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Short-term memory

Short-term memory (STM), also known as primary or active memory, is a cognitive system that temporarily stores a limited amount of information for immediate cognitive processing, typically holding 5 to 9 chunks of data for about 15 to 30 seconds without active rehearsal.^[1]^[2]^[3] In the classic multi-store model of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, STM serves as an intermediary stage between sensory memory and long-term memory, where information is either rehearsed for transfer to long-term storage or decays if not attended to.^[4] This limited-capacity buffer enables essential functions such as holding verbal instructions, performing mental arithmetic, or maintaining focus during conversations, but it is distinct from working memory, which involves more active manipulation of information beyond mere storage.^[5] Empirical studies, including George Miller's seminal 1956 work on information processing limits, established the "magical number seven, plus or minus two" as a rough estimate for STM's span in tasks like digit recall, though subsequent research has refined this to around four items for complex visual stimuli due to interference and decay mechanisms.^[1]^[6] Disruptions in STM, often assessed through tasks like serial recall or the Brown-Peterson distractor technique, are linked to neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease or traumatic brain injury, highlighting its foundational role in everyday cognition and learning.^[7]

Definition and Overview

Core Concept

Short-term memory (STM) refers to a cognitive system with limited capacity that temporarily stores a small amount of information for immediate use in ongoing mental activities, typically lasting from a few seconds to about a minute without active maintenance.^[8] This system can hold approximately 7 ± 2 items, such as digits or words, depending on how information is chunked or grouped. Without rehearsal, the duration of retention is around 15 to 30 seconds, after which the information decays unless transferred to more permanent storage.^[2] STM plays a key role in briefly maintaining sensory input from the environment, allowing for temporary access before potential decay or consolidation elsewhere.^[8] In everyday cognition, this enables tasks such as retaining a spoken phone number long enough to dial it or keeping track of the next step in a simple calculation.^[8] In contrast to long-term memory (LTM), which provides enduring storage of vast amounts of information with varying retrieval accessibility, STM is transient and serves primarily as an active workspace for current processing rather than permanent retention.^[8] According to the modal model of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, STM functions as a central gateway, receiving selected information from sensory registers and facilitating its rehearsal or encoding into LTM through controlled processes.^[8] This distinction underscores STM's role in bridging immediate perception and lasting knowledge without the indefinite persistence characteristic of LTM.^[8]

Historical Background

The concept of short-term memory emerged in the late 19th century through introspective psychological analysis, with William James distinguishing between primary memory—characterized as the immediate, vivid retention of recent experiences—and secondary memory, which involves more distant recollections requiring associative recall.^[9] In his seminal work The Principles of Psychology, James described primary memory as a nascent stage of consciousness that fades rapidly without reinforcement, laying the groundwork for later empirical investigations into temporary storage mechanisms.^[9] Mid-20th-century research advanced these ideas through experimental paradigms focused on capacity and duration limits. George Miller's 1956 paper introduced the "magical number seven, plus or minus two," proposing that short-term memory holds approximately 7±2 chunks of information, influencing subsequent capacity models by highlighting chunking as a strategy to expand effective storage.^[10] Complementing this, the 1959 study by Lloyd and Margaret Peterson demonstrated rapid decay in short-term retention, where recall of consonant trigrams dropped to near zero after 18 seconds of interference via a distractor task, underscoring trace decay as a key mechanism distinct from long-term consolidation.^[11] The 1968 multi-store model by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin formalized short-term memory as a distinct structural component within a broader memory system, positioned between sensory registers and long-term storage, with limited capacity and duration reliant on rehearsal for maintenance or transfer.^[8] This framework synthesized prior findings into a testable architecture, emphasizing short-term memory's role in selective attention and encoding.^[8] In the 1970s and 1980s, critiques of the multi-store model's passive view of short-term memory spurred refinements, particularly through Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch's 1974 working memory proposal, which highlighted active processing components while retaining core short-term storage elements like the phonological loop for verbal material. These developments focused on short-term memory's vulnerability to interference and its integration with executive functions, as evidenced by studies replicating decay patterns under controlled conditions.^[11] Post-2000 integrations with cognitive neuroscience, such as Baddeley's 2000 addition of an episodic buffer to link short-term storage with long-term knowledge via attentional binding, further refined the working memory model by incorporating neuroimaging evidence of prefrontal involvement.^[12]

Neurobiological Foundations

Synaptic Mechanisms

Short-term memory is underpinned by short-term synaptic plasticity, which encompasses transient modifications in synaptic efficacy lasting from milliseconds to minutes. Key mechanisms include synaptic facilitation, where successive presynaptic action potentials lead to increased neurotransmitter release due to residual calcium accumulation in the presynaptic terminal, and synaptic depression, arising from depletion of synaptic vesicles or postsynaptic receptor desensitization. These calcium-dependent processes enable the rapid adjustment of neural circuit activity to support the temporary storage and maintenance of information without involving gene expression or new protein synthesis.^[13]^[14]

