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Semeru

Mount Semeru is a stratovolcano and the highest mountain on the Indonesian island of Java, rising to an elevation of 3,676 meters above sea level.^[1] It is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, having exhibited nearly continuous eruptive activity since 1967, primarily in the form of Vulcanian explosions that produce ash plumes, incandescent avalanches, lava flows, and pyroclastic flows.^[2] Also known as Mahameru ("Great Mountain"), Semeru lies at the southern end of a volcanic massif that extends northward to Bromo volcano, and its steep-sided cone dominates the landscape above surrounding coastal plains.^[2] Geologically, Semeru is classified as a stratovolcano with an active summit vent called Jonggring-Seloko, situated within the Mahameru crater.^[2] Located in East Java at coordinates 8.108°S, 112.922°E, it forms part of the Sunda Arc subduction zone where the Indo-Australian Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate, contributing to the region's high volcanic activity.^[2] The volcano's edifice is built from layers of andesitic lava flows, pyroclastic deposits, and lahars, with its southeastern flank particularly prone to hazardous downslope movements due to the terrain's steepness.^[1] Semeru's eruptions typically register at Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) levels of 2-3, involving moderate explosive events rather than cataclysmic blasts.^[1] Eruptive history dates back to at least the 19th century, with documented activity including small-to-moderate explosions and occasional larger events.^[2] The ongoing eruption that began in June 2017 has featured intermittent ash emissions rising 400-900 meters above the summit, pyroclastic flows extending up to 5 kilometers southeast, and lava avalanches traveling several hundred meters down the flanks.^[2] Activity in November 2025 included multiple eruptions with ash plumes and seismic events, consistent with this pattern.^[3] Notable eruptions include the deadly 2021 event on December 4, triggered by the collapse of a summit lava dome, which generated pyroclastic flows and lahars that killed at least 39 people and damaged villages in Lumajang Regency.^[4] Earlier significant incidents, such as the 1909 and 1981 mudflows, resulted in hundreds of fatalities, while activity in 1994-1995 involved frequent explosions and pyroclastic avalanches reaching 1 kilometer from the summit.^[1] As of November 2025, Semeru remains at Alert Level 2 (on a scale of 1-4), with daily gray ash plumes and minor eruptions continuing, but no major escalation reported.^[2]^[3] Semeru poses substantial hazards to over 500,000 people living within a 10-kilometer radius, primarily through pyroclastic flows, lahars triggered by heavy rainfall mixing with volcanic material, and ashfall disrupting agriculture and aviation.^[1] Semeru's eruptions have caused more than 500 deaths historically, underscoring the need for ongoing monitoring by Indonesia's Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (PVMBG).^[1] The volcano's activity has also drawn scientific attention for studying subduction-related volcanism and disaster risk reduction in densely populated areas.^[4]

Geography

Location and Regional Context

Semeru is situated at coordinates 8°06′28″S 112°55′20″E in the East Java province on the island of Java, Indonesia, making it a prominent feature of the country's densely populated and volcanically active southern region.^[2] As the highest peak in Java, Semeru rises to an elevation of 3,676 meters (12,060 feet) and is integrated into the Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, a protected area spanning approximately 50,276 hectares (502 km²) across the Tengger Mountains.^[5] The volcano lies south of the expansive Tengger Caldera and is positioned near the southern coast of Java, close to the Indian Ocean, which influences local weather patterns and accessibility from coastal areas.^[2] This strategic placement within a volcanic massif enhances its role as a dominant landscape element in eastern Java's rugged terrain. Semeru borders the regencies of Lumajang and Malang, with nearby settlements including the village of Ranu Pani at its southeastern base, which serves as a primary gateway for climbers and visitors.^[6] The area is accessible via well-maintained roads from major cities, such as Surabaya, located about 300 km to the north, allowing for relatively straightforward travel despite the mountainous surroundings.^[7] The regional climate is tropical monsoon, featuring distinct wet and dry seasons with annual rainfall up to 6,600 mm, primarily concentrated between November and March.^[8] This precipitation regime fosters a varied altitudinal zonation of vegetation, transitioning from dense lowland tropical forests at lower elevations to montane shrublands and alpine meadows near the summit, supporting unique biodiversity within the national park.^[9]

