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Sternal fracture

A sternal fracture is a break in the sternum, the flat bone at the center of the chest that connects the rib cage and protects vital organs such as the heart and lungs, most commonly caused by blunt anterior chest wall trauma or deceleration injuries like those occurring in motor vehicle collisions.^[1] These fractures have an incidence of 3% to 6.8% among patients involved in motor vehicle accidents, with seat belt use paradoxically increasing the risk due to the force applied across the chest.^[2] Sternal fractures are more prevalent in older adults and slightly more common in women, often presenting with acute anterior chest pain that worsens with deep breathing, coughing, or movement, along with localized tenderness, swelling, or ecchymosis in approximately 50% of cases.^[1] Up to 20% of patients may also experience shortness of breath, and about two-thirds have associated injuries, including pulmonary contusions, rib fractures, or cardiac contusions, which elevate the risk of complications.^[2] The overall mortality rate for isolated sternal fractures is low at 0.7%, but rises to approximately 8% in patients with associated injuries (as of 2024).^[1] Diagnosis typically begins with a detailed history and physical examination, followed by imaging such as chest radiographs, with anteroposterior views having about 50% sensitivity but lateral views offering improved detection, or computed tomography (CT) scans for confirmation and to assess for associated injuries; ultrasound is an emerging option with high sensitivity (up to 100%).^[1] Management follows Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) protocols, prioritizing airway, breathing, and circulation stabilization; isolated, nondisplaced fractures are usually treated conservatively with analgesia, rest, and monitoring, while displaced or unstable fractures may require surgical fixation using plates or wires.^[2] Complications can include chronic pain lasting 4-12 weeks, nonunion, or rare infections like osteomyelitis, underscoring the need for thorough follow-up.^[1]

Background

Anatomy of the Sternum

The sternum, or breastbone, is a flat, elongated bone situated in the anterior midline of the thorax, forming the central component of the thoracic cage. It develops from multiple ossification centers and is anatomically divided into three primary segments: the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process. The manubrium represents the superior, quadrangular portion, characterized by a broad upper border with the suprasternal notch (jugular notch) centrally and paired clavicular notches laterally for articulation with the clavicles. The body, the longest and most robust segment, consists of four sternebrae—individual bony elements—fused by fibrocartilaginous discs, resulting in a slightly concave posterior surface and transverse ridges on the anterior aspect that correspond to the intersternebral junctions