Neural Structures Involved

The prefrontal cortex (PFC), particularly its dorsolateral region, plays a central role in the executive control and active maintenance of information in short-term memory (STM), enabling the temporary holding and manipulation of task-relevant stimuli against interference.^[15] Neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies have shown that PFC neurons exhibit persistent firing patterns during delay periods in delayed-response tasks, supporting the encoding, updating, and retrieval of sensory or abstract representations.^[16] This function is domain-general, encompassing verbal, spatial, and object-based information, with distinct subregions like the ventrolateral PFC contributing to phonological maintenance and the dorsolateral PFC to spatial rehearsal.^[17] The parietal cortex, especially its posterior portions such as the intraparietal sulcus, is implicated in the visuospatial components of STM, facilitating the storage and attentional prioritization of spatial locations and object features.^[18] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) reveals load-dependent activation in the superior parietal lobule during visual STM tasks, correlating with the number of items held in mind and reflecting attentional selection mechanisms.^[19] Lesions to the posterior parietal cortex impair the precision of spatial representations in STM without disrupting basic visuomotor control, underscoring its specialized role in maintaining metric spatial information.^[20] The hippocampus contributes to temporary binding of relational information in STM, such as associating arbitrary features (e.g., color with shape), though its necessity for pure item-based or span-limited STM remains debated, with some evidence suggesting overlap in its transition to long-term memory (LTM) processes.^[21] Patient studies indicate that hippocampal damage spares simple serial recall but disrupts complex relational bindings even over short delays, implying a role in bridging immediate sensory traces to more durable representations.^[22] Basal ganglia and thalamic loops, forming cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuits, gate the flow of information into STM by modulating the selection and persistence of relevant neural activity while suppressing irrelevant inputs.^[23] These loops, involving the striatum and mediodorsal thalamus, enable winner-take-all dynamics in PFC circuits, as demonstrated in rodent models where optogenetic manipulation of striatal projections alters delay-period activity essential for decision-making tasks.^[24] Lesion studies provide key insights into STM localization; for instance, the case of patient H.M., who underwent bilateral medial temporal lobe resection including the hippocampus, preserved immediate and short-term memory span (e.g., digit recall up to seven items) while severely impairing LTM formation, indicating that core STM mechanisms operate independently of hippocampal structures.^[25] Frontal lobe lesions, in contrast, disrupt executive aspects of STM, such as ordering and resistance to distraction. Connectivity between these regions is supported by white matter tracts like the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), which links the PFC and parietal cortex to facilitate integrated visuospatial and attentional processing in STM.^[26] Diffusion tensor imaging shows that SLF integrity correlates with verbal and visual STM performance, highlighting its role in inter-regional communication for maintaining distributed representations.^[27]

Evidence Supporting Existence

Behavioral Experiments

Behavioral experiments have provided foundational evidence for the existence and properties of short-term memory (STM) through controlled tasks assessing human recall performance. One seminal demonstration involves the serial position effect observed in free recall tasks, where participants better remember items from the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list compared to the middle. In a classic study, participants listened to lists of 10 or 15 common words presented at a rate of two seconds per word and then immediately recalled as many as possible in any order; the resulting serial position curve showed superior recall for the last few items, attributed to their maintenance in STM, while early items benefited from transfer to long-term memory. This recency effect was particularly pronounced, with the last two or three items recalled with over 60% accuracy in immediate recall conditions.^[28] The Peterson and Peterson (1959) experiment further elucidated STM's limited duration by employing distractor tasks to prevent rehearsal. Participants were shown consonant trigrams (e.g., "XYZ") and instructed to recall them after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 15, or 18 seconds, during which they performed a serial subtraction task (counting backwards by three from a given three-digit number) to interfere with verbal rehearsal. Recall accuracy was approximately 80% after 3 seconds but dropped sharply to 50% after 6 seconds and to less than 10% after 18 seconds, indicating rapid decay of information in STM without maintenance. This Brown-Peterson paradigm, as it became known, highlighted interference and decay as key factors limiting STM retention to around 15-20 seconds under distraction.^[2] Clinical cases of anterograde amnesia, such as that of patient H.M. (Henry Molaison), offer dissociative evidence supporting STM's independence from long-term memory formation. Following bilateral hippocampal resection in 1953 to treat intractable epilepsy, H.M. exhibited profound inability to form new declarative memories, yet his performance on immediate recall tasks remained intact, such as digit spans of seven forward and five backward, comparable to healthy controls. Detailed postoperative testing revealed preserved short-term retention for verbal and spatial information over brief delays, despite complete anterograde deficits for events beyond a few minutes, underscoring STM's reliance on distinct neural mechanisms.^[29] Additional behavioral insights into STM constraints come from the word-length effect, where recall span decreases for longer words due to limits on subvocal rehearsal. In experiments, participants serially recalled lists of five-syllable words (e.g., "university") versus one-syllable words (e.g., "sum"), with spans averaging 4.3 items for short words but only 2.6 for long ones in immediate free recall. This effect persisted across visual and auditory presentation but was eliminated under articulatory suppression (e.g., repeating "the" aloud), suggesting that the time required for subvocal pronunciation determines STM capacity, estimated at about 2 seconds of speech.^[30]

