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Sternal angle

The sternal angle, also known as the angle of Louis, is the prominent transverse ridge formed at the junction between the manubrium and the body of the sternum, where the manubriosternal joint is located.^[1] This joint typically consists of a synchondrosis of hyaline cartilage or a symphysis of fibrocartilage, which ossifies around age 30, and it lies at the level of the second costal cartilage and the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae.^[1]^[2] Anatomically, the sternal angle serves as a critical surface landmark for identifying thoracic structures, including the attachment site for the second pair of ribs, the bifurcation of the trachea at the carina, the arch of the aorta, and the superior border of the superior mediastinum.^[1] It marks the division between the superior and inferior mediastinum and corresponds posteriorly to the ligamentum arteriosum and the origin of the pulmonary trunk.^[1] Embryologically, it develops from mesenchymal bars during the sixth to tenth weeks of gestation, with the manubrium forming from presternal and suprasternal masses.^[1] Clinically, the sternal angle is essential for physical examinations, such as auscultating heart valves—the aortic and pulmonic valves are best heard superior to it, while the tricuspid and mitral valves are heard inferiorly—and for measuring central venous pressure by serving as a fixed reference point approximately 5 cm above the right atrium.^[1]^[3] In surgical contexts, it guides median sternotomy incisions and rib counting to avoid errors in procedures like thoracentesis or central line placement, and variations in its prominence can influence the risk of sternal fractures from blunt chest trauma.^[2]^[1]

Anatomy

Structure and location

The sternal angle, also known as the angle of Louis, represents the junction between the manubrium and the body of the sternum, where these two segments articulate to form a prominent transverse ridge on the anterior surface of the chest wall.^[1] This junction creates an angulation due to the manubrium and sternal body lying in slightly different planes, with the reference interval for the angle measuring 155 to 175 degrees.^[1] The structure is classified as a secondary cartilaginous joint, specifically a synchondrosis in clinical contexts or a symphysis in anatomical descriptions, connected by hyaline or fibrocartilaginous tissue that allows limited flexibility in younger individuals.^[1] The sternal angle aligns with the anterior projection of the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae (T4-T5).^[2] It also corresponds to the level of the second costal cartilage, where the costal cartilages of the second pair of ribs attach to the lateral margins of the sternum.^[2] This precise thoracic positioning makes it a reliable superficial landmark for anatomical orientation. On the anterior chest wall, the sternal angle manifests as a palpable transverse ridge, which is readily palpable in the majority of individuals through the overlying soft tissues, facilitating its identification during physical assessments.^[1] The cartilaginous union at this site undergoes progressive ossification with advancing age, typically achieving complete bony fusion around 30 years, though it may persist as a fibrous union in some adults.^[1]

Anatomical relations

The sternal angle, also known as the angle of Louis, serves as a critical transverse plane dividing the mediastinum into its superior and inferior compartments, with this division occurring at the level of the manubriosternal joint.^[4] This plane extends posteriorly to the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae (T4-T5), providing a consistent anatomical reference for locating thoracic structures.^[5] Bilaterally, the angle aligns with the articulation of the second costal cartilages to the lateral margins of the sternum, facilitating the identification of the second rib and subsequent costal structures in thoracic anatomy.^[1] In terms of vascular relations, the sternal angle lies anterior to the aortic arch and the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk into its left and right branches, which occur within this transverse plane.^[1] These alignments underscore the angle's role in demarcating the transition from the superior mediastinum, which contains the ascending aorta and its branches, to the inferior mediastinum.^[4] Respiratory structures are also closely related, with the sternal angle marking the superior limit of the pericardium and the inferior extent of the thymus gland, which typically terminates at this level in adults.^[6] Posteriorly, the plane corresponds to the tracheal bifurcation, or carina, where the trachea divides into the right and left main bronchi, positioning the sternal angle anterior to this bifurcation.^[1] Lymphatic and neural elements intersect this plane as well, including the arch of the azygos vein, which curves anteriorly over the right main bronchus to drain into the superior vena cava; the sternal angle thus lies anterior to this vascular arch.^[7] These relations highlight the sternal angle's utility as a landmark for deeper thoracic navigation in anatomical and clinical contexts.^[1]