Topography and Physical Features

Mount Semeru, a steep stratovolcano, rises approximately 2,500 meters above the surrounding Tengger caldera plains to a summit elevation of 3,676 meters at Mahameru peak.^[1] The active Jonggring-Seloko crater, situated at the summit, measures roughly 500 by 600 meters and serves as the primary vent for ongoing volcanic activity.^[2] This prominent cone dominates the landscape, with its rugged slopes descending sharply, particularly on the southeastern flank where visible lava flows extend up to 500 meters and pyroclastic deposits scar the terrain.^[2] Key surface features include a series of scenic lakes within the broader caldera system of Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, such as Ranu Pani (covering about 0.75 hectares at 2,100 meters elevation due to sedimentation), Ranu Regulo (0.75 hectares nearby), and Ranu Kumbolo (a freshwater alpine lake at 2,400 meters often used as a climber's rest point).^[5] The lower to mid-slopes host expansive savanna grasslands interspersed with edelweiss fields, providing stark contrast to the volcanic rock outcrops and contributing to the park's diverse ecosystems.^[5] Vegetation varies distinctly by elevation: lowland dipterocarp forests dominate up to 1,200 meters, transitioning to montane rainforests rich in Fagaceae and other families up to 2,500 meters, while the barren summit zone above 3,000 meters features sparse sub-alpine and ericaceous shrubs adapted to harsh conditions.^[10] These zones support over 1,000 flora species, enhancing the area's biodiversity within the national park.^[5] Semeru serves as a major hydrological source, feeding rivers such as the Brantas, which originates in part from its slopes and sustains regional agriculture downstream.^[6] Channels like the Kobokan River, draining the southeastern flank, are particularly prone to lahars due to the steep topography and frequent ash accumulation.^[2]

Geology

Tectonic Setting

Semeru volcano is situated within the Sunda Arc, a major convergent margin where the Indo-Australian Plate subducts obliquely beneath the Eurasian Plate at a convergence rate of approximately 7 cm per year.^[11] This subduction process generates a Wadati-Benioff zone characterized by intermediate-depth earthquakes extending to depths of up to 600 km, reflecting the downward flexure and internal deformation of the subducting slab.^[12] The ongoing plate convergence drives partial melting in the mantle wedge through mechanisms such as slab dehydration, releasing volatiles that facilitate magma generation and ascent.^[13] As part of the eastern segment of the Java volcanic arc, Semeru lies approximately 150 km north of the Java Trench, the surface expression of the subduction zone off the southern coast of Java.^[14] This positioning places the volcano within the active volcanic front, where the subducting oceanic lithosphere influences the distribution of magmatic activity across the island.^[15] The tectonic setting contributes to associated seismic hazards, including Benioff zone seismicity that can propagate stress changes far inland. For instance, the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake (Mw 6.3), occurring approximately 250 km west of Semeru, indirectly triggered enhanced volcanic activity at the volcano by altering regional stress fields.^[16] Slab dehydration processes in this environment are linked to the production of andesitic magmas that characterize Semeru's eruptions.^[17] Semeru forms part of a cluster of active volcanoes in the Tengger-Semeru massif, including Bromo and Batok within the Tengger Caldera complex, and is one of 34 active volcanoes on Java Island.^[18]^[15] This regional volcanism underscores the intense magmatic productivity driven by the Sunda subduction system.^[19]

Stratigraphy and Composition

Semeru volcano originated as part of the broader Semeru-Tengger volcanic massif in East Java, Indonesia, with its formation following the development of earlier calderas in the region, including the Jambangan and Tengger structures during the Pleistocene epoch. The Mahameru edifice, the older core of Semeru, began building after the collapse of the Tengger Caldera complex approximately 100,000 years ago, through the accumulation of layered andesitic lavas and pyroclastic deposits south of the caldera rim. This construction phase marked Semeru's emergence as a stratovolcano, with subsequent growth forming the prominent summit cone via repeated effusive and explosive activity. The volcano's architecture reflects a north-south alignment of eruptive centers within the massif, transitioning from older caldera-forming events to the younger, persistent strato-cone of Semeru.^[20] The stratigraphy of Semeru consists of nested calderas beneath the main edifice, including the Ajek-Ajek and Jambangan structures extending northward approximately 6 km, overlain by the Mahameru summit cone and associated flank vents. These elements form a composite structure with multiple vents, such as the active Jonggring-Seloko crater at the summit (elevation 3,657 m), built atop deposits exceeding 3 km in total thickness from accumulated lavas, pyroclastic flows, tephra falls, and lahars. Rock composition is predominantly andesitic, with silica content ranging from 55-60 wt% SiO₂, interspersed with basaltic-andesite layers; this intermediate composition contributes to the magma's high viscosity, favoring explosive eruptions over effusive flows. Mineralogically, the rocks feature phenocrysts of plagioclase (up to 0.5 cm), pyroxene, and hornblende within a calc-alkaline matrix derived from subduction-related magmatism.^[20]^[21]^[22] Geophysical investigations reveal a magma storage system with reservoirs at depths of 5 km and deeper (up to 20 km), identified through seismic tomography showing low-velocity anomalies indicative of partial melt or fluids. These structures support the volcano's ongoing activity, with ground deformation patterns exhibiting inflation-deflation cycles linked to magma recharge and discharge in the shallow conduit. Tiltmeter records have documented precursory inflation on the order of several microradians prior to explosive events, followed by deflation, reflecting pressure changes within the system.^[20]^[23]