Neuroscientific Findings

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have demonstrated robust activation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), particularly the dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC), during the delay period of working memory tasks adapted from the Sternberg paradigm. In these tasks, participants encode a set of items and maintain them over a brief delay before retrieval, with fMRI revealing parametric increases in DLPFC activity correlated with memory load during the maintenance phase. For instance, adaptations using novel visual scenes show greater medial temporal lobe involvement alongside PFC activation under high load conditions, underscoring the neural effort required for short-term retention.^[31]^[32] Electroencephalography (EEG) and event-related potential (ERP) techniques have identified the contralateral delay activity (CDA) as a key neural marker of visuospatial short-term memory load. The CDA, a sustained negative deflection over posterior electrodes contralateral to the memorized hemifield, increases in amplitude with the number of items stored and plateaus at behavioral capacity limits, typically around three to four items. This component emerges during the delay period of visual working memory tasks and reliably tracks storage demands, providing a direct electrophysiological correlate of maintenance processes. Multi-site replications confirm the CDA's robustness across tasks, participant groups, and recording devices.^[33]^[34]^[35] Single-unit recordings in nonhuman primates have provided foundational evidence for persistent neural firing as the cellular basis of short-term memory maintenance. In a seminal study, Funahashi et al. (1989) recorded from DLPFC neurons in monkeys performing an oculomotor delayed-response task, observing sustained firing rates for 5-10 seconds during the delay period, tuned to the spatial location of a briefly presented cue. These delay-period activities were directionally selective and persisted independently of sensory or motor responses, directly linking neuronal firing to mnemonic representation. Subsequent work has extended this to dynamic population coding in the PFC, where ensembles maintain information through coordinated spiking patterns.^[36]^[37] Oscillatory synchrony between the PFC and hippocampus, particularly in theta (4-8 Hz) and gamma (30-100 Hz) bands, supports the active maintenance of short-term memories. Theta-gamma phase-amplitude coupling facilitates communication between these regions, with theta oscillations coordinating hippocampal inputs to the medial PFC during delay periods of memory tasks. In rodents and humans, enhanced theta power in the PFC-hippocampal network correlates with successful retention, while disruptions impair performance. This cross-regional interaction integrates sensory encoding with sustained representation, as seen in tasks requiring temporal sequencing or spatial navigation.^[38]^[39]01579-1) Recent optogenetic manipulations in rodents have causally validated the roles of specific neuronal populations in short-term memory tasks. For example, inhibiting dopamine D1- and D2-receptor expressing neurons in the dorsomedial striatum enhances working memory performance in delay-based decision tasks, revealing bidirectional modulation of maintenance. Similarly, optogenetic activation of locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons during encoding boosts retention in novel object recognition paradigms, mimicking novelty-induced improvements. In hippocampal CA1 circuits, silencing temporally tuned ensembles disrupts short-term social memory lasting under 30 minutes, confirming their necessity for transient information storage. These 2020s studies highlight circuit-specific causality beyond correlative measures.^[40]^[41]^[42]

Theoretical Models

Unitary Buffer Model

The unitary buffer model conceptualizes short-term memory (STM) as a single, passive storage system that temporarily holds a limited amount of information transferred from sensory registers, serving as a gateway to long-term memory. Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in their seminal 1968 framework, this model posits STM as a unitary store with a fixed capacity of approximately 7 ± 2 items, drawing from empirical observations of immediate recall spans in verbal tasks.^[4]^[1] This capacity limit reflects the buffer's role in maintaining traces without active manipulation, where exceeding it leads to displacement of older items by new inputs. Maintenance in the buffer relies on a rehearsal loop, a control process that regenerates fading traces to prevent loss, while interference from subsequent items serves as the primary mechanism of forgetting rather than mere passage of time alone.^[4] Without rehearsal, information decays rapidly within 15-30 seconds, as evidenced by experiments showing rapid forgetting under distraction.^[4]^[2] The model predicts all-or-nothing loss, where items are either fully accessible or irretrievable once displaced, and lacks domain-specificity, accommodating both verbal and visual information within the same undifferentiated buffer, primarily tuned to auditory-verbal-linguistic codes.^[4] A key strength of the unitary buffer model lies in its simplicity, effectively accounting for recency effects in free recall tasks, where the most recent items remain in the buffer and exhibit near-perfect retrieval due to minimal decay or interference.^[4] This parsimonious structure provided an early rationale for distinguishing STM from long-term storage, influencing subsequent memory research. However, the model has faced critiques for underemphasizing active processing, such as elaboration or transformation of contents, which later frameworks addressed without resolving core assumptions here.^[4]