Development and variations

Embryological development

The sternum originates from the lateral plate mesoderm during early embryonic development, specifically forming paired mesenchymal sternal bands or bars in the ventrolateral body wall around the sixth gestational week.^[2] These bilateral structures, derived from somatic mesoderm, migrate medially and elongate craniocaudally, undergoing chondrification to establish a primary cartilaginous model by the seventh week.^[2] The model consists of three main segments: the superior manubrium, the central body (formed from four sternebrae), and the inferior xiphoid process.^[2] The sternal angle forms at the junction between the manubrium and the body of the sternum, known as the manubriosternal synchondrosis, which arises from the midline fusion of these developing components.^[1] Fusion of the paired sternal bars begins cranially at the manubrium around the sixth to ninth weeks and progresses caudally, achieving midline union to form a continuous cartilaginous sternal plate by approximately the ninth to tenth week of gestation.^[1] This process integrates presternal and suprasternal mesenchymal masses into the manubrium, while the subsequent sternebrae contribute to the body's structure, establishing the angled articulation that marks the transition between the two segments.^[1] Ossification of the sternal cartilage model commences postnatally, with the manubrium developing ossification centers around birth, followed by the body segments in early childhood.^[2] The manubriosternal synchondrosis at the sternal angle remains cartilaginous throughout childhood and adolescence, typically ossifying and fusing completely in adulthood, often around age 30, though variability exists.^[1] Associated developmental anomalies at the sternal angle level are rare but can result from incomplete midline fusion of the sternal bars, potentially leading to a cleft sternum, with an incidence of approximately 1 in 50,000 to 100,000 live births.^[2] This condition arises due to failure in the craniocaudal fusion process during the critical sixth to tenth weeks.^[2]

Anatomical variations

The sternal angle, formed by the junction between the manubrium and the body of the sternum, exhibits variations in its angulation, typically ranging from 155° to 175° in adults, with mean values around 168°-170° showing no significant sex differences.^[1]^[8] In conditions such as pectus excavatum, the angle becomes more acute (decreased below normal), reflecting posterior sternal depression, while in pectus carinatum or flat sternum variants, it increases toward 180°, resulting in a straighter thoracic configuration.^[9] The sternal angle normally aligns with the T4-T5 intervertebral disc and the second costal cartilages, but may vary slightly, occasionally extending to the third costal cartilage.^[1] Fusion anomalies at the manubriosternal joint include premature ossification, which rigidifies the angle earlier than typical (after age 25-30), and incomplete fusion, with studies reporting unfused joints in 77-91% of adult cases, predisposing to manubriosternal dislocation under trauma.^[1] Ossification patterns vary by age and sex, with more fused joints in females than in males.^[10]^[11] Anatomical variations of the sternal angle occur in 10-38% of populations, with higher rates reported in certain ethnic groups, such as Asians showing elevated frequencies of related sternal traits like suprasternal ossicles (up to 50%).^[11]^[10] These variations are associated with congenital syndromes like Marfan syndrome, where pectus deformities altering the angle are prevalent in 50-80% of cases due to connective tissue defects.^[12]^[13]

