Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Shingle

A shingle is a small, thin piece of building material, often with one end thicker than the other, laid in overlapping rows to cover roofs or sides of buildings.^[1] Primarily used in residential and light commercial construction, shingles provide weatherproofing, insulation, and aesthetic appeal while being relatively lightweight and cost-effective compared to alternatives like full slate or tile roofing.^[2] Shingles have evolved significantly since their early use as wood splits in colonial America around 1650, when cedar and pine were hand-split into overlapping courses for durability against the elements.^[3] By the early 20th century, asphalt shingles emerged as a fire-resistant innovation, with Henry Reynolds inventing the first machine-cut asphalt shingles in 1903, revolutionizing roofing by making it more affordable and scalable for mass production.^[4] Traditional materials include wood (e.g., cedar shakes for a natural, rustic look), slate (durable natural stone for longevity up to 100 years), and clay or concrete tiles (heavy but excellent for heat reflection in warm climates), while modern variants dominate with asphalt composites.^[5] Asphalt shingles, the most common type today, consist of a fiberglass or organic mat saturated with asphalt and coated in mineral granules for UV protection and color; subtypes include three-tab (basic, uniform strips for economy), architectural (laminated for depth and wind resistance up to 130 mph), and premium performance options with impact ratings (e.g., Class 4 for hail-prone areas).^[6] Other notable types encompass metal shingles (aluminum, steel, or copper for corrosion resistance and recyclability) and emerging composite or solar-integrated shingles that mimic traditional appearances while incorporating energy-efficient technologies.^[7] Advancements since the 1980s, such as fiberglass reinforcement and polymer-modified asphalt, have enhanced fire resistance, algae inhibition, and lifespan—typically 20–50 years depending on climate and quality—making shingles a staple in sustainable building practices.^[2]

Etymology and history

Etymology

The term "shingle" in the context of building materials derives from Late Latin scindula, a variant of scandula meaning "a split piece of wood" or "roof tile," which itself stems from the Latin verb scindere "to split or cut."^[8] This root traces back further to the Proto-Indo-European skei- "to cut, split," reflecting the material's origin as thin, split wooden pieces.^[8] The word entered English through Old English variants like scindel or scingul, possibly influenced by Germanic forms such as Old Saxon singala.^[9] Early records of "shingle" appear in Middle English texts from the late 14th century, where it specifically denoted a thin wooden tile used for roofing.^[10] These usages, found in manuscripts describing construction, emphasized its role as an individual overlapping element in roof coverings.^[9] In usage, "shingle" typically refers to a singular piece of material, whereas "shingles" denotes multiple pieces or the collective roof covering formed by them.^[1] Regional variations exist in English-speaking contexts: American English commonly applies "shingles" to both wooden and modern asphalt roofing products, while British English more often favors "tiles" or "slates" for similar applications, limiting "shingles" primarily to wooden types.^[11] This terminological evolution underscores the word's adaptation to practical building needs over time.

Historical development

The use of wooden shingles for roofing originated in ancient times, with wood-split shingles employed in Roman architecture as early as the 1st century BCE, serving as a primary protective sheathing for structures before being supplanted by more durable clay tiles.^[12] These early shingles, known as scandulae, were typically made from locally available timber and provided essential weather resistance in regions where wood was plentiful.^[12] During the medieval period in Europe, particularly in northern and central areas, wood-split shingles became a dominant roofing material due to the abundance of timber and the simplicity of their production, offering reliable protection for homes, churches, and other buildings across the continent.^[13] This tradition persisted and evolved with the colonial expansion to America in the 17th century, where cedar shingles were widely adopted in New England settlements and early outposts like Jamestown, with records from the 1630s documenting their use in constructing durable roofs amid abundant local resources.^[14] The 19th century marked a pivotal shift from traditional wood shingles to asphalt-based composites, fueled by industrialization and the need for more scalable materials, with Henry Reynolds patenting the first mineral-surfaced asphalt shingles in 1903 to enhance weatherproofing and longevity.^[15] In the 20th century, standardization efforts accelerated, including fire-rating improvements in 1911 driven by the U.S. National Board of Fire Underwriters' campaigns following devastating urban fires that exposed the vulnerabilities of combustible wood roofs. A key milestone came in the 1960s with the introduction of fiberglass reinforcement in asphalt shingles, which significantly boosted their strength, flexibility, and fire resistance compared to earlier organic mats.^[16]

Types and materials

Asphalt shingles

Asphalt shingles, the most prevalent roofing material in North America, consist of a base mat saturated with asphalt and coated with protective mineral granules. The base is typically a fiberglass mat, which provides strength and resistance to tearing, though organic felt made from cellulose fibers was more common historically but is now less used due to its lower durability.^[17] The asphalt, a petroleum-based binder, waterproofs the mat, while the granules—often ceramic-coated minerals like crushed rock—shield against ultraviolet radiation, add color, and enhance fire resistance.^[17]^[18] Two primary types dominate the market: three-tab shingles and architectural (also known as laminated or dimensional) shingles. Three-tab shingles feature a single layer of asphalt-coated fiberglass cut into three uniform tabs, offering an economical, flat appearance suitable for basic applications.^[19]^[6] Architectural shingles, by contrast, are thicker multi-layered constructions that create a textured, three-dimensional profile mimicking higher-end materials like wood shakes or slate, providing greater aesthetic variety and structural depth.^[5]^[6] Standard dimensions for three-tab shingles measure 36 inches long by 12 inches wide, while architectural variants often use metric sizing of approximately 39 inches by 13 inches to align with modern production standards.^[20]^[21] Coverage typically requires three bundles to roof one square (100 square feet), with each bundle weighing 60 to 80 pounds depending on the shingle type and granule density.^[22] Their expected lifespan ranges from 20 to 50 years, varying by quality, climate exposure, and maintenance, with three-tab models averaging 20-30 years and premium architectural options extending toward 50 years under optimal conditions.^[23]^[24] Key advantages include their affordability, with material costs often under $100 per square, making them accessible for widespread residential use.^[25] They install quickly over various roof decks using nails, reducing labor expenses compared to more complex materials.^[25] Many achieve Class A fire ratings, the highest standard, capable of withstanding severe fire exposure without contributing fuel, as verified by standardized testing protocols.^[19]^[25] A notable innovation emerged in the early 1990s with the introduction of algae-resistant coatings, incorporating copper or zinc granules to inhibit black streak-forming algae growth, thereby extending aesthetic longevity in humid climates.^[26]