Multi-Store Integration

Multi-store models of short-term memory (STM) have evolved to incorporate dynamic interactions between sensory registers, the short-term buffer, and long-term memory (LTM), addressing the limitations of isolated storage by emphasizing interference and retrieval processes. A foundational contribution came from Waugh and Norman (1965), who integrated interference theory into the multi-store framework, proposing that primary memory functions as a limited-capacity buffer where recall accuracy declines due to proactive and retroactive interference from intervening items. In their model, the probability of retrieving a target item from a sequence decreases as the number of distractors between the probe and target increases, reflecting a gradient of interference within the short-term store that draws on LTM for partial support during overload. This approach highlighted how sensory input decays or is displaced, with LTM providing associative cues to mitigate loss, thus linking the stores through shared retrieval mechanisms. Extensions of this framework, such as the Search of Associative Memory (SAM) model by Raaijmakers and Shiffrin (1981), further refined probe recall dynamics by modeling retrieval as a probabilistic search across both short-term and long-term associative networks. In SAM, items in STM activate related traces in LTM, where similarity-based sampling determines recall success; probes initiate a search biased toward recent (short-term) activations but influenced by long-term associations, producing interference gradients that align with empirical probe recognition data. This integration posits that STM acts not as a passive buffer but as a gateway for LTM retrieval, where associative strengths modulate the fidelity of short-term representations during tasks like serial probe recall. Computational implementations of SAM demonstrate how activation spreads from sensory inputs to long-term stores, enabling adaptive maintenance under varying loads. Binding processes in STM further illustrate multi-store integration, as explored by Postle (2006), who argued that feature binding emerges from distributed neural activity linking sensory cortices, the short-term buffer, and LTM without invoking a dedicated working memory module. This view connects to the episodic buffer concept by emphasizing temporary bindings formed through error signals between short-term traces and long-term schemas, allowing coherent object representations to persist briefly despite capacity limits. For instance, visual features bound in STM draw on LTM for contextual integration, reducing interference from unbound elements. Computational simulations reinforce these integrations by modeling interference as gradients derived from similarity matrices among items. In the Theory of Distributed Associative Memories (TODAM), Murdock (1982) represents STM items as vectors in a high-dimensional space, where recall probability is computed via correlations reflecting semantic or perceptual similarities; greater similarity between stored items amplifies interference, simulating displacement from the short-term store into LTM. These models show how multi-store interactions produce non-uniform forgetting, with recall favoring less similar items through vector-based matching. In the 2010s, integrations with predictive coding frameworks advanced this perspective by incorporating error-driven maintenance across stores.

Key Characteristics

Duration Limits

Short-term memory (STM) typically retains information for 15 to 30 seconds in the absence of rehearsal, as evidenced by free recall experiments where the recency effect diminishes with delays exceeding this timeframe.^[43] This duration aligns with classic studies using distractor tasks to prevent maintenance, such as the presentation of consonant trigrams followed by serial counting, where recall accuracy drops sharply after 18 seconds on average.^[11] Free recall curves from word lists further support this range, showing that the last few items—attributed to STM—maintain high accessibility for about 20 seconds post-presentation before interference or decay sets in.^[44] The debate over whether forgetting in STM results from decay (spontaneous trace fading over time) or interference (disruption by competing information) remains central, with proactive interference (prior learning hindering new retention) and retroactive interference (subsequent stimuli overwriting traces) often shortening effective duration more than time alone. Seminal work demonstrated that increasing the number of interpolated items during retention intervals reduces probe recognition accuracy logarithmically, favoring interference over pure decay models. Proactive effects build cumulatively across trials, while retroactive ones dominate within single lists, collectively limiting persistence to under 30 seconds even without explicit delays. In serial recall tasks, the suffix effect illustrates interference's role, where an irrelevant item appended to the list end disrupts recency for the final 1 to 2 positions, as the suffix competes for the same phonological trace without contributing to the memory set. This disruption occurs primarily in auditory presentation, reducing recall of terminal items by up to 50% compared to no-suffix conditions, and highlights how even brief extraneous input can truncate apparent STM duration. Individual variability in STM duration arises from subvocal rehearsal processes, with articulatory suppression—such as repeating irrelevant sounds aloud—halting inner speech and reducing retention time by preventing refreshment of traces. Under suppression, word-length effects vanish, and overall span shortens to 10-15 seconds, underscoring rehearsal's extension of baseline duration in typical conditions.

Capacity Constraints

Short-term memory has a limited capacity for storing information, classically estimated at 7 ± 2 "chunks" by George A. Miller in 1956 based on tasks like immediate digit recall.^[1] Subsequent research has refined this to a more conservative limit of approximately 4 ± 1 items for pure short-term storage, particularly when accounting for interference and the complexity of stimuli.^[6] For visual short-term memory, capacity is often around 3-4 objects, influenced by factors such as the heterogeneity of items and attentional focus.^[45] These constraints apply to the number of distinct items or meaningful units that can be held simultaneously, distinct from the active manipulation involved in working memory.

