sensitization, enabling precise evaluation of anticonvulsant efficacy in drug testing. Similarly, corneal kindling in rats involves transcorneal electrostimulation at low frequencies (e.g., 6 Hz, 0.5 ms pulses), where ADT quantifies resistance to induced limbic seizures, providing a non-invasive alternative for studying focal epilepsy progression and therapeutic interventions. Biomarker proxies, such as neuroimaging and genetic analyses, infer seizure threshold through network-level or heritable risk indicators. Resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) examines connectivity alterations, where disrupted patterns in default mode or salience networks correlate with seizure susceptibility; for example, machine learning models using rs-fMRI connectivity matrices predict post-traumatic seizure risk with high accuracy by identifying hyperexcitable hubs. Heightened connectivity in epileptic networks, as seen in temporal lobe epilepsy, signifies lower threshold without stimulation. Genetic panels employ polygenic risk scores (PRS) aggregating common variants to estimate epilepsy liability, with higher PRS for generalized epilepsy conferring over 3-fold increased risk, serving as a non-provocative susceptibility metric across populations. These approaches collectively enable indirect threshold estimation for research and personalized medicine.

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Tramadol should be avoided in patients with a history of epilepsy or with a recognized risk of seizure (head trauma, metabolic disorder, alcohol abuse, CNS ...2.1. Mechanism Of Action · 4. Drug Interactions · 6. Extended-Release...
[46]
Stimulus Titration and ECT Dosing - The Journal of ECT
With the dose-titration technique, dosing at 2.5–6 times seizure threshold was suggested for UL ECT versus 1.5–2.5 times threshold for BL ECT. Fixed dosing ...
[47]
Seizure Threshold in a Large Sample: Implications for Stimulus ...
We sought to examine the relationship of seizure threshold (ST) to age and other demographic characteristics in a large sample where ST was determined by ...Missing: earliest | Show results with:earliest
[48]
Charge required to induce a seizure during initial dose titration ...
This study quantifies the charge required to induce a seizure using right unilateral brief pulse (RUL-BP) ECT in a large retrospective cohort.
[49]
Evaluation of the pentylenetetrazole seizure threshold test in ...
The threshold for PTZ-induced seizures was determined by timed intravenous (i.v.) infusion of a 1% solution of PTZ via flexible tubing placed into the tail vein ...
[50]
[PDF] EEG Interpretation and Seizure Efficacy measures | RANZCP
Galvez and Waite showed that seizure threshold (as shown by re-titration) rises in about 60% of patients having RUL UB ECT by session 7.Missing: criteria | Show results with:criteria
[51]
[PDF] The Current Status of Seizure Duration in the Practice of ...
Jun 5, 1996 · Seizures of less than. 15 seconds are associated with postictal autonomic com- plications and poor clinical results (17,18), but there is little.
[52]
Evoked motor response thresholds during transcranial magnetic ...
The shorter the interval between a seizure and TMS, the smaller the evoked motor response threshold. The low threshold seen in patients with symptomatic ...
[53]
Lamotrigine and retigabine increase motor threshold in transcranial ...
In this study, we found that the antiepileptic drugs, lamotrigine (10 mg/kg) and retigabine (5 mg/kg), significantly increased the MT in rats using TMS.
[54]
Afterdischarge threshold reduction in the kindling model of epilepsy
Pre-kindling ADT's were highest 1 week after implantation, lower at 2 weeks, and lowest at 4 weeks. This drop in non-stimulated thresholds had largely ...
[55]
Seizures elicited by transcorneal 6 Hz stimulation in developing rats
Jan 3, 2025 · The data extend the use of the rat 6 Hz model to immature animals and may be useful as a model of pediatric temporal lobe seizures.
[56]
A Machine Learning Model to Predict Seizure Susceptibility from ...
A Machine Learning Model to Predict Seizure Susceptibility from Resting-State fMRI Connectivity. Abstract: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of ...
[57]
Resting state functional connectivity patterns associated with ... - NIH
Resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (Rs-fMRI) provides a powerful means to evaluate neural network connectivity and its alterations in epilepsy.
[58]
Polygenic risk scores as a marker for epilepsy risk across lifetime ...
Jul 25, 2024 · We found that a high genetic generalized epilepsy PRS (PRS GGE ) increased risk for genetic generalized epilepsy (GGE) (hazard ratio [HR] 1.73 per PRS GGE ...