Eruptive History

Pre-1967 Eruptions

Semeru's eruptive history prior to 1967 is marked by episodic activity, with the first documented eruption occurring in 1818. This event involved explosive emissions that generated ash plumes rising approximately 1 km above the summit, accompanied by lava flows descending the flanks.^[2] Dutch colonial observers noted the volcano's rhythmic explosions at intervals of 20-30 minutes during this period, establishing an early pattern of persistent, low-level unrest based on pre-instrumental records. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Semeru experienced 61 recorded eruptions, primarily of Strombolian style characterized by moderate explosions, ash emissions, and occasional lava flows.^[2] These events resulted in fatalities from 11 incidents, totaling around 300 deaths, often due to secondary hazards like lahars rather than direct explosive impacts. Activity in the 1880s was notable for the formation of new summit vents, reflecting ongoing magmatic unrest and crater modifications.^[2] A major escalation occurred during the 1909 Plinian eruption, which ejected approximately 0.1 km³ of material and triggered devastating lahars that killed more than 100 people in surrounding areas. From 1941 to 1945, the volcano produced a series of explosions generating pyroclastic flows that extended up to 5 km down the southeastern flanks, damaging vegetation and infrastructure.^[2] These pre-1967 events highlight Semeru's predominantly andesitic composition, with eruptions varying from effusive to highly explosive.

1967-Present Continuous Activity

Since 1967, Mount Semeru has maintained nearly continuous eruptive activity, initiated by the extrusion of a lava dome at the summit crater, transitioning the volcano from intermittent historical eruptions to persistent Strombolian-style explosions occasionally exhibiting Vulcanian characteristics. This ongoing regime involves frequent ejections of incandescent material, with daily ash plumes typically rising 500-1,000 meters above the crater rim and drifting variably based on wind direction. Incandescent avalanches and block-and-ash flows commonly descend up to 3-4 kilometers down the southeastern flanks, particularly into the Kobokan and Bang drainages, contributing to the volcano's status as one of Indonesia's most active.^[24]^[2]^[25] Significant hazards during this period include lahars, such as the May 14, 1981 event when heavy rains triggered mudflows that killed 275 people in Sapitur village.^[26] Activity intensified in 1994-1995 with frequent explosions and pyroclastic avalanches reaching 1 km from the summit.^[1] In the 21st century, activity has periodically intensified, as seen in the December 4, 2021, eruption triggered by partial dome collapse amid heavy rainfall, which produced a massive pyroclastic density current extending 12 kilometers down the southeastern flank and an ash plume reaching 15 kilometers altitude. This event caused 51 deaths, injured dozens, and displaced over 10,000 residents from nearby villages due to pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and subsequent lahars. Pyroclastic flows continued in January 2022, with multiple events traveling up to 5 kilometers into the Kobokan drainage, accompanied by ash emissions up to 1 kilometer high. By 2023, through June, the volcano generated ash avalanches and pyroclastic flows, including one on June 26 that reached 5 kilometers, alongside plumes up to 1.5 kilometers.^[27]^[27]^[27]^[28]^[29] Activity persisted into 2024 with ongoing ash plumes reaching 1.5 kilometers, including an eruption on November 5 that produced a column 1 kilometer high. In 2025, eruptions escalated in November, with an explosion on November 6 heard 10 kilometers away and ash rising 1 kilometer above the summit; a lahar triggered by rainfall remobilized deposits on November 7, flowing down the Kobokan River; another eruption on November 9 at 15:06 WIB, amid 23 seismic events recorded in the preceding week; an eruption on November 15 producing ash emissions; and an eruption on November 17 at 10:47 WIB. As of November 17, 2025, over decades, this continuous activity has led to cumulative ashfall impacting more than 50 villages across Lumajang and Malang districts, while rain-remobilized pyroclastic deposits pose ongoing lahar risks to downstream communities and infrastructure.^[2]^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]^[27]^[35]^[36]^[3]

Cultural Significance

Mythological Legends

Mount Semeru derives its name from Sumeru, the central world-mountain in Hindu cosmology, revered as the cosmic axis connecting heaven and earth and serving as the abode of the gods.^[37] According to ancient Javanese legend recorded in the 15th-century Old Javanese text Tantu Pagelaran, the gods, led by Batara Guru (an incarnation of Shiva), transplanted Mount Mahameru from its original location in India to Java to stabilize the island, which was then adrift on the ocean.^[38] During the transport, fragments broke off, forming surrounding peaks such as Mount Lawu and Mount Wilis, while the main portion became Semeru, effectively nailing Java to the earth.^[39] In Javanese folklore from the Majapahit Empire era, Semeru is depicted as a sacred dwelling for deities, embodying the divine presence in the landscape.^[40] This association underscores Semeru's status as a pivotal element in the mythological framework of the region, linking earthly events to celestial will. Symbolically, Semeru represents bravery and spiritual ascent, mirroring the cosmic significance of its namesake Mount Meru.^[37] In Javanese wayang kulit shadow puppetry, the gunungan prop—a stylized mountain silhouette—symbolizes Mount Meru, Semeru's namesake, as the sacred axis of the universe and frames the performance's cosmic narrative. In batik motifs, the peak appears as a revered emblem of divine elevation, often integrated into patterns evoking natural and spiritual harmony.^[41]