Wood shingles

Wood shingles are primarily manufactured from durable softwood species such as western red cedar (Thuja plicata), redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), and cypress (Taxodium distichum), which are selected for their natural resistance to decay and ability to weather effectively in outdoor environments.^[27]^[28] The heartwood, the denser inner portion of these trees, provides superior rot resistance compared to the lighter, more permeable sapwood, as it contains extractives that inhibit fungal growth and moisture absorption.^[29]^[30] Premium grades prioritize heartwood to maximize longevity, while lower grades may incorporate more sapwood, which requires careful placement to avoid accelerated deterioration.^[31] Wood shingles are machine-sawn from blocks of wood to produce a tapered profile, with uniform thickness for a consistent appearance or varied for texture, distinguishing them from thicker, rougher wood shakes that are hand-split.^[32]^[33] Machine-sawn shingles, often certified under standards like Certigrade®, offer precision and are sawn on both faces for smooth integration in modern designs.^[32] Grading systems for wood shingles, established by organizations like the Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau, range from premium to utility levels to ensure quality and performance consistency. No. 1 Blue Label represents the highest grade, featuring 100% heartwood with minimal defects, clear vertical grain, and no knots or splits, ideal for exposed applications.^[32] Subsequent grades include No. 2 Red Label, allowing limited sapwood and small knots above a clear cutting zone; No. 3 Black Label, permitting more flat grain and defects but maintaining a minimum clear portion; and No. 4, a utility grade suited for undercoursing or non-structural uses due to unlimited imperfections.^[32]^[34] These grades are stamped on bundles for verification, with higher designations ensuring fewer waste pieces during installation. Installation of wood shingles requires attention to specific dimensions for optimal durability and weatherproofing, particularly butt thickness and exposure widths. Standard butt thickness at the base ranges from 5/16 to 3/8 inch (8-10 mm), achieved through precise milling to allow tight stacking without gaps, as measured by bundling five shingles to a total of 2 to 2¼ inches.^[32]^[35] Exposure widths, the visible portion between overlapping courses, are limited to a maximum of 5 inches for premium grades on roofs with at least a 4:12 pitch to prevent moisture penetration and uplift in winds.^[32]^[36] Proper nailing and underlayment further secure these dimensions, extending service life beyond 50 years in suitable climates.^[32] Beyond functionality, wood shingles offer notable aesthetic and acoustic benefits that enhance architectural appeal and interior comfort. Their natural grain patterns, varying from straight edge grain in cedar to intricate figures in redwood, provide a timeless, organic texture that complements both historic and contemporary structures, as seen in early American architecture where they were prevalent for colonial homes.^[32]^[28] Additionally, the porous structure of wood absorbs sound waves effectively, offering inherent insulation against rain, hail, and external noise, which can reduce indoor decibel levels compared to harder roofing materials.^[37]^[38]

Other types

Slate shingles are made from natural stone quarried in thicknesses typically ranging from 1/4 to 3/8 inch, available in shapes such as semi-circular or square for aesthetic variety in roofing applications.^[39] These shingles offer exceptional longevity, with lifespans reaching up to 200 years under proper conditions, far exceeding the durability of common asphalt or wood shingles.^[40] Metal shingles are constructed from materials like steel, aluminum, or copper, often designed to mimic the appearance of traditional wood shakes or slate while providing enhanced weather resistance.^[41] Variations include standing-seam styles, where panels interlock with raised seams to ensure waterproofing through concealed fasteners and minimal water penetration points.^[42] Composite and synthetic shingles blend materials such as fiber-cement or polymers, offering superior performance in fire-prone regions due to their noncombustible properties and resistance to ignition.^[43] For example, products like DaVinci Roofscapes utilize polymer composites to withstand direct flame exposure without contributing fuel to fires, making them ideal for high-risk wildfire areas.^[43] Emerging shingle technologies include solar-integrated variants, where photovoltaic layers are embedded directly into the roofing material to generate electricity.^[44] The Tesla Solar Roof, introduced in 2016, exemplifies this approach with active shingles producing approximately 71 watts each, blending energy generation seamlessly with traditional roofing aesthetics.^[45] In niche applications, clay or concrete tiles function similarly to shingles through overlapping installations that create a watertight barrier, providing durable alternatives in regions favoring terracotta-style profiles or cost-effective mass-produced options.^[46]

Manufacturing

Production processes

The production of asphalt shingles begins with the formation of a continuous fiberglass mat, which serves as the base reinforcement. This mat is then impregnated with hot asphalt at temperatures around 400°F (204°C) to ensure saturation and bonding. Subsequently, a layer of filled asphalt coating is applied, followed by the embedding of mineral granules onto the top surface using pneumatic blowers and press rolls to secure adhesion. The continuous sheet is finally cut into individual strips or interlocking shingles using rotary knives.^[47] Wood shingle manufacturing starts with debarking cedar logs to remove outer bark, followed by cutting the logs into short blocks. These blocks are then split into tapered shingles either manually with froes and mallets or mechanically using hydraulic or pneumatic resaws to follow the wood's natural grain. The split shingles are dried in kilns to reduce moisture content to approximately 19%, preventing warping and ensuring stability. Finally, they are sorted using automated defect scanners to grade them by size, quality, and imperfections.^[48]^[49] Slate shingle production commences with quarrying, where metamorphic slate deposits are extracted using blasting and heavy machinery to access blocks from surface or deep underground layers. The blocks are sawn to rough dimensions and then cleaved along natural fissures by hand or machine splitting into thin slabs, often progressing from halves to quarters and finally to individual chips. Edges are trimmed with diamond-tipped saws or chisels to achieve uniform rectangular shapes and precise dimensions, including drilling for nail holes. Slabs are graded based on thickness uniformity, surface quality, and size suitability for roofing applications.^[50]^[51] Quality control in shingle manufacturing adheres to current ASTM standards, such as D3461 for evaluating tear resistance in fiberglass-based shingles (the predominant type since the 1980s), ensuring minimum strength requirements. Automated testing for granule adhesion on asphalt shingles follows ASTM D4977, which measures loss percentages under mechanical agitation to verify durability.^[52]^[53] In the United States, annual production of asphalt shingles alone exceeds 15 billion square feet, reflecting the scale of industrial output dominated by automated facilities.^[54]

Materials and composition

Asphalt shingles primarily rely on petroleum bitumen, comprising 19-36% by weight of the shingle, which serves as the primary waterproofing and adhesion component in the saturant and coating. To enhance elasticity and resistance to cracking, polymers such as styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) are incorporated at levels of 5-10% by weight, modifying the bitumen's rheological behavior for better performance under thermal expansion and contraction. As of 2025, many modern asphalt shingles incorporate up to 40% recycled content from post-consumer waste, and advancements include commercial-scale trials for reusing extracted asphalt from recycled shingles.^[55]^[56]^[57] In wood shingles, preservatives play a key role in protecting against biological degradation. Copper-based salts, including alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ), and borates are commonly used to impart fungal resistance, with application often achieved through dipping the wood in preservative solutions to ensure penetration and longevity.^[58]^[59] Roofing granules embedded on shingle surfaces are typically ceramic-coated quartz particles sized in the 20-40 mesh range, offering aesthetic color variety while reflecting UV radiation to shield the underlying asphalt from degradation. Algae inhibitors, such as zinc strips integrated along shingle edges, release ions during rainfall to prevent microbial growth and staining.^[60]^[61] Shingle reinforcements consist of glass fiber mats with a density of about 1.5 g/cm³, which provide superior tensile strength compared to traditional organic felts made from cellulose. This fiberglass construction significantly improves wind uplift resistance, enabling ratings up to 130 mph in tested assemblies.^[62]^[63]