Clinical significance

Surface anatomy and landmarks

The sternal angle, also known as the angle of Louis, is a prominent surface landmark on the anterior chest wall, formed by the junction of the manubrium and body of the sternum, and is readily palpable as a transverse ridge in most individuals. To palpate it, begin at the suprasternal (jugular) notch at the superior border of the manubrium and slide the examining finger inferiorly along the midline of the sternum for approximately 5 cm until the bony prominence is encountered, which corresponds to the attachment site of the second costal cartilages laterally.^[1]^[14] This landmark defines the transverse thoracic plane, a horizontal reference extending posteriorly to the intervertebral disc between the fourth and fifth thoracic vertebrae, facilitating the surface projection of underlying thoracic structures.^[15] The plane demarcates the boundary between the superior and inferior divisions of the thorax, providing an essential orientation for anatomical mapping.^[15] The sternal angle lies superficially beneath the skin and subcutaneous tissue, allowing direct palpation in lean individuals, though its accessibility diminishes with increasing subcutaneous fat in obese patients, where it may feel deeper and less distinct. This external reference also approximates the level of the tracheal bifurcation internally.^[1]

Physical examination and auscultation

The sternal angle serves as a key landmark during cardiac auscultation, demarcating the second intercostal space where the aortic valve is best heard on the right sternal border and the pulmonic valve on the left sternal border.^[16] This positioning allows clinicians to systematically evaluate heart sounds and murmurs associated with these semilunar valves, with the angle's palpable ridge facilitating precise stethoscope placement in both supine and upright positions.^[6] Superior to the sternal angle, in the right supraclavicular fossa, auscultation may reveal a benign venous hum due to turbulent flow in the jugular veins, particularly in children or during hyperdynamic states.^[17] Palpation of the sternal angle is integral to assessing chest wall integrity, with localized tenderness often indicating costochondritis, an inflammation of the costochondral junctions typically involving the second to fifth ribs where they articulate with the sternum.^[18] In cases of sternal fracture, palpation elicits point tenderness, crepitus, or a palpable step-off at the angle, especially following blunt trauma, helping differentiate musculoskeletal pain from cardiac or pulmonary etiologies.^[19] During cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), the sternal angle aids in locating the lower half of the sternum for optimal hand placement, ensuring compressions target the center of the chest while avoiding the upper sternum or xiphoid process to minimize rib fractures and organ injury.^[20] Clinically, an elevated or prominent sternal angle is a hallmark of barrel chest in advanced emphysema, resulting from chronic hyperinflation that increases the anteroposterior chest diameter and elevates the sternum, often accompanied by reduced cricosternal distance on inspection.^[21] In pectus carinatum, the manubriosternal angle is increased beyond the normal 157–161 degrees, contributing to the protruding sternum and altered chest contour observable on physical exam.^[22] As a procedural guide, the sternal angle provides a reliable surface landmark for central venous catheter insertion via the right internal jugular vein, where the catheter tip is positioned approximately 1 cm superior to the angle's transverse plane to ensure placement above the carina without entering the right atrium.^[23] For chest tube placement or needle decompression in tension pneumothorax, it marks the level of the second rib, allowing clinicians to count downward to the fourth or fifth intercostal space in the midaxillary line for safe pleural access.^[24]

Surgical and procedural relevance

The sternal angle serves as a critical midline landmark for median sternotomy in cardiac surgery, where the vertical incision typically begins at the suprasternal notch and extends to the xiphoid process, providing optimal access to the mediastinum and thoracic structures.^[25] This approach facilitates procedures such as coronary artery bypass grafting and valve replacements by allowing symmetric retraction of the sternum while minimizing disruption to surrounding tissues.^[25] In trauma management, the sternal angle, corresponding to the manubriosternal joint, is a frequent site of sternal fractures and dislocations due to its relative flexibility and exposure to high-impact forces.^[26] For unstable fractures at this location, surgical intervention often involves wire fixation or plating to restore stability, with figure-of-eight wiring or titanium plates used to secure fragments and prevent further displacement, achieving healing rates exceeding 95% in appropriately selected cases.^[27]^[28] During pericardiocentesis, the sternal angle aids in identifying the parasternal approach by demarcating the second rib level, enabling needle insertion in the fourth or fifth intercostal space near the sternal border to access the pericardial space while avoiding major vessels such as the internal mammary artery.^[1]^[29] Similarly, for mediastinoscopy, this angle marks the approximate T4-T5 vertebral level, guiding safe entry through a suprasternal incision to biopsy mediastinal lymph nodes without injuring structures like the azygos vein or ligamentum arteriosum at that horizon.^[1] Postoperative complications at the sternal angle, such as dislocation or dehiscence following sternotomy, can compromise wound integrity and elevate the risk of mediastinitis, with infection rates reaching 1-3% in affected patients.^[30]^[31] Anatomical variations, including incomplete fusion of the manubriosternal joint in up to 66% of individuals or misplaced angles, may necessitate adjusted incision planning to ensure accurate rib identification and reduce procedural risks.^[1]^[2]