Enhancement Strategies

Rehearsal Processes

Rehearsal processes in short-term memory (STM) primarily involve articulatory mechanisms that refresh decaying memory traces without substantially increasing storage capacity. Subvocal rehearsal, a form of silent repetition, plays a central role by reactivating phonological representations of verbal information, thereby extending retention beyond the natural decay time of a few seconds. This process is particularly effective for auditory or verbal material, as it mimics overt speech but occurs internally, allowing individuals to maintain items like digit sequences or word lists through cyclic repetition.^[46] Within Baddeley's phonological loop model of working memory, which applies to STM for verbal content, subvocal rehearsal interacts with a temporary phonological store to counteract trace decay. Empirical evidence includes the word-length effect, where recall span decreases for longer words due to the time required for rehearsal—shorter words (e.g., one syllable) allow faster cycling and better performance than multisyllabic ones. Similarly, the phonological similarity effect demonstrates impaired serial recall for lists of similar-sounding items (e.g., mad, map, mat), as rehearsal confuses overlapping traces in the store. These effects highlight how rehearsal relies on articulatory timing and phonological coding rather than semantic content.^[47]^[48]^[49] Rehearsal can be distinguished as maintenance or elaborative. Maintenance rehearsal involves simple looping repetition to sustain STM traces, preserving information temporarily without deep processing. In contrast, elaborative rehearsal links items semantically (e.g., associating a word with its meaning or prior knowledge), which minimally aids STM but facilitates transfer to long-term memory.^[50] Experiments using suppression techniques reveal rehearsal's vulnerability. Articulatory suppression, such as repeating irrelevant sounds like "the," disrupts subvocal repetition and eliminates benefits like the word-length effect, reducing recall for verbal lists. Likewise, irrelevant speech—background auditory distractors—impairs visual or verbal STM by invading the phonological store, even when ignored, confirming rehearsal's reliance on an unimpeded articulatory channel.^[51] The timing of rehearsal is constrained by articulatory speed, typically cycling 2-4 items per second for short verbal units like digits, enabling uninterrupted maintenance for up to several minutes in ideal conditions. This rate aligns with pronunciation durations observed in span tasks, underscoring rehearsal's role in prolonging STM duration without altering core capacity limits.^[46]^[52]

Chunking Techniques

Chunking is a cognitive strategy that enhances short-term memory capacity by organizing individual items into larger, meaningful units known as chunks, which are treated as single elements in memory. This technique leverages familiarity and prior knowledge to compress information, allowing more elements to be retained within the limited span of short-term memory. In his seminal work, George A. Miller described a chunk as a familiar integrated pattern, such as grouping random letters (e.g., F B I C I A) into acronyms or words, which reduces the perceptual load and effectively bypasses the absolute capacity constraints of short-term memory. For example, a ten-digit phone number like 1234567890 is more easily recalled when segmented into chunks such as 123-456-7890, transforming it from ten separate digits into three cohesive units. Similarly, chess experts demonstrate superior recall of board positions by perceiving them as approximately 5-7 meaningful chunks representing familiar tactical patterns, rather than dozens of isolated pieces.^[53] Hierarchical chunking further extends this capacity through expertise, where basic chunks are nested into super-chunks or multi-level structures, enabling the recall of 20 or more items as a unified whole.^[54] This process relies on long-term memory associations built over extensive practice, allowing experts to encode complex sequences proportionally to the size and depth of their chunk repertoire. Empirical evidence from studies on chess players supports this, showing that memory span correlates directly with chunk size and the ability to form hierarchical representations.^[54] Despite these benefits, chunking has inherent limits; the structural integrity of chunks deteriorates under time pressure, as the typical two-second interval required for chunk formation and retrieval is insufficient for rapid processing.^[53] Additionally, novelty disrupts chunking, as unfamiliar or random configurations fail to match stored patterns, reverting recall to the base capacity of roughly 7 ± 2 ungrouped items.^[54]

Influencing Factors

Developmental and Age Effects

Short-term memory capacity in children undergoes significant development during childhood, increasing from approximately 2 to 3 items around age 5 to reaching adult-like levels of 4 to 5 items by age 12.^[55] This growth reflects improvements in the ability to maintain and manipulate information temporarily, influenced by maturation of brain white matter, including myelin formation that supports faster neural transmission and cognitive processing.^[56] For instance, forward digit span tasks, a common measure of short-term memory, show non-linear increases, with rapid gains during early to middle childhood stabilizing toward adolescence.^[57] Phonological short-term memory, involving the temporary storage of verbal material, emerges early in development, aiding vocabulary acquisition and language skills as young as preschool age.^[58] In contrast, visuospatial short-term memory, which handles visual and spatial information, develops more gradually and later in childhood, becoming more robust around school age to support tasks like navigation and pattern recognition.^[59] Longitudinal research highlights the acquisition of rehearsal strategies around age 7, where children begin to cumulatively repeat items to extend memory duration, marking a key transition in short-term memory efficiency as described in Gathercole's 1998 review of childhood memory changes.^[60] In older adults, short-term memory experiences a notable decline after age 60, primarily due to slowed processing speed that impairs efficient encoding and retrieval. This age-related decrement is evident in memory tasks, where older individuals recall fewer items accurately. Cognitive interventions targeting short-term memory, such as working memory training programs, yield modest improvements in elderly participants, often limited to trained tasks with minimal transfer to daily functioning.^[61] In contrast, youth benefit more substantially from such training, showing greater gains in capacity and broader cognitive enhancements due to higher neuroplasticity.^[62] These differences underscore the importance of age-tailored approaches to mitigate developmental declines.