Installation and applications

Roofing

Proper installation of shingles on roofs begins with the preparation of the roof deck and the application of underlayment to provide a secondary barrier against moisture. Asphalt-saturated felt underlayment, such as No. 15 or 30-pound variants, is commonly used as a breathable layer beneath shingles on sloped roofs, while synthetic underlayments offer enhanced tear resistance and faster installation.^[64]^[65] In vulnerable areas like valleys, ice-and-water shields—self-adhering membranes that form a watertight seal—are essential to prevent leaks from ice dams or wind-driven rain.^[66] Shingle roofs must meet minimum slope requirements to ensure effective water shedding and avoid infiltration. For asphalt shingles, the International Residential Code (IRC) specifies a minimum pitch of 2:12 (two units vertical in 12 units horizontal), though steeper slopes like 4:12 are recommended by the National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) for optimal performance.^[67]^[68] Wood shingles require a steeper minimum of 3:12 to accommodate their tapered profile and promote drainage, with adjustments for thickness variation in courses.^[69] Layout and nailing patterns are critical for shingle integrity and wind resistance. Installation starts with starter strips along the eaves, inverted shingles or purpose-made products nailed every 8-12 inches to seal edges and prevent blow-offs.^[70] Subsequent courses are offset by at least 6 inches to stagger joints, avoiding aligned seams that could channel water.^[71] Each shingle typically secures with 4-6 galvanized nails, driven 1 to 1.25 inches from the edges and 1 inch above the sealant strip, with six nails required in high-wind or steep-slope areas exceeding 21 inches per foot.^[72] Rake edges finish with stepped shingles or metal flashing tucked under the underlayment, while ridges use capped shingles bent over the peak and nailed on each side for weatherproofing.^[73] Essential tools for shingle roofing include chalk lines for precise course alignment, roofing hatchets for cutting and nailing, and pneumatic nail guns for efficiency on large areas.^[74] Safety protocols are paramount, particularly on pitches over 4:12, where full-body harnesses tethered to secure anchors prevent falls, alongside non-slip boots and edge protection.^[75] A frequent installation error is inadequate attic ventilation, which traps heat and moisture, causing shingles to cup or curl prematurely as the deck warps.^[76] This issue is mitigated by incorporating ridge vents along the peak to exhaust hot air, paired with soffit intakes for balanced airflow, ensuring the system meets one square foot of net free ventilation per 150-300 square feet of attic space.^[77]^[78]

Siding and other uses

Shingles serve as a versatile exterior cladding material for walls, particularly in horizontal lap installations where courses overlap to shed water effectively. This method involves nailing individual shingles or panels starting from the bottom of the wall, with each subsequent row lapped over the one below by at least 1 to 1.5 inches to promote drainage. To enhance water management, Z-flashing—typically made of corrosion-resistant metal like galvanized steel or aluminum—is installed between horizontal joints, with the vertical leg tucked behind the weather-resistive barrier and the horizontal leg extending over the top of the lower course.^[79]^[80] Such installations are prevalent in coastal regions, where fiber cement shingle siding provides superior wind resistance, capable of withstanding gusts up to 130 mph when properly fastened, making it ideal for hurricane-prone areas.^[81]^[82] In architectural applications, shingles accentuate features like gable ends and dormers, adding visual texture and depth to building facades. Wood shingles, often cedar, are especially favored in Craftsman-style homes, where they cover gabled roof overhangs and dormer cheeks to emphasize the style's emphasis on natural materials and horizontal lines. This application creates a rustic yet refined appearance, contrasting with smoother siding on lower walls and highlighting structural elements like exposed rafters.^[83]^[84] Regional variations include the use of shingle siding in San Francisco's First Bay Tradition architecture from the 1880s, where continuous wood shingle cladding enveloped complex forms as a reaction to ornate Victorian detailing, providing a unified, textured envelope on homes in neighborhoods like Pacific Heights.^[85]^[86] Beyond structural uses, recycled asphalt shingles find application in landscaping as pathway edging or garden borders, laid flat and overlapped to suppress weeds and define spaces without introducing chemicals. These repurposed materials, ground or cut from roofing waste, offer a durable, low-cost alternative for informal garden layouts.^[87] Cost considerations for shingle siding installation highlight its relative affordability compared to roofing; labor typically ranges from $4 to $8 per square foot, reflecting the ground-level work and simpler access, whereas roofing demands scaffolding or safety equipment, increasing complexity and rates by 20-50%.^[88]^[89] Total installed costs for siding average $6 to $11 per square foot, depending on material type like wood or fiber cement.^[89]

Properties and performance

Durability and maintenance

The durability of shingles is influenced by environmental exposure, material quality, and ongoing maintenance practices. Asphalt shingles, the most common type, typically exhibit a lifespan of 20 to 30 years in moderate climates with balanced temperature and precipitation, while wood shingles can last 30 to 50 years when properly treated with preservatives to enhance resistance to decay.^[90] Factors such as UV radiation and thermal fluctuations accelerate wear, but adherence to standards like UL 2218 for impact resistance—where Class 4 denotes the highest level of protection against hail and debris—can extend performance in windy or stormy regions.^[91] Weather plays a primary role in shingle degradation, with ultraviolet (UV) rays causing the breakdown of the asphalt matrix and subsequent loss of protective granules, which is quantified through testing under ASTM D3462 to ensure compliance at manufacturing.^[92] Granule loss exposes the underlying material to further deterioration, leading to brittleness and reduced waterproofing. Thermal cycling, involving repeated expansion and contraction due to daily temperature swings, induces cracking in asphalt shingles, particularly in areas with significant diurnal variations.^[93] To maintain shingle integrity, semi-annual inspections are recommended to detect early signs of moss or algae growth, which can trap moisture and promote slippage. Cleaning should employ low-pressure washing techniques with mild antimicrobial solutions to remove debris without dislodging granules, followed by timely replacement of damaged sections to prevent leaks that could compromise the entire roof assembly.^[94] Manufacturer warranties typically cover material defects for 20 to 50 years, with many asphalt shingles offering a 30-year prorated guarantee that diminishes over time for issues like fading or algae staining, but these exclude damages from improper installation or inadequate ventilation.^[95] Common failure modes include curling, where edges lift due to poor attic ventilation trapping heat and causing uneven expansion, and blistering, resulting from moisture accumulation within the shingle layers during production or exposure. Wood shingles, while durable, are particularly susceptible to rot in humid conditions if treatment lapses, underscoring the need for periodic sealing.^[96]^[97]