Religious and Local Traditions

The Tenggerese people, an ethnic subgroup of the Javanese who adhere to a form of Hinduism and trace their ancestry to the Majapahit Kingdom, regard the Bromo Tengger Semeru region as a sacred landscape central to their spiritual identity.^[42] Mount Semeru, as the highest peak in Java, holds cosmological significance as the abode where purified ancestral spirits ascend to the divine after rituals at nearby Mount Bromo.^[43] This belief system emphasizes harmony with the mountains, viewed as living entities inhabited by leluhur ngaluhur—ancestor spirits who guard the community's well-being and the natural environment.^[43] A key expression of these beliefs is the annual Yadnya Kasada ceremony, held at Mount Bromo's crater during the full moon of the Hindu month of Kasada (typically July).^[44] Tenggerese pilgrims from surrounding villages climb the volcano's slopes, led by shamans who chant mantras and prayers, to offer fruits, vegetables, rice, money, and livestock into the crater as tributes to the mountain gods and ancestors.^[44]^[42] These offerings aim to express gratitude for bountiful harvests, seek protection from natural calamities, and ensure communal prosperity, reinforcing the spiritual bond between the people and the volcanic landscape that includes Semeru.^[43]^[45] Climbing rituals extend beyond Bromo to Semeru, where Tenggerese pilgrims occasionally ascend for meditative practices known as semedi, seeking spiritual guidance and purification in the mountain's sacred heights.^[43] Local folklore integrates tales of guardian spirits residing in the peaks and forests, which demand respect through taboos on environmental harm and rituals that maintain ecological balance.^[43] In villages like Ngadas, situated on Semeru's slopes, communities perform post-eruption prayers such as pujan mubeng—a ritual involving colored offerings at village boundaries—to invoke ancestral protection and restore harmony after volcanic events.^[45] These practices frame eruptions not as punishments but as sacred communications from the spirits, provided rituals like Yadnya Kasada are upheld.^[43] Tenggerese traditions are preserved through communal adherence and external recognition, notably the 2015 designation of the Bromo Tengger Semeru-Arjuno Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO, which highlights the integration of indigenous knowledge in sustainable land use. This status promotes ecotourism that respects spiritual protocols, such as avoiding disruption of sacred sites, thereby supporting the ethical transmission of cultural practices amid modern pressures.^[46]

Environmental Concerns

Invasive Plant Species

Invasive plant species pose a significant threat to the unique montane ecosystems of Mount Semeru within Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, where non-native flora have proliferated in disturbed habitats. Surveys in key areas like Ranupani forest have identified at least nine exotic species, including Salvinia molesta (giant salvinia), Acacia decurrens (wattle), Eupatorium inulifolium (now classified as Austroeupatorium inulaefolium), Lantana camara, and Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed or kirinyuh), with broader inventories across Java's protected areas confirming Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara as widespread invaders in the park.^[47]^[48] Additional invasives such as Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Verbena brasiliensis, and Ageratina riparia have been documented in savannahs and trails around Semeru, with surveys identifying at least nine exotic species and broader inventories confirming additional widespread invaders in the park's flora.^[49]^[50] These species thrive in the park's diverse altitudinal zones, from aquatic systems to subalpine grasslands, exploiting the volcano's dynamic environment. Introduction of these invasives primarily occurred through human-mediated pathways linked to agriculture and tourism since the 1970s, when the national park was established and enclave villages expanded vegetable farming. Seeds and propagules were transported via hikers, livestock, and runoff from nearby agricultural fields, with species like Acacia decurrens and Foeniculum vulgare introduced intentionally for erosion control or fodder before escaping cultivation.^[49]^[47] Post-eruption disturbances, such as ash falls and trail creation, have accelerated spread by creating open, nutrient-poor soils ideal for rapid colonization, as seen with Chromolaena odorata dominating recovering slopes.^[48] Aquatic invaders like Salvinia molesta likely entered Ranu Pani Lake through contaminated water sources or boating equipment from lowland areas.^[47] Ecologically, these invasives outcompete native vegetation, leading to reduced biodiversity in an ecosystem boasting over 800 plant species, including endemics like Javanese edelweiss (Anaphalis javanica).^[51] For instance, Chromolaena odorata forms dense thickets that suppress understory growth and alter soil nutrient cycling by increasing nitrogen levels, while Salvinia molesta blankets lakes, blocking light and oxygen to aquatic flora and exacerbating siltation in Ranu Pani.^[49]^[47] Verbena brasiliensis has invaded 20 hectares of savannah, displacing grasses and altering fire regimes through higher fuel loads, which further favors fire-adapted invasives over slow-growing natives.^[50] Overall, these changes diminish habitat for endemic species and hinder forest regeneration in restoration zones.^[52] Control efforts by park authorities began intensifying around 2010, focusing on manual eradication and community engagement to curb spread. Programs targeting Salvinia molesta involve mass removal from Ranu Pani Lake using volunteers and local Tengger communities, though regrowth persists due to vegetative propagation and water flow dispersal.^[53] For terrestrial species like Chromolaena odorata and Foeniculum vulgare, initiatives promote utilization by enclave villages for crafts or fodder to reduce populations, alongside clearing in restoration areas like Ranupani, but success remains limited by prolific seed production and ongoing disturbances.^[49]^[47] National policies, including Indonesia's 2015 invasive species management plan, support these actions through monitoring and awareness, yet comprehensive eradication challenges persist in the park's rugged terrain.^[54]