Pathological Conditions

Pathological conditions involving short-term memory (STM) often manifest through specific neurological and psychiatric disorders, where impairments serve as key diagnostic markers for underlying brain dysfunction. In Alzheimer's disease, early-stage verbal STM loss is a hallmark symptom, primarily driven by cholinergic deficits in the basal forebrain that disrupt acetylcholine signaling essential for memory encoding and rehearsal. This leads to a markedly reduced memory span, contrasting with the normative capacity of 7±2 items, and contributes to diagnostic criteria by highlighting initial episodic memory decline before broader cognitive deficits emerge.^[63]^[64]^[65] Conduction aphasia exemplifies a targeted STM pathology, where lesions in the arcuate fasciculus and supramarginal gyrus damage the phonological loop—a core component of verbal STM—resulting in profound repetition deficits despite preserved comprehension and production in other contexts. Patients struggle to repeat multisyllabic words or non-words, with error rates exceeding 50% in standard tests, which diagnostically distinguishes conduction aphasia from other variants like Broca's or Wernicke's by isolating phonological storage and rehearsal impairments within Baddeley's working memory framework. These deficits underscore the modularity of STM subsystems and inform lesion-based diagnoses via neuroimaging correlations.^[66]^[67]^[68] Schizophrenia involves STM disruptions intertwined with working memory deficits, but STM-specific intrusions—such as erroneous recall of irrelevant or previously suppressed items—arise prominently from positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions, reflecting faulty source monitoring and inhibitory control. These intrusions increase error rates in serial recall tasks by 20-30% compared to healthy controls, aiding differential diagnosis by linking them to dopaminergic hyperactivity in frontotemporal circuits rather than generalized cognitive decline. Such patterns highlight STM's role in symptom maintenance and guide antipsychotic treatment targeting positive symptom resolution to mitigate memory interference.^[69]^[70]^[71] In post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), hyperarousal symptoms, fueled by noradrenergic excess in the locus coeruleus, shorten STM duration by accelerating decay and disrupting sustained attention, often reducing effective retention to under 10-15 seconds in high-stress recall paradigms. This manifests as fragmented immediate recall of neutral information, with diagnostic utility in distinguishing PTSD from other anxiety disorders through elevated norepinephrine levels correlating with arousal-induced memory lapses. Brain regions like the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are implicated in this process, amplifying emotional interference on neutral STM tasks.^[72]^[73]^[74] Post-traumatic effects from mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) temporarily diminish STM capacity by 1-2 items, as evidenced by lowered digit span scores (e.g., from 6-7 to 4-5) in the acute phase, attributable to diffuse axonal injury and hippocampal disruption without overt structural damage on standard imaging. This reduction resolves in 70-80% of cases within weeks to months but serves as a diagnostic indicator for concussion severity, prompting cognitive monitoring to predict recovery trajectories and rule out persistent syndromes.^[75]^[76]^[77]

Relation to Working Memory

Conceptual Distinctions

Short-term memory (STM) refers to a passive system for the temporary holding of information without active manipulation, typically lasting seconds and limited in capacity, whereas working memory (WM) encompasses not only storage but also the executive control and attentional processes required to manipulate and integrate that information for complex cognition.^[78] This distinction positions STM as a foundational storage mechanism, akin to a buffer, while WM functions as a dynamic workspace involving attention allocation and control. In Baddeley's influential WM model, STM components are conceptualized as "slave systems"—the phonological loop for verbal material and the visuospatial sketchpad for spatial information—coordinated by a central executive that handles attention and executive functions, highlighting how STM serves as subordinate storage within the broader WM framework. Evidence for this separation comes from dual-task paradigms, where interference is greater in WM tasks requiring simultaneous storage and processing (e.g., verbal reasoning while memorizing word lists) compared to pure storage tasks, as concurrent verbal processing disrupts verbal STM more than visual tasks, indicating domain-specific buffers rather than a unitary store.^[78] Despite these distinctions, overlap exists because STM is frequently assessed through WM tasks like complex span procedures, though pure STM can be isolated via untimed immediate recall tasks, such as serial digit recall without secondary processing demands, which minimize executive involvement and emphasize raw storage capacity.^[78] Post-2000 theoretical developments have further nuanced this view, with some models portraying WM as activated subsets of long-term memory rather than a separate system, yet maintaining STM as a distinct, capacity-limited buffer for novel information immune to long-term retrieval dynamics.^[78]