Environmental and technological aspects

Asphalt shingles demonstrate significant environmental benefits through their high recyclability, with post-consumer shingles often ground and incorporated into hot-mix asphalt for road construction, where they can replace up to 5% of the total asphalt mixture by weight.^[98] This process repurposes the majority of the shingle's components, including its 25-30% asphalt content, reducing landfill waste and conserving virgin materials in paving projects.^[99] Additionally, many asphalt shingle installations qualify for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) credits under the U.S. Green Building Council's low-emitting materials category, particularly when using adhesives and sealants that meet California Air Resources Board (CARB) volatile organic compound (VOC) limits of less than 50 g/L for interior applications or exempt thresholds for exterior roofing products.^[100] These low-VOC formulations minimize indoor air pollution during installation and contribute to points in LEED v5's Materials and Resources credits (as of 2025).^[101] On a global scale, environmental regulations have driven the phase-out of hazardous substances in shingle production, exemplified by the European Union's directives restricting asbestos use in building materials since the early 1990s, culminating in a full ban on all asbestos types by 2005 under Directive 2003/18/EC amending earlier Council Directive 83/478/EEC.^[102] This prohibition eliminated asbestos-cement shingles, once common in roofing, and shifted manufacturers toward safer, non-hazardous composites, influencing international standards for material safety and sustainability. Technological innovations in shingle design enhance performance and energy efficiency, including cool-roof granules embedded in asphalt shingles that achieve solar reflectance values of up to 30%, thereby reducing roof surface temperatures and cooling energy demands by 10-43% in hot climates according to field studies.^[103] These ceramic-coated granules, often sourced from providers like 3M, reflect infrared radiation while maintaining aesthetic colors, slowing asphalt degradation and lowering air-conditioning loads in buildings.^[104] Impact resistance has advanced through the integration of polymer-modified asphalts, such as styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) rubber blends, which increase shingle flexibility and durability against hail and debris, enabling Class 4 impact ratings under UL 2218 testing.^[105] This polymer enhancement allows shingles to absorb and rebound from impacts without cracking, extending service life in storm-prone areas.^[106] Energy-efficient solar shingles represent a key technological frontier, integrating photovoltaic cells directly into roofing materials with module efficiencies averaging 19-20%, comparable to traditional panels but with seamless building integration.^[107] Products like GAF Energy's Timberline Solar achieve up to 57 watts per shingle through thin-film or crystalline silicon technologies, often paired with integrated power electronics such as microinverters for direct current-to-alternating current conversion at the module level, optimizing output in shaded or varied orientations.^[108] These systems reduce installation complexity and enable grid-tied performance without separate racking. Ongoing research underpins shingle advancements, including wind tunnel testing per ASTM D7158 standards, where shingles are evaluated for uplift resistance at wind speeds up to 110 mph for Class F ratings and 150 mph for Class H, simulating hurricane conditions to ensure secure fastening and minimal debris generation.^[109] Fire performance is assessed through modeling and empirical tests aligned with NFPA 256, which exposes roof assemblies to burning brands to classify coverings as Class A for severe fire exposure, measuring spread of flame, penetration, and intermittent flaming for asphalt shingles.^[110] These protocols, though NFPA 256 was withdrawn in 2007, inform current UL 790 equivalents and guide formulations for enhanced flame retardancy using mineral stabilizers.^[111]

Other meanings

Natural formations

Shingle beaches are geological formations characterized by accumulations of rounded pebbles, typically ranging from 2 to 64 mm in diameter, shaped and smoothed by the abrasive action of waves in high-energy coastal environments. These beaches form narrow, often steep ridges above the high tide line, consisting primarily of waterworn gravel and cobbles mixed with lesser amounts of sand.^[112]^[113] The formation of shingle beaches occurs through the selective sorting and transport of sediments by longshore drift, a process where prevailing waves move pebbles along the coastline, depositing larger ones higher up the beach and finer material lower down. This dynamic sorting is most effective in exposed, high-energy settings where wave action erodes cliffs or rivers supply material, gradually building extensive barriers over time. A prominent example is Chesil Beach in Dorset, UK, a 29 km (18 mi)-long tombolo that connects the mainland to the Isle of Portland, maintained by ongoing longshore transport despite debates over its initial glacial origins.^[114]^[115] Ecologically, shingle beaches serve as specialized habitats for burrowing invertebrates, such as beetles and worms, and pioneer plants like sea kale that stabilize the substrate, fostering diverse communities adapted to mobile, unstable conditions. They contribute to erosion control by efficiently dissipating wave energy through friction among the pebbles, reducing inland flooding risks more effectively than softer sediments. Compared to sand beaches, shingle formations exhibit superior drainage due to their coarse, porous structure, which allows rapid percolation of rainwater and seawater, minimizing water retention and supporting drought-tolerant species.^[116]^[117]^[118] Notable examples include Dungeness in Kent, England, a cuspate foreland comprising over 100 parallel shingle ridges that form a unique desert-like landscape. Shingle beaches are predominantly distributed in temperate zones, with significant occurrences in northwest Europe, though rarer examples exist in Japan and New Zealand, reflecting their dependence on moderate climates and suitable sediment sources.^[119]^[116] Human interactions with shingle beaches often involve coastal management strategies to mitigate over-extraction for use as construction aggregate, which has historically depleted resources and altered beach dynamics. In regions like Wales, regulatory frameworks emphasize sustainable harvesting limits and restoration to preserve these formations' protective and ecological functions.^[120]

Architectural styles

The Shingle Style, prominent in American architecture from 1880 to 1900 during the late Victorian era, featured continuous wood shingles cladding both walls and roofs to create a unified, textured surface that enveloped the building's form.^[121] This approach emphasized asymmetrical massing, expansive porches, and irregular rooflines with cross gables, fostering a seamless blend of indoor and outdoor spaces while drawing influence from the Queen Anne style's complexity but favoring simpler, less ornate textures.^[122] A seminal example is the William G. Low House in Bristol, Rhode Island, designed in 1887 by McKim, Mead & White, which exemplified the style's innovative use of shingles to wrap dramatic gabled forms and integrate with the landscape.^[123] In later revivals, particularly within the Colonial Revival movement of the 1920s, cedar shingles were incorporated into suburban homes to evoke New England traditions, often combined with clapboard siding for a nod to historical simplicity.^[124] These adaptations appeared in residential designs across growing suburbs, prioritizing durable, low-maintenance exteriors suited to temperate climates.^[125] Regionally, shingle-clad structures proliferated in Northeast U.S. coastal homes, where the material's weather resistance provided effective protection against harsh marine conditions like salt spray and high winds.^[122] Examples include seaside resorts in New England, where architects like those at McKim, Mead & White applied shingles to enhance durability in humid, stormy environments.^[126] Modern interpretations of the Shingle Style in sustainable architecture often incorporate recycled wood shingles sourced from local or reclaimed timber, aligning with eco-friendly practices that reduce environmental impact while maintaining the style's organic aesthetic.^[127] These contemporary designs blend traditional shingled textures with energy-efficient features, as seen in coastal renovations emphasizing material reuse.^[128]