Erosion from Human Land Use

Human land use, particularly agriculture in the buffer zones of Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, has accelerated soil erosion on the volcano's steep slopes. Vegetable farming, including crops such as cabbage, carrots, potatoes, and chili, is prevalent on inclines exceeding 30%, often in monoculture systems that expose soil to heavy rainfall and runoff. These practices have expanded in villages like Gubukklakah, where horticulture covers approximately 326 hectares—over 85% of the local land area—contributing to land degradation and reduced soil fertility.^[55]^[56] The erosion from these agricultural activities generates significant sediment loads, flowing into downstream water bodies and causing siltation in lakes like Ranu Pane, which has shrunk to approximately 3.5 hectares as of 2022 from about 7 hectares in 2015, representing a roughly 50% reduction in surface area. As of 2025, the lake continues to serve as a starting point for treks, though monitoring is ongoing to address sedimentation. The lake's depth has also decreased from 7 meters to 3 meters due to accumulated mud from uphill farms, with ongoing shrinkage posing a risk of eventual disappearance if agricultural trends continue; however, as of 2025, the lake remains extant.^[57]^[58]^[59] Additional pressures stem from overgrazing by livestock in communal pastures, which compacts soil and increases runoff vulnerability, as well as trail degradation from hiker foot traffic on popular routes. Post-eruption, farmers often cultivate fresh ash deposits for short-term vegetable yields, further destabilizing loose volcanic soils and amplifying erosion during rains. These human-induced factors interact with invasive species to compound overall land degradation, though agricultural modifications remain the primary driver of physical sediment transport.^[60]^[61] Mitigation efforts include park regulations prohibiting intensive cropping above 2,200 meters to protect core conservation zones, alongside promotion of agroforestry systems like coffee interplanted with shade trees to reduce erosion by up to 50% compared to bare monocultures. However, enforcement faces challenges from over 10,000 residents in surrounding Tengger villages who depend on farming for livelihoods, leading to ongoing encroachments despite community reforestation initiatives. Dredging and perennial crop transitions are recommended for sites like Ranu Pane, but adoption is limited by economic reliance on high-value vegetables.^[56]^[57]

Human Impacts and Management

Tourism and Mountaineering

Mount Semeru attracts thousands of mountaineers and adventure seekers annually, serving as a premier trekking destination within Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. The mountain highlights its status as one of Indonesia's most sought-after volcanic hikes. The typical itinerary spans three days, beginning at Ranu Pani village at 2,100 meters elevation and ascending through diverse landscapes to the 3,676-meter summit.^[62] The primary route covers approximately 16 kilometers one way, with the ascent from Ranu Pani taking 7 to 9 hours depending on fitness and weather conditions. Key segments include a 3-kilometer forested path to Landengan Dowo, another 3 kilometers to Watu Rejeng, a 2-kilometer descent to Ranu Kumbolo lake, followed by steady climbs to Cemoro Kandang, Kalimati base camp, and finally the steep, sandy slope to the crater rim. Climbers must obtain permits from the national park authority, which enforces a daily limit of 200 people to manage capacity and environmental impact.^[63] The permit fee stands at Rp 225,000 for foreign visitors, while the route is closed from January to March due to heavy monsoon rains that increase risks and trail erosion.^[64]^[65]^[8]^[66] Beyond the physical challenge, Semeru's attractions include panoramic views of the Bromo-Tengger caldera from higher vantage points, stunning sunrise vistas at the summit that illuminate the surrounding volcanic landscape, and alpine meadows adorned with edelweiss flowers along the trail near Ranu Kumbolo. Many climbers opt for guided tours, which emphasize Leave No Trace principles to preserve the fragile ecosystem, such as proper waste disposal and staying on marked paths. Some tours incorporate brief cultural rituals at trailhead shrines, respecting local Tenggerese traditions.^[67]^[68] Tourism to Semeru plays a vital economic role in the region, particularly in Lumajang Regency, supporting local employment in guiding, lodging, transportation, and related services. Following the 2021 eruption, recovery efforts have included the development of eco-lodges near Ranu Pani, promoting sustainable accommodations that blend with the natural environment and boost local incomes through community-based operations. As of 2025, the daily climbing quota remains limited to 200 to ensure safety and sustainability.^[69]