Imaging features

On posteroanterior (PA) chest radiographs, the sternal angle is identified at the T4-T5 vertebral level, often appearing as a subtle oblique interface due to the angular junction between the manubrium and sternal body, though it may be obscured by overlying structures.^[1] Lateral projections provide clearer visualization of the manubriosternal junction as a distinct transverse line or ridge separating the manubrium from the body.^[32] With advancing age, ossification of the intervening synchondrosis increases radiographic density at this site, potentially resulting in a more continuous bony appearance.^[1] Computed tomography (CT) delineates the sternal angle as a thin low-attenuation line representing the fibrocartilaginous synchondrosis between the manubrium and sternal body, with sharp cortical margins and distinct corticomedullary differentiation in normal cases.^[33] Ossification may fuse the junction, eliminating the visible line, while anatomical variations such as midline clefts or bifid configurations are readily detectable.^[33] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) depicts the synchondrosis as a low-signal-intensity line on T1- and T2-weighted sequences due to fibrocartilage, with surrounding bone marrow appearing intermediate on T1 and high on T2 if fatty.^[34] Both modalities support 3D reconstructions for precise anatomical assessment in surgical planning.^[1] Ultrasound plays a limited role in evaluating the sternal angle directly owing to acoustic shadowing from overlying bone but effectively detects superficial fractures at the manubriosternal junction or adjacent soft-tissue effusions and hematomas in acute trauma.^[35]^[36] Pathological widening of the manubriosternal joint, observed as an increased gap on CT or MRI, signifies instability, commonly following trauma or in degenerative arthropathies, and may accompany bone marrow edema or erosions.^[34] Tumors or metastases involving the sternal angle, such as from breast or lung primaries, manifest as contour-altering lytic, sclerotic, or expansile lesions with cortical disruption on CT, often with soft-tissue extension on MRI; this site serves as a key reference for mediastinal staging in thoracic malignancies.^[37]^[38]

History and nomenclature

The sternal angle is also known as the angle of Louis, manubriosternal angle, or manubriosternal joint.^[1] The eponymous name "angle of Louis" is commonly attributed to the 19th-century French physician Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis (1787–1872), who described a chest prominence associated with emphysema that may relate to this landmark.^[1]^[39] However, the exact origin remains uncertain, with some sources suggesting it honors Antoine Louis (1723–1792), a French clinician and surgeon, or Wilhelm Friedrich von Ludwig (1790–1865), a German physician.^[1] No definitive primary description of the anatomical feature by these individuals has been confirmed, and the name likely emerged in the early 19th century as the structure gained recognition as a key thoracic landmark.^[40]