References

[1]
SHINGLE Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of SHINGLE is a small thin piece of building material often with one end thicker than the other for laying in overlapping rows as a covering for ...
[2]
Evolution of Roofing Shingles: Modern Roofing Innovations - IKO
Roofing evolved from wood, slate, and clay to asphalt, then architectural, and finally to fiberglass reinforced shingles.
[3]
Wood Shingles: A Centuries Old Solution - Newport Restoration ...
Jul 1, 2008 · Wood shingles became the answer by 1650, made from cedar and pine, and were split from logs, with a length allowing three overlapping courses. ...
[4]
The History of Asphalt Shingles - IKO
Henry Reynolds cut the first shingles in 1903. The Warren brothers used asphalt in the 1860s. Fire concerns led to their popularity. Three-tab shingles were ...
[5]
Types of Roofing Shingles - Owens Corning
Galvanized steel; Galvalume steel; Aluminum; Zinc; Copper; Titanium, or; Stainless steel. Stone-Coated Metal Roofing Shingles. Different ...
[6]
Types of Asphalt Roofing Shingles in North America - IKO
Traditional Shingles. · Architectural Shingles. · Premium Shingles. · Performance Shingles. Impact-Resistant; Wind-Resistant; Algae-Resistant; Fire-Resistant.
[7]
Types of Roof Shingles - The Home Depot
Feb 22, 2024 · The most common type of shingle is three tab asphalt, but shingles come in many varieties and materials. Selecting the best roofing shingles for you depends on ...
[8]
Shingle - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Shingle originates from Late Latin scindula, meaning "roof tile," from Latin scandula "roof tile," linked to scindere "to split." It means a thin wooden ...
[9]
shingle noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes
Word Origin. senses 2 to 3 Middle English (as a noun): apparently from Latin scindula, earlier scandula 'a split piece of wood'.
[10]
shingle - Middle English Compendium - University of Michigan
Shingle is a wooden tile for roofing, a thin piece of wood used as a writing tablet, or lumber from which shingles are made.
[11]
SHINGLE definition in American English - Collins Dictionary
Shingle is a mass of small rough pieces of stone on the shore of a sea or a river. ...a beach of sand and shingle.Missing: encyclopedia | Show results with:encyclopedia<|control11|><|separator|>
[12]
Roman Woodworking on JSTOR
The visible part of a Roman roof was its external protective sheathing, originally of thatch or wooden shingles (scandulae) or even packed clay (Vitr. 2.1.3).
[13]
A History of Timber Roof Shingles | The Larch Cladding Company
Mar 11, 2025 · Timber roof shingles have been used for centuries as a reliable, sustainable, and visually striking roofing material.
[14]
Life in the Southern Colonies (Part 1 of 3)
Jan 23, 2013 · ... Shingles of Cedar…”[7] In Jamestown Governor Sir Harvey in a letter to the Privy Council in 1638 described 12 new homes in the town, with ...
[15]
Early Asphalt Litigation Helps Shape the Industry - Roofing Museum
After a number of years experimenting with asphalt as a roofing material, Henry M. Reynolds of Grand Rapids, Michigan invented the first asphalt shingle at the ...
[16]
Our Story | Owens Corning Corporate
1960s Fiberglass Shingle Mat. Fiberglass reinforcement for shingles resists fire better than the organic or paper mats that were widely used through the mid- ...
[17]
Asphalt Roofing
Asphalt shingles are predominately fiberglass-based. Fiberglass-based asphalt shingles are manufactured with mat composed entirely of glass fibers of varying ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[18]
What is a Composition Shingle Roof?
Aug 31, 2023 · These shingles are made from either fiberglass or organic felt matting that gets filled with asphalt and topped with mineral granules.
[19]
What Are Architectural Shingles - GAF Roofing
Jul 20, 2022 · The three-tab shingle is made of a single layer of asphalt-coated fiberglass and cut into three equal tabs. It's lightweight, easy to install, ...
[20]
How IKO Shingle Dimensions Provide an Advantage
Once upon a time, traditional strip or 3-tab shingle dimensions, as well as asphalt shingle dimensions, measured 12 inches wide by 36 inches long.
[21]
Mastering Roof Inspections: Asphalt Composition Shingles, Part 6
Both laminated and 3-tab shingles are considered to be strip shingles. Laminated shingles consist of two or more shingle layers bonded together.
[22]
How Much Do Roofing Shingles Weigh and How Many Are In a ...
Each bundle of shingles still covers approximately 33 square feet regardless of the individual shingle count. One roofing square equals 100 square feet.
[23]
How Long Does a Roof Last? - This Old House
Jun 9, 2025 · An average roof lasts 25-50 years depending on material type, with asphalt shingles lasting 20-30 years while premium materials like slate and ...Longevity by Roof Type · Lifespan Factors · Do Warranties Help Life...
[24]
How Long Do Asphalt Shingles Last? Real Lifespan by Type
Aug 7, 2025 · 3-tab shingles: ~15 years. Architectural shingles: ~25 years. Luxury shingles: Often pass 35+ years if maintained properly. Bottom line: Expect ...<|separator|>
[25]
The Benefits of Asphalt Roofing Shingles - IKO
Some asphalt shingles feature the highest fire rating, Class A. When ... Asphalt shingles are simple to install, which helps keep their installed cost low.
[26]
The fight against algae by Maciek Rupar 2009-04-01
Apr 1, 2009 · Algae-resistant shingles using algae-resistant granules were first available during the early 1990s after 3M Industrial Mineral Products ...
[27]
The Care and Maintenance of Wood Shingle and Shake Roofs
Almost any wood can be used for roofing, but the preferred woods are more durable and dimensionally stable. The most common wood species used for roofing is ...Shingle Species · Surface Treatments · Fungal ControlMissing: styles | Show results with:styles
[28]
Different Types of Wood Shingles & Their Uses
Dec 9, 2016 · We offer different types of wood for roofing that are made for today's homes, from high-quality grade Cedar shingles and Wallaba shingles, to the extreme ...
[29]
Q&A: Comparing Cedar Shingle Species
Feb 1, 2002 · A.Corresponding editor Paul Fisette responds: The heartwood (but not the sapwood) of both red and white cedar is naturally decay resistant.
[30]
Durability by nature | The Canadian Wood Council (CWC)
Only the heartwood has these protective deposits. The sapwood of all North American softwoods is susceptible to decay and must be protected by other means when ...
[31]
https://www.schwan-cedar.com/about-shingles/cedar-shingle-grades/
[32]
Certigrade® Shingles - Cedar Shake & Shingle Bureau
Certigrade® Shingles for sale in both untreated and treated smooth sawn architecturally uniform cedar shingle options. Perfect for roofs and sidewalls.
[33]
Hand Split, Sawn Shakes, 3 Kinds of Shingles - Surrey Cedar
Cedar shakes and shingles in different lengths, thicknesses & grades. Hand-split, re-sawn, taperswn shingles. 3 Kinds of shakes. Click here!
[34]
Differences Between Wood Shingles & Wood Shakes