Monitoring, Hazards, and Mitigation

The Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Indonesia's primary agency for volcanic monitoring, has overseen Semeru's surveillance since the 1970s, when initial seismic and visual observation equipment was installed following earlier eruptive episodes.^[70] The network includes four seismic stations to detect earthquakes and tremors, two web cameras for real-time visual feeds of plumes and avalanches, and instruments for gas emissions such as SO2 flux measurements using cameras and satellite data.^[71]^[72] Deformation monitoring via tiltmeters and GPS stations complements these tools, enabling the assessment of ground movement and dome stability. CVGHM uses this data to assign alert levels from 1 (normal) to 4 (severe), triggered by factors like ash plume heights exceeding 400 meters or increased seismicity, with level 2 being common during ongoing activity.^[73]^[2] Semeru's primary hazards stem from its persistent explosive eruptions, including pyroclastic flows that can extend up to 16 kilometers southeast during dome collapses, as observed in the 2021 event.^[71] Lahars, triggered by heavy rainfall remobilizing loose volcanic deposits, pose ongoing risks in river valleys like the Besuk Kobokan, frequently damaging infrastructure and agriculture.^[74] Ashfall from plumes reaching 1,000 meters or more disrupts aviation, contaminates water sources, and affects respiratory health in nearby communities, while recent rain-induced lahars in November 2025 highlighted continued vulnerability in downstream areas, though no fatalities were reported.^[2]^[33]^[35] Mitigation strategies emphasize predefined evacuation zones, with restrictions typically set at a 5-kilometer radius from the summit in all directions and up to 8 kilometers southeast, alongside 500-meter buffers from riverbanks to account for lahar paths.^[75] Early warning systems include sirens installed in high-risk villages such as those near Curah Kobokan, alerting residents to seismic or visual cues within a 500-meter radius.^[76] Following the 2021 eruption, which displaced over 10,000 people and destroyed homes, authorities relocated approximately 3,000 households from red zones to safer areas, supported by international collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey's Volcano Disaster Assistance Program for technical aid and remote sensing.^[77]^[78] Community-based adaptations, including regular evacuation drills, have improved response efficacy by fostering familiarity with alert protocols and reducing panic during events.^[79]