Overlapping Functions

STM and WM overlap in their reliance on temporary information retention, with WM often utilizing STM subsystems for storage while adding processing layers. For instance, simple span tasks primarily tap STM capacity, but complex span tasks blend storage and manipulation, showing moderate to high correlations (r ≈ 0.5–0.7) between STM and WM measures in predicting fluid intelligence and executive functions.^[78] Neuroimaging studies reveal shared activation in prefrontal and parietal regions for both maintenance and manipulation, suggesting common neural resources despite functional differences.^[79] These overlaps imply that impairments in one system often affect the other, as seen in conditions like ADHD where central executive deficits impact both.^[80]

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Visual Short-Term Memory Activity in Parietal Lobe Reflects ...
VSTM recruits areas within human (male and female) dorsal and ventral parietal cortex that are also implicated in spatial selection; therefore, it is important ...
[17]
Human parietal cortex lesions impact the precision of spatial ...
In this study, we find that lesions to human posterior parietal cortex (PPC) impair the precision of spatial WM, but not visuomotor control.
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Short-Term Memory and the Human Hippocampus - PMC - NIH
We know from neuropsychological evidence, therefore, that the hippocampus is critical to short-term memory for associative information. What is not clear from ...Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
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The Legacy of Patient H.M. for Neuroscience - PMC - NIH
The work with H.M. demonstrated that the psychological distinction between immediate memory and long-term memory is a prominent feature of how the brain has ...
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A cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical channel underlying short ...
Nov 3, 2021 · Here, we report that the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical (CBTC) circuit supports the formation of selective persistent activity in mice.
[21]
A cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical channel underlying short ...
Nov 3, 2021 · Persistent activity underlying short-term memory encodes sensory information or instructs specific future movement and, consequently, ...
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H.M.'s Contributions to Neuroscience: A Review and Autopsy Studies
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The Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus in Typically Developing ...
Feb 19, 2014 · Based on various magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based studies, the superior longitudinal fasciculus is associated with verbal working memory ...
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Multiple neural pathways to successful visual short-term memory ...
Oct 11, 2024 · These included the uncinate fasciculus, superior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, anterior thalamic radiations ...
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Two storage mechanisms in free recall - ScienceDirect.com
Two experiments were carried out to test the hypothesis that the bimodal serial position curve in free recall is produced by output from two storage mechanisms.
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[PDF] LOSS OF RECENT MEMORY AFTER BILATERAL HIPPOCAMPAL ...
patient showed marked anterograde and retrograde amnesia. More recently Milnerand Penfield(1955) have described a memoryloss similar in all respects to that ...
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Word length and the structure of short-term memory - ScienceDirect
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Dissociating the effects of Sternberg working memory demands in ...
Feb 28, 2007 · Block design fMRI studies, using the Sternberg task, have reported increasing activity in DLPFC correlated with memory load increase ...
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Greater Working Memory Load Results in Greater Medial Temporal ...
Feb 18, 2009 · Here we examined WM load effects in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) using an fMRI Sternberg task with novel complex visual scenes. Trials ...
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Contralateral Delay Activity Tracks Fluctuations in Working Memory ...
CDA amplitude is sensitive to working memory load, reaches an asymptote at known behavioral limits, and predicts individual differences in capacity.
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Contralateral Delay Activity Tracks Storage Load in Visual Working ...
Sep 1, 2025 · Contralateral delay activity (CDA) is a measure used to assess the amount of information being stored in visual working memory (VWM).
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Is the Contralateral Delay Activity (CDA) a robust neural correlate for ...
This study reproduced eight CDA‐related studies and shows the robustness of CDA across different tasks, research groups, participants, and EEG devices.
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Persistent Spiking Activity Underlies Working Memory
Aug 8, 2018 · Neurophysiological experiments in nonhuman primates identified neurons that not only respond to sensory stimuli but remain active during a ...
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Funahashi S, Bruce CJ, Goldman-Rakic PS. Mnemonic coding of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Electrophysiological recordings from dlPFC in monkeys identified neurons that show persistent firing across the delay period during a ...
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Hippocampal-prefrontal theta-gamma coupling during performance ...
Dec 19, 2017 · Here we report that theta–slow gamma coupling between the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is augmented in a genetic mouse model of cognitive ...
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The Oscillatory Basis of Working Memory Function and Dysfunction ...
In particular, theta oscillations in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC) are thought to be critical to WM function, mediating the encoding, maintenance, ...
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Regulation of working memory switches from striatal dopamine D2 ...
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Cell-type-specific optogenetic stimulation of the locus coeruleus ...
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A Temporal Activity of CA1 Neurons Underlying Short-Term Memory ...
We find that a short-term memory from experiencing a stranger mouse lasting under 30 min interval is essential for subsequent social recognition in mice.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s<|control11|><|separator|>
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Short-Term Memory In Psychology
Apr 19, 2025 · Miller thought that short-term memory could hold 7 (plus or minus 2 items) because it only had a certain number of “slots” to store items.