One side will deliver the hand split texture that some homeowners love, but the opposite side is typically smooth and sawn. Shakes are also much thicker than ...
[35]
Bundle #4 Grade 18" Perfection Western Red Cedar Shingles
#4 Grade 18” Perfection Western Red Cedar Undercourse Shingles are specifically milled as a utility-grade product intended for the undercoursing of Cedar ...
[36]
Cedar Shingles Siding and Cedar Shakes Siding - Parr Lumber
Cedar shake is also thicker than shingle siding, ranging from 1/2″ to 3/4″ or greater at the butt end, while wooden shingles range from about 3/8″ to 1/2″.
[37]
Wood shingle & shake roof installation specifications & details
Wood shingles are installed on roofs with a slope of 6" in 12" for best performance but may be on a slope as low as 4/12.
[38]
Noise & Disturbance - Eason Roofing
Jan 4, 2024 · Wood roofing materials, like cedar shingles and shakes, can offer some sound insulation. They tend to absorb and muffle noise from rain and hail ...
[39]
Advantages of Using Timber Shingles for Residential Roofing
May 9, 2025 · Sound Insulation. Timber shingles possess natural sound insulating properties that can significantly enhance the acoustics within a home.
[40]
Slate Roofing Tiles Vermont
Standard texture roofs are composed of slate 3/16″ to 1/4″ thick and are either uniform standard length and width, or one length and random widths laid to line.Missing: inch circular square
[41]
Types of Slate Roofs - National Slate Association
Standard slate roof systems are comprised of 1/4′′ – 3/8′′ slate of one standard length and width and with square cut butts.Missing: circular | Show results with:circular
[42]
The 9 Types of Metal Roofs - NY Engineers
Standing seam roofing features vertical panels with raised seams that interlock to keep moisture out. Key Features: Durability: Known for its strength and ...Missing: waterproofing | Show results with:waterproofing
[43]
Standing Seam Shingles | Metal Roof | ATAS International, Inc.
Standing Seam Shingles have a four-way interlock, concealed fasteners, staggered seams, and are made of .032 aluminum or 16 oz. copper, with a 1" seam height.
[44]
Hardie® Shingle Siding
Fiber cement fire resistance does not extend to applied paints or coatings, which may be damaged or char when exposed to flames. Follow James Hardie. Youtube.
[45]
Best Siding Performance and Durability | James Hardie
Hardie ® fiber cement products resist damage from external fire, water, weather, pests, and time—helping protect your most precious asset for the long haul.
[46]
Solar Roof - Solar Powered Roof Tiles - Tesla
Power your home with a fully integrated solar and energy storage system. The glass solar tiles and steel roofing tiles look great up close and from the street.Missing: 2016 71W
[47]
Tesla Solar Roof vs Traditional Roof: Know the Difference
Aug 15, 2022 · The basic component of the Tesla solar roof is the SR72T1 photovoltaic shingle, which has a rated power output of 71.67W. Tesla specifies the ...Missing: 71W | Show results with:71W
[48]
3 types of roofing tiles and their characteristics
Jun 5, 2023 · This article will explore three popular types of roofing tiles: Clay, Concrete, and Slate. Roofing tiles provide protection from the elements.
[49]
[PDF] 11.2 Asphalt Roofing 11.2.1 General
The production of asphalt roofing products consists of six major operations: (1) felt saturation,. (2) coating, (3) mineral surfacing (top and bottom), ...
[50]
[PDF] Exterior and Interior - Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau
Number 1 Grade Certi-label®. Western Red Cedar sidewall shingles shall be spaced apart 1/8" to 1/4";. Yellow Cedar shingles shall be spaced. 3/16" to 5/16". 4.
[51]
[PDF] Western Red Cedar Shakes and Shingles
Co-products resulting from the cedar shake and shingle manufacturing process include wood chips, hog fuel and sawdust, used for a variety of additional ...
[52]
The Manufacturing of Slate - National Slate Association
Slate is excavated, then roofing slate is split into pieces, while architectural slate is split, gauged, honed, and sometimes flamed.
[53]
How slate is extracted from the quarry to produce natural slate roof ...
Nov 13, 2018 · Once the block has been cut, it is extracted from the rockface with a hydraulic “pecker” to split it into more manageable sizes as some pieces ...
[54]
[PDF] FEMA Hurricane Recovery Advisories
... resistance of 20 lb at 70º F. If a higher resistance is desired, it must be specified. 3. Neither ASTM D 225 or D 3462 specify minimum bond strength. If ...
[55]
Granule Adhesion Test - Cericade
ASTM D 4977 is a standard test method developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) for evaluating the adhesion of granules to roofing ...
[56]
[PDF] Environmental Issues Associated With Asphalt Shingle Recycling
Currently, approximately 12.5 billion square feet of asphalt shingles are manufactured annually, which is enough to cover about five million homes (ARMA 2007).
[57]
US20190186144A1 - Polymer modified asphalt roofing material
The shingle coating asphalt coating composition is used to make a shingle. The shingle includes a substrate, the asphalt, and roofing granules.
[58]
Overview of Wood Preservative Chemicals | US EPA
Aug 8, 2025 · ACQ (alkaline copper quaternary) is a water-based wood preservative that prevents decay from fungi and insects (i.e., it is a fungicide and ...Missing: resistance | Show results with:resistance
[59]
[PDF] BORATE-TREATED WOOD FOR CONSTRUCTION
Wood treated with CCA, ACQ or CA continues to be a popular choice for common exterior or wet applications such as batten strips, roofing, sill plates and fences ...
[60]
3M™ Classic Roofing Granules | 3M United States
Tough, dense, non-porous, weather and UV resistant, ceramic-coated rock; Includes proprietary post-treatment and adhesion promoter coating to reduce staining, ...
[61]
Z-Stop zinc strips roof moss / algae prevention zinc strip for roofing ...
Z-STOP is a zinc-based inhibitor specifically designed to combat roof moss, algae, and fungus on both old and new roofs, regardless of the material.Installation Instructions · FAQs · Order Z-STOP · Shipping InfoMissing: granules ceramic- coated quartz mesh size UV reflectivity
[62]
Asphalt Shingle | Materials and Products Database
Asphalt shingles have a glass fiber base layer (mat) coated with asphalt containing mineral fillers. Source: Samples cut from 0.48 cm thick, 0.3 m x 0.9 m ...
[63]
Advantages of Fiberglass Shingles for Your Roof - GVD Renovations
Rating 4.9 (921) Dec 13, 2024 · Most fiberglass shingles have wind ratings from 60-130 mph, which should offer protection during normal to slightly stronger wind events.
[64]
Choose Asphalt Shingles First; It Matters in the End
May 12, 2016 · The durability, reliability and affordability of asphalt shingles make them a popular choice. They are easy to install and look beautiful on a variety of ...
[65]
Resources - National Roofing Contractors Association