References

[1]
Anatomy, Angle of Louis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Dec 10, 2023 · Introduction. The angle of Louis is the eponymous name given to the sternal angle or the manubriosternal joint (see Image. Sternum).
[2]
Anatomy, Thorax, Sternum - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 24, 2023 · The sternal angle is the projection formed by the junction between the manubrium sterni and the body of the sternum. These two parts of the ...
[3]
Neck Vein Exam | JVP Measurement | Stanford Medicine 25
The sternal angle (Angle of Louis) is the most popular reference point to use because it remains approximately 5 cm above right atrium regardless of the ...How To Measure The Jugular... · Understanding The Jugular... · Abnormal Jugular Venous...
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https://teachmeanatomy.info/thorax/areas/superior-mediastinum/
[5]
Manubriosternal joint | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Jan 21, 2017 · It is at the level of the sternal angle or angle of Louis, which is at the 2nd costal cartilage and the intervertebral disc of T4 and T5 1.
[6]
Sternal angle: Anatomy, location and function - Kenhub
Feb 28, 2024 · The sternal angle (of Louis), also called the manubriosternal angle, is the anterior projecting angle formed by the articulation of the ...Missing: degrees | Show results with:degrees
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Thoracic plane (mnemonic) | Radiology Reference Article
Oct 13, 2022 · A handy mnemonic to remember the structures found at the level of the thoracic plane (also known as the plane of Ludwig) is:
[8]
None
### Summary of Anatomical Variation of Sternal Angle in Adult Human Dry Sterna
[9]
Correction of the Manubriosternal Angle: The Missing Link in ... - NIH
Sep 20, 2024 · A normal manubriosternal angle (MSA) varies between 157 and 161 degrees, and it is either increased (in pectus carinatum) or decreased (in ...
[10]
Forced Straightening of the Back Does Not Improve Body Shape - NIH
Jan 24, 2024 · Among the factors related to the spine, the sternum is related to thoracic kyphosis, and the inclination of the sacrum and pelvis is related to ...
[11]
A reappraisal of pediatric thoracic surface anatomy - Şener - 2023
Sep 11, 2022 · 3.1 Sternal angle. The SA plane was most often at the T2/3 intervertebral disc level in those aged 0–1 year, but the most common level was ...
[12]
Sternal human variability and population affinity: Frequency of ...
May 4, 2021 · Mesosternal-xiphoid process partially fused (MXPF); 16. Mesosternal-xiphoid process completely fused (MXCF); 17. Xiphoid process bifid end (XPBE); ...
[13]
[PDF] Anatomical variations of the sternal angle and anomalies of adult ...
16. Ochieng J, Ibingira CBR. Sternal Anomalies with Super- numerary and ... 17. Parikh CK. Parikh's Textbook of Medical Jurispendence and. Toxicology ...
[14]
[PDF] bones and joints in marfan syndrome
The two most common chest abnormalities related to Marfan syndrome involve the breastbone. (sternum), and are caused when the ribs are too long. •. Sunken ...
[15]
The Musculoskeletal Manifestations of Marfan Syndrome: Diagnosis ...
Marfan syndrome (MFS) is an autosomal dominant heritable disorder of fibrillin-1 (FBN1) with predominantly ocular, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal ...
[16]
https://www.osmosis.org/answers/auscultation
[17]
Anatomy, Skin, Dermatomes - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Oct 24, 2023 · Several anatomic landmarks help easily identify or estimate different dermatomal levels. ... T4: Nipple. T6: Xyphoid process. T10: Umbilicus. L3: ...
[18]
Thoracic plane | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Apr 14, 2025 · It is defined as a horizontal line that runs from the manubriosternal joint (sternal angle or angle of Louis) to the inferior endplate of T4 1.
[19]
Heart & Lung Auscultation Points and Locations | Osmosis
Jun 8, 2025 · The 5 points of auscultation of the heart center around the heart valves and include the aortic, pulmonic, tricuspid, and mitral valve as well ...
[20]
Cardiac Auscultation - Cardiovascular Disorders - Merck Manuals
... venous hum is often heard in the right supraclavicular fossa; this venous hum also occurs normally in children. The sound generated by increased flow in a ...
[21]
Costochondritis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 20, 2024 · Costochondritis is a benign cause of chest wall pain from costal cartilage inflammation at the rib-to-sternum articulation.
[22]
Sternal fracture - Physiopedia