References

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Strombolian-type eruptions have accompanied the formation of the lava dome since extrusion began in 1967. Lava avalanches from the dome have usually been ...
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Semeru Volcano, East Java (Indonesia) - Facts & Information
Semeru, the highest volcano on Java, and one of its most active, lies at the southern end of a volcanic massif extending north to the Tengger caldera.Missing: coordinates | Show results with:coordinates
[26]
Report on Semeru (Indonesia) — January 2022
The steep-sided volcano, also referred to as Mahameru (Great Mountain), rises above coastal plains to the south.Missing: facts | Show results with:facts<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Report on Semeru (Indonesia) — January 2023
During July, the ash plumes rose to 3.9-4.6 km altitude and drifted mainly SW; the plume that rose to 4.6 km altitude occurred on 4 and 5 July and drifted N at ...Missing: elevation | Show results with:elevation
[28]
https://volcano.si.edu/showreport.cfm?doi=10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN202301-263300
[29]
Mt. Semeru eruptions trigger local advisories - The Jakarta Post
Nov 8, 2024 · The largest eruption occurred at 5:26 a.m., with an ash column reaching 1,000 m, as eruptions continued at intervals throughout Thursday morning ...
[30]
https://www.thejakartapost.com/indonesia/2024/11/08/mt-semeru-erupts-trigger-local-advisories.html
[31]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TvizmIOWAA8
[32]
https://en.antaranews.com/news/390213/indonesias-mount-semeru-erupts-again-spews-ash-1-km-above-peak
[33]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Em-6_bnRcCc
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https://databoks.katadata.co.id/en/demographics/statistics/331e62d65f1b92b/mount-semeru-erupts-again-this-afternoon-sunday-november-9-2025
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Mount Meru | Himalayan peak, Hinduism, Buddhism - Britannica
Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, a golden mountain that stands in the centre of the universe and is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its ...
[36]
Threads of the Unfolding Web: The Old Javanese Tantu Panggelaran
Threads of the Unfolding Web is essential reading for scholars, students and the general reader interested in Javanese history of the fifteenth and sixteenth ...Missing: Semeru source
[37]
In search of MERU- The Mountain of Merit - Academia.edu
As stated in legend, it was transplanted from India to create the island of Java; the tale is recorded in the 15th-century East Javanese work Tantu Pagelaran. …
[38]
Mount Semeru: The Residence Of The Gods - VOI
In the Tantu Pangelaran script, it is told that Mount Semeru originated from India. At that time, Java Island was still tossed about by the ocean. Quoted from ...Missing: transplanting | Show results with:transplanting
[39]
The Legend of Mount Semeru
The gods dwelled upon its summit, in a celestial realm untouchable by mortals. Each eruption of its crater was not merely wrath, but a sign that the gods ...Missing: Javanese Majapahit dwelling divine
[40]
Tales of Power and Prowess: Hanuman Bearing a Mountaintop with ...
Jul 26, 2022 · Hanuman carried the mountain of herbs to revive Lakshmana, and his tail carried Rama's army, showing his devotion and heroism.
[41]
In Javanese Wayang Kulit and Contemporary Shadow Puppetry, the ...
Nov 16, 2021 · In the ancient Javanese tradition of wayang kulit, the medium of shadow puppetry is nothing short of a metaphor for the human soul.
[42]
https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2024/07/yadnya-kasada-volcanic-ritual-indonesia/678967/
[43]
Yadnya Kasada: A Volcanic Ritual in Indonesia - The Atlantic
Jul 11, 2024 · The Yadnya Kasada festival is a month-long event that for centuries has been celebrated by the Hindu Tenggerese people, an ethnic group in Eastern Java, ...
[44]
[PDF] Mount Bromo Will Take Care of Us: Tenggerese Religious ...
Feeling betrayed, the gods of Bromo spilled anger: the volcano erupted, lightning struck, lava raged like a burst of fire from a dragon's head, and there ...Missing: divine | Show results with:divine
[45]
Inside a Volcanic Ritual on the Indonesian Island of Java
food, money, flowers, livestock — into the hazy crater of ...
[46]
(PDF) The Local Wisdom of The Tenggerese People to Coexist with ...
Nov 18, 2021 · The decision to evacuate or stay in the village will be fully implemented by the community. Religious institutions with customs, although they ...
[47]
https://www.biodiversityjournal.com/pdf/6%284%29_831-836.pdf
[48]
[PDF] Exotic plant species in the restoration project area in Ranupani ...
Ranupani forest is one of the hotspot of exotic plant species in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. Some notable important exotic species with high ...
[49]
Alien plant invasions of protected areas in Java, Indonesia - Nature
Aug 24, 2017 · We found 67 invasive alien plant species, of which 33 occurred in only one park and two (Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara) in all.
[50]
A Case Study of the Enclave Villages in Bromo Tengger Semeru ...
Jun 26, 2025 · It aimed to evaluate how the presence of Invasive Alien Species, specifically fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) and slimmer weed or kirinyuh ( ...
[51]
Foreign Plant Invades Mount Semeru - En.tempo.co
Jun 18, 2013 · ... Park (TNBTS) Management has revealed a discovery of a foreign plant species, Verbena brasiliensis Vell, which grows invasively in Mount Semeru.
[52]
https://www.innspub.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/JBES-V3-No6-p47-55.pdf
[53]
[PDF] Ranu Regulo restoration area, Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park