Some roof types, such as slate, clay tile and certain metals, can last longer. Actual life span is determined by several factors, including local climatic ...
[66]
Roofing Underlayment Types - InterNACHI®
Thirty-pound felt is more resistant to damage during installation of the roof-covering material, and will protect the roof longer if it should somehow become ...Missing: NRCA | Show results with:NRCA
[67]
Ice and Water Protector: What is it, Where is it Installed & Why - IKO
Ice and water protector membrane is a superior choice over roof felt for leak protection when properly installed and paired with the right products.
[68]
2015 International Residential Code (IRC) - R905.2.2 Slope.
2.2 Slope. Asphalt shingles shall be used only on roof slopes of two units vertical in 12 units horizontal (2:12) or greater.
[69]
Recommendations for better shingling by Mark S. Graham 2017-06-01
Jun 1, 2017 · Also in Chapter 2, NRCA recommends roof deck slope for asphalt shingle roof systems be a minimum of 4:12. Some building codes and manufacturers' ...
[70]
1507.8 Wood Shingles - UpCodes
Wood shingles shall be installed on slopes of not less than 3 units vertical in 12 units horizontal (25-percent slope).Missing: guidelines | Show results with:guidelines
[71]
Starter Strip Plus Shingle Application Instructions - Owens Corning
All end joints and cutouts in the 3-tab shingles must be offset a minimum of 4" from the joints in the Starter Strip Plus shingles. Additionally, the installer ...
[72]
[PDF] Starter Shingles Installation Instructions - Malarkey Roofing Products
For proper end joint offsets in 3-tab and lam- inate shingle installations, cut 6" (152 mm) from the left side of a Smart Start® starter shingle and apply at a ...
[73]
How to Nail Roofing Shingles - Owens Corning
Position the nails appropriately according to the shingle installation instructions. Align shingles properly to avoid nail exposure. Where to Nail Shingles.<|separator|>
[74]
[PDF] Hip and Ridge Shingles Installation Instructions
Place the EZ-Ridge® starter shingle flush to the rake at the peak, and position it so the seal-down strip is adjacent to the roof edge. Push down on the center ...
[75]
29 Essential Roofing Tools Contractors Should Have In 2025
Oct 3, 2025 · ... roofing hatchets, utility knives, chalk liners, and a nail gun. ... Safety harnesses and lanyards. Non-slip footwear. For proper usage ...
[76]
Roofing Tools List: 35 Tools That Pros Need - Jobber
Oct 8, 2025 · Use this list to choose the roofing tools you'll need on the job. Download our free roofing tools checklist to help you shop.
[77]
Common Roof Problems: Shingle Curling or Cupping
Shingle curling or cupping is when shingles lift at the edges or center, caused by poor ventilation, improper installation, old material, moisture, or weather.
[78]
Ridge Vents: A Guide to Essential Roof Ventilation - This Old House
Common Installation Mistakes to Avoid · Not leaving a gap: Vent material will expand and contract slightly with temperature changes. · Crooked installation: Nail ...Installation and Maintenance... · Comparing Ridge Vents With...Missing: errors cupping
[79]
What Is Shingle Cupping and How Do You Prevent It?
Nov 16, 2020 · If your roof is poorly ventilated, the layers of plywood decks can trap moisture and heat inside that can lead to shingle cupping.
[80]
[PDF] 780 CMR 14.00 - Mass.gov
Aug 22, 2008 · Horizontal joints shall be flashed with Z- flashing and blocked with solid wood framing. 1405.17.2 Horizontal Lap Siding. Lap siding shall be ...
[81]
[PDF] Build a Better Home - Walls
SILL FLASHING AT SLIDING GLASS DOOR. FIGURE 5. PROPER INSTALLATION OF Z-FLASHING IN A. SINGLE WALL SYSTEM WITH APA RATED SIDING. 1/8" gap to prevent wicking.
[82]
Wind Resistant Siding Installation Tips for Homes in Windy Regions
Jan 24, 2025 · Fiber cement siding is a robust and durable material that can withstand wind speeds of up to 130 mph. It's made from a mix of wood fibers, sand, ...
[83]
The Benefits of Using Fiber Cement in Wet, Coastal Areas
Fiber-cement offers homeowners a durable solution for weather resilience, and siding from Nichiha meets the strict wind and moisture resistance requirements in ...
[84]
13 Modern Craftsman House Exteriors We Love - brick&batten
Nov 4, 2022 · This modern craftsman house has a gable on each end, making it appear neat and symmetrical. For this design, we especially love how both peaks ...
[85]
All About Bungalows and Craftsman Style Homes
Dec 23, 2019 · Dormers were usually gabled, but “shed” dormers are common, too. ... Wood shingles are probably the most common siding type, although ...
[86]
Architectural Styles - Shingle - NoeHill in San Francisco
The Shingle Style evolved from the Queen Anne Style in New England and became popular in the San Francisco Bay Area under the name, First Bay Tradition.Missing: beveled | Show results with:beveled
[87]
San Francisco Victorian & Edwardian Architecture | Jennifer Rosdail
Jul 25, 2013 · Shingle: 1880 – 1910. Ubiquitous shingle cladding is the defining feature of the Shingle Style. These houses vary widely in composition and ...Missing: beveled | Show results with:beveled
[88]
Class 4, Impact-Resistant Roofing Shingles - Stonecreek Roofing
Oct 8, 2024 · Creative Ways to Use Roofing Tiles in Your Garden · 1. Garden Pathways and Stepping Stones · 2. Raised Garden Beds · 3. Garden Edging and Borders.<|separator|>
[89]
How Much Does Cedar Shake and Shingle Siding Cost? - HomeServe
Mar 17, 2024 · On average, you can expect to pay around $4 to $7 (CAD 5.41 to CAD 9.46) per square foot for installation, including labor and supplies. Siding ...
[90]
How Much Does It Cost to Install Shingle Siding? [2025 Data] | Angi
Dec 6, 2024 · Typically, shingle siding runs between $6 and $11 per square foot, including materials and labor. With costs for new shingle siding on a 2,000- ...
[91]
Cedar Roof Lifespan | Custom Shingles
Cedar shingles typically last 30 to 50 years or more, with standard cedar shake roofs lasting 40 to 50 years, but can last longer with proper care.
[92]
What You Need to Know about Impact-Resistant Shingles
Feb 8, 2023 · UL 2218 Class 4 is the highest possible rating level for asphalt shingles. The lower ratings that can be given are known as Class 1, 2, and 3.
[93]
When Does a Shingle Comply with ASTM D3462?
Mar 28, 2022 · ASTM D3462 compliance is measured at manufacture, immediately after packaging, and with buyer/seller agreement, but not after installation.
[94]
Common Issues Found with Asphalt Roofing Shingles
Jul 25, 2024 · Thermal cycling: Repeated heating and cooling cycles cause shingles to expand and contract, leading to cracks. Aging: As shingles age, they ...
[95]
How Often Should You Clean Your Roof: A Practical Guide
Low-pressure washing techniques minimize damage to shingles and protect surrounding landscaping. Appropriate cleaning solutions ensure a thorough and safe ...
[96]
Asphalt Shingle Warranties: How They Actually Work - Big D Roofing
Dec 5, 2022 · Many manufacturers provide asphalt shingle warranties ranging from 20-30 years. However, getting a 30-year asphalt shingle roof for your ...