There is tenderness, bruising and sometimes a stair-step palpable at the fracture line. Patients with spontaneous fractures are a greater diagnostic challenge, ...
[23]
Part 7: Adult Basic Life Support
5. In adult cardiac arrest, rescuers may consider placing their dominant hand on the sternum when performing chest compressions.
[24]
Pulmonary Exam: Percussion & Inspection | Stanford Medicine 25
Increased AP diameter (barrel chest). Normal in infancy and increased with aging. Prominent angle of Louis (or sternal angle). Flaring of the lower costal ...
[25]
Correction of the Manubriosternal Angle: The Missing Link ... - PubMed
Sep 20, 2024 · A normal manubriosternal angle (MSA) varies between 157 and 161 degrees, and it is either increased (in pectus carinatum) or decreased (in ...
[26]
Using sternal angle as anatomic landmark for right internal jugular ...
Using this landmark, the catheter can be quickly and conveniently placed at a safety position in right internal jugular vein, especially in some emergency ...
[27]
Needle Thoracocentesis (Chest Decompression) - OSCE Guide
Jul 24, 2024 · Locate the suprasternal notch and move your fingers to the angle of Louis which sits on the 2nd rib · From the angle of Louis move your fingers ...
[28]
Minimal-access median sternotomy for aortic valve replacement - PMC
A midline skin incision is started 2-3 cm below the sternal angle (or angle of Louis) and is extended to a maximum length of 9 cm.
[29]
Surgical Access Incisions - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Oct 5, 2024 · The median sternotomy remains the preferred incision for most cardiac surgeries because it offers excellent visibility and access to the ...
[30]
Current treatment and outcomes of traumatic sternal fractures ... - NIH
Most (> 95%) sternal fractures are treated conservatively. Surgical fixation is indicated in case of fracture instability, displacement or non-union.
[31]
Surgical Fixation of Sternal Fractures: Preoperative Planning and a ...
Mark anatomical landmarks such as sternoclavicular joints on both sides, the upper sternal edge at the jugulum, the lower sternal edge and xiphoid, the seventh ...
[32]
Traumatic sternal fractures: a narrative review - PMC - NIH
A recent metanalysis of 16 studies including 191 patients over recent decades showed a 98% healing rate of sternal fracture following surgical fixation with ...
[33]
Pericardiocentesis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 19, 2025 · Pericardiocentesis is a procedure designed to remove fluid from the pericardial sac for therapeutic relief or diagnostic purposes.
[34]
Successful method in the treatment of complicated sternal ... - NIH
In patients who developed sternal dehiscence, the median sternotomy incision from the previous operation was opened first in the operating room conditions ...
[35]
Sternal instability measured with radiostereometric analysis. A study ...
May 18, 2018 · The procedure is quick and efficient, and has only two major complications: sternal infection (1–3% of patients) and non-union (2–8% of patients) ...
[36]
Sternal Body - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
On a lateral film, however, the sternum is more clearly seen and the manubriosternal joint (sternal angle) can easily be identified (Fig. 1). Right and left ...
[37]
Computed tomography of the normal sternum
In general the CT appearance of the sternum was char- acterized by sharp cortical margins, distinct corticomedul- lary interfaces, and crisply etched ...Missing: features | Show results with:features<|separator|>
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Jun 30, 2010 · Normal findings of the manubriosternal joint vary and include narrowing, irregularity, and ankylosis. Proliferative changes are common during the degenerative ...
[39]
Ultrasonography of sternal fractures - PMC - NIH
This paper describes the use of clinician‐performed ultrasound to detect sternal fractures in trauma patients.
[40]
Ultrasound of Sternal Fracture - PMC - NIH
Ultrasound is not accurate in identifying the degree of displacement of sternal fractures, but can accurately identify related hematomas and pleural effusions.Missing: angle | Show results with:angle
[41]
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On CT, there is lytic permeative destruction of the involved bone which may show expansion (Figure 3). Cortical destruction and aggressive periosteal reaction ...
[42]
Radiology of Chest Wall Masses | AJR
The purpose of this article is to highlight the role of radiography, CT, PET/CT, and MRI in the diagnosis and management of chest wall lesions.