In Bromo Tengger Semeru, the most abundant exotic species is Eupatorium odoratum (Qomaruddin et al., 2012).
[54]
A Case Study of the Enclave Villages in Bromo Tengger Semeru ...
Aug 10, 2025 · It aimed to evaluate how the presence of Invasive Alien Species, specifically fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) and slimmer weed or kirinyuh ( ...
[55]
After two decades, Indonesia publishes plan for tackling invasive ...
Jun 19, 2015 · Invasive alien species that pose a threat to Indonesia's natural resources include Acacia decurrens, an Australian native that has spread in ...
[56]
[PDF] Evidence from Bromo Tengger Semeru
Jan 1, 2022 · The village covers an area of 384 ha, with dominant land use (85%) for horticulture and seasonal crop cultivation (BPS, 2020a). Figure 1 ...
[57]
The sloping agricultural land management on buffer zone of Bromo ...
Erosion and sedimentation threaten the sustainability of the function of water resources that many found in this area as well [4]. This land degradation going ...
[58]
Ranu Pane Lake Estimated to Disappear in 10 Years - En.tempo.co
Dec 15, 2014 · The lake is experiencing siltation and shrinkage due to mud flowing in from vegetable farms on the surrounding hills. Nunuk, a resident of ...Missing: Pani | Show results with:Pani
[59]
[PDF] Detrimental effects of recreational activities on soil compaction and ...
induced ecosystem degradation, including in Bromo ... Can cocoa agroforestry restore degraded soil structure following conversion from forest to agricultural use?
[60]
Infiltration-Friendly Agroforestry Land Uses on Volcanic Slopes in ...
3) 5% canopy cover of Casuarina-based agroforestry with cabbage crop, (a.4) ... Banana, maize, carrot, None, 40–50. Midstream Rejoso Watershed. MT1, Old production ...
[61]
Mt Bromo, Mt Semeru reopen to climbers, tourists - ANTARA News
May 24, 2021 · The number of climbers allowed on Mount Semeru has been limited to 300 people per day, which is half the total carrying capacity under normal ...
[62]
Climbing Mount Semeru: It's Never Been Easy - Littlenomadid.com
Jul 10, 2020 · Ideally it takes 3 days to climb Mount Semeru. To camp, you can choose either Ranu Kumbolo or Kalimati. As you can see the last two points there ...
[63]
Only 1,000 Mt Semeru Hikers Allowed on Sunday - En.tempo.co
Aug 14, 2014 · "The additional quota can only be filled until Sunday, August 17. Afterwards, we will revert back to the original cap of 500 in order to protect ...
[64]
Bromo-Tengger-Semeru National Park – Travel guide at Wikivoyage
Bromo-Tengger-Semeru National Park (Taman Nasional Bromo Tengger Semeru) is a national park in East Java. It is home to five volcanoes and a sand sea in the ...Understand · Get around · See · Do
[65]
Mount Semeru trekking - on top of Java island
Mount Semeru trekking tour - 2 days and 1 night is a heavy undertaking. Think through whether you are fit, check your stamina and make a decission.
[66]
Mount Semeru, East Java, Indonesia - 17 Reviews, Map - AllTrails
Rating 5.0 (17) Mount Semeru is considered a hard hike that covers 19.8 mi, with an elevation gain of 8,208 ft. It takes about 14.5–16 hr to complete. Hard trails usually cover ...Missing: physical cone crater rivers
[67]
Gunung Semeru
Semeru is Java's highest peak and has been active for decades – a cloud of black volcanic ash and sand is frequently released from near the summit ...Missing: features zones
[68]
[PDF] Bromo Tengger Semeru Economic Valuations During Pandemic ...
Jan 24, 2024 · The tourism economic sector is proven to be able to increase regional income, accelerate regional development, and widen the opportunities for ...
[69]
Volcanic hazards at Mount Semeru, East Java (Indonesia), with ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Findings reveal that Mount Semeru's eruptions caused casualties, infrastructure damage, commodity losses, and displacement. Based on the ...
[70]
(PDF) The 2021 Semeru volcano eruption: An insight from visual ...
Semeru is a stratovolcano characterized by the growth of a lava dome in its crater. Geographically,. it is located at 08°06'30" S and 112°55'00" E. ... Semeru ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
SO>2> emissions at Semeru volcano, Indonesia: Characterization ...
Jul 12, 2014 · We present the first measurements of SO2 emissions at Semeru volcano, Indonesia, using an SO2 camera. Activity at Semeru is characterized by ...
[72]
Modest volcanic SO2 emissions from the Indonesian archipelago
Jun 11, 2022 · Here we report new gas measurements from Indonesian volcanoes. The combined SO 2 output amounts to 1.15 ± 0.48 Tg/yr.
[73]
A Deadly Day on Mount Semeru - NASA Earth Observatory
Dec 10, 2021 · Mount Semeru, the tallest and most active volcano on the Indonesian island of Java, has routinely spit up small, mostly harmless plumes of ...Missing: physical features cone crater<|control11|><|separator|>
[74]
Semeru Volcano (East Java, Indonesia): Small Pyroclastic Flow Today
Jul 9, 2025 · People are advised to stay away area from the area of 5 km around the summit and especially avoid the southeastern sector around Besuk Kobokan ...
[75]
Disaster Response, ITS Installs Early Warning System in Kobokan ...
Mar 4, 2022 · “With two sirens up to a radius of 500 meters, it is enough to provide early warning if there is a danger that slides from the upstream of the ...
[76]
Support the Families Affected by Semeru Eruption - GlobalGiving
This project will support the families affected by the Semeru eruption in East Java, Indonesia, by providing basic needs as they have to flee their homes.Missing: eco- | Show results with:eco-<|control11|><|separator|>
[77]
Evacuation Delays: 2021 Mount Semeru Eruption Study
This study explores the key factors contributing to evacuation delays during the 2021 eruption of Mount Semeru in Indonesia.<|separator|>