[97]
6 Common Problems with an Asphalt Shingle Roof - Sheffield Metals
Another reason for blistering is poor ventilation of the roof that creates trapped moisture. Improper ventilation is the cause of many shingle roofing problems ...Missing: modes | Show results with:modes
[98]
Roof Deck Wood Rot How to Spot Damage Prevent Decay and ...
Mar 19, 2025 · Left untreated, this rot can damage the structural integrity of the wood over time, which can lead to roof leaks and water damage.
[99]
Archived: Recycled Asphalt Shingles Used in Asphalt Pavement
Dec 11, 2014 · The survey indicates that at least 14 States have a maximum limit for RAS up to 5 percent by weight of total asphalt paving mixture. Most States ...
[100]
Using recycled asphalt shingles in asphalt pavements
Mar 16, 2011 · Shingles are typically composed of 25 to 30 percent asphalt cement, 40 to 60 percent hard aggregate contained on the 30 and 60 sieves and 3 to ...
[101]
Low-emitting materials - adhesives and sealants - USGBC
Credit substitution available You may use the LEED v4 version of this credit on v2009 projects. For more information check out this article.
[102]
Low-Emitting Materials Third Party Certification Table - Johns Manville
Jul 16, 2020 · Green building programs, such as LEED, use GREENGAURD certifications to identify low VOC emitting materials to earn credits for their ...
[103]
Chronology of Asbestos Bans and Restrictions
Europe: as per Commission Directive 1999/77/EC of July 26, 1999, European Member States were given until January 1, 2005 to end the use of chrysotile asbestos, ...
[104]
[PDF] Preliminary Survey of the Solar Reflectance of Cool Roofing Materials
Field tests in Florida resulted in cooling energy savings ranging from 10 to 43%, with the application of high albedo coatings to various roofs [1].<|separator|>
[105]
3M™ Cool Roofing Granules
3M™ Cool Roofing Granules are used in shingles that can be energy efficient, solar reflective and economically friendly.Missing: 30% 10-15%
[106]
Class 4, Impact-Resistant Roofing Shingles - Owens Corning
Jan 29, 2024 · Based on the results of this test, UL assigns one of four ratings to a shingle, with Class 4 being the highest possible rating. During this ...
[107]
PROS AND CONS OF IMPACT-RESISTANT SHINGLES - CertainTeed
Advantages of impact-Resistant Roofing · 1. They offer premium weather resistance. Impact-resistant shingles are engineered to withstand hail, wind, sleet, and ...
[108]
Best Solar Shingles for 2025 - CNET
Jan 2, 2025 · The average solar shingle efficiency rating is around 19 to 20%. It is lower than some of the most efficient solar panels on the market.
[109]
GAF Energy Timberline Solar® ES 2: Solar Shingles - GAF Roofing
Our best-in-class solar efficiency enables 57 watts per energy shingle - a 23% improvement over our first generation solar shingle. Expand to read more ...
[110]
Assessing high wind and hail performance of asphalt shingles
Jan 19, 2015 · Small lab capabilities include a wind tunnel that can reproduce ASTM D 3161 and ASTM D 7158 wind tests and extend test wind speeds up to about ...
[111]
[PDF] NFPA 256
These test methods shall measure the relative fire characteristics of roof coverings under a simulated fire originating outside a building. 1.2 Purpose. The ...
[112]
NFPA 256 Standard Development
NFPA 256. Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Roof Coverings. Status: Withdrawn.
[113]
Shingle beaches » Manaaki Whenua
Shingle beaches are comprised primarily of a mixture of sand, water-smoothed gravel (>50%, particles 2-64 mm), and cobbles.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[114]
What Is a Shingle Beach? - World Atlas
Mar 9, 2018 · The term shingle beach refers to a beach along any body of water that is made up of stones, pebbles, and other small rocks.
[115]
https://www.britannica.com/place/Chesil-Beach
[116]
[PDF] GCR site account 1800: CHESIL BEACH - JNCC
According to Bray (1990b), Chesil Beach was thus formed before there was significant erosion of the west Dorset coastline. It was then maintained by longshore ...
[117]
Coastal vegetated shingle - Buglife
Coastal vegetated shingle is a globally restricted coastal sediment type with few occurrences outside north-west Europe, Japan and New Zealand, shingle ...
[118]
Shingle beach restoration | Coastal Management Webguide
Shingle beaches are mobile structures developed in high-energy environments that are very efficient at absorbing and dissipating wave energy.
[119]
Ultimate Shoreline Showdown - Earth Rangers
Shingle beaches, pebble beaches, rocky beaches – they all involve the same thing: rocks. Most shingle beaches come from glacier remains or wave action on cliffs ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|separator|>
[120]
Dungeness, Kent | GeoGuide
It is a fine example of a shingle beach-plain, comprising over 100 sub-parallel shingle ridges, which run northwards to end in very short buried distal features ...
[121]
[PDF] Advice on Sustainable Management of Coastal Shingle Resources
A large proportion of the shingle resource which originally existed on the Welsh coast has been destroyed or damaged by gravel extraction, coastal defence ...
[122]
Architectural Style Guide - Historic New England
Shingle Style: 1880 – 1900 Unlike preceding architectural styles, the Shingle Style is not defined by applied decoration and therefore there is little in the ...
[123]
Shingle Style (1880-1900) - Wentworth Studio
In contrast to the other Victorian-era styles, Shingle Style de-emphasized applied decoration and detailing in favor of complex shapes wrapped in cedar shingles ...Missing: beveled San Francisco
[124]
Overview of the Shingle Style, an American Original - ThoughtCo
May 13, 2025 · The 1885 house was designed by architect Stanford White, who had become a partner at McKim, Mead & White in 1879. The side shown here is ...American House Styles... · About The Shingle Style · Domestic Revival To Shingle...
[125]
Colonial Revival Style (1880-1955) - Wentworth Studio
Clapboard and shingle siding is often found in the Colonial Revival style, but brick is the preferred material. This is especially true for homes built after ...Missing: cedar | Show results with:cedar
[126]
[PDF] Preservation Brief 19 - National Park Service
Wooden shingle roofs are important elements of many historic buildings. The special visual qualities imparted by both the historic shingles and the installation ...
[127]
Shingle Style 1880 | PHMC > Pennsylvania Architectural Field Guide
Identifiable Features · Shingled walls and roof · Asymmetrical facade · Irregular roof lines · Moderately pitched roofs · Cross gables · Extensive wide porches · Small ...Missing: Mead | Show results with:Mead
[128]
https://landmarksarchitects.com/modern-shingle-style-architecture/
[129]
Modern Shingle Style Architecture: 5 Design Elements
Mixed materials like stone, metal, and reclaimed wood create contrast and depth. Eco-friendly building practices focus on energy efficiency and sustainability.Missing: recycled | Show results with:recycled