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The serial position effect of free recall. - APA PsycNet
The serial position curve is characterized by a steep, possibly exponential, primacy effect extending over the 1st 3 or 4 words in the list.<|control11|><|separator|>
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In Search of Decay in Verbal Short-Term Memory - PMC - NIH
Peterson and Peterson (1959) used counting backward as their secondary task, but we have already seen that this task, in itself, requires short-term retention, ...
[43]
[PDF] WORKING MEMORY: LOOKING BACK AND LOOKING FORWARD
This model, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch10, comprises a control system, the central executive, and two storage systems, the visuospatial sketchpad and the.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Word Length and the Structure of Short-Term Memory
The relationship between reading rate and recall observed in Experiment VI. Page 10. 584. BADDELEY, THOMSON AND BUCHANAN theory under discussion ...
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Short-term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic ...
Abstract. Experiment I studied short-term memory (STM) for auditorily presented five word sequences as a function of acoustic and semantic similarity.
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[PDF] Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research 1
This paper briefly reviews the evidence for multistore theories of memory and points out some difficulties with the approach. An alternative framework for ...
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Exploring the Articulatory Loop - Alan Baddeley, Vivien Lewis ...
A series of five experiments explore the influence of articulatory suppression on immediate memory for auditorily presented items.
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Acoustic masking in primary memory - ScienceDirect.com
The subjects were told to ignore the noise. In Experiment I the presence of the irrelevant foreign language noise reduced recall performance on phonologically ...
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(PDF) Expert Chess Memory: Revisiting the Chunking Hypothesis
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Templates in Chess Memory: A Mechanism for Recalling Several ...
This paper addresses empirically and theoretically a question derived from the chunking theory of memory (Chase & Simon, 1973a, 1973b).
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Working memory capacity development through childhood
The growth of working memory capacity (WMC) in childhood is described as linear. Average adult WMC is estimated as either four or five “chunks.”
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(PDF) Myelination is Associated With Processing Speed in Early ...
Aug 6, 2025 · These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that myelin supports processing speed in early childhood.
[53]
Working memory development from early childhood to adolescence ...
Results revealed non-linear growth patterns for forward and backward digit span tasks, with the most rapid growth occurring during childhood followed by a brief ...
[54]
Cognitive approaches to the development of short-term memory
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How Memory Counts in Mathematical Development
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The development of memory - PubMed
This article reviews recent advances in understanding the changes in memory function that take place during the childhood years.
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Normal Cognitive Aging - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
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[58]
The Relationship between Short- and Long-Term Memory Is ... - NIH
Both short- and long-term memories decline with healthy ageing. The aims of the current study were twofold: firstly, to build on previous studies and ...
[59]
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[60]
The aging mind: neuroplasticity in response to cognitive training - PMC
Findings indicate that young adults who are consistently challenged to increase their working memory span in an n-back paradigm are able to do so with training.
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Cholinergic system during the progression of Alzheimer's disease
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[62]
Short-term memory impairments in Alzheimer-type dementia
We conclude that the verbal short-term memory deficit found in Alzheimer-type dementia has two components: a deficit in the rate of rehearsal and an impairment ...
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Alzheimer Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Episodic short-term memory loss is the initial and most common presenting symptom of typical AD. Individuals may have difficulty retaining new information while ...Missing: span | Show results with:span
[64]
Conduction Aphasia, Sensory-Motor Integration, and Phonological ...
It has been proposed that deficits in repetition and speech production typical of conduction aphasia may be viewed as a sensory-motor integration deficit ...
[65]
Conduction Aphasia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Within the framework of the Baddeley's working memory model such a deficit of the phonological loop prevented the episodic buffer to build associations ...
[66]
Brain Regions Underlying Repetition and Auditory-Verbal Short ...
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[67]
Intrusive-like memory errors associate with positive schizotypy
Those higher in positive schizotypy/paranoia may be prone to misattribute signal to noise stimuli during recognition memory. Abstract. Schizophrenia is ...
[68]
Source monitoring impairments in schizophrenia - PubMed - NIH
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Clinical Correlates of Memory in Schizophrenia: Differential Links ...
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[71]
Post-traumatic stress disorder: clinical and translational ...
In summary, 'classic' PTSD is associated with increased threat-responding, hyperarousal, hypervigilance and intrusive trauma-associated memories. Furthermore, ...Studying Ptsd: Reasons For... · Neuroanatomy Of Ptsd · Hypervigilance And...
[72]
Noradrenergic mechanisms in the pathophysiology of post-traumatic ...
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[73]
The Effect of Traumatic Brain Injury on Memory - PMC
Jun 27, 2024 · Damage in the brain induced by TBI could also extend to the parts governing the ability to utilise, manipulate and retain short-term memory (STM) ...
[74]
Impaired visual working memory and reduced connectivity ... - Nature
Feb 2, 2021 · Impaired visual working memory and reduced connectivity in undergraduates with a history of mild traumatic brain injury.
[75]
Working Memory in Patients with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Sep 1, 2012 · Digital span is a short-term memory test measuring how many numbers a participant can remember in sequence. The CPT measures a person's ...
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https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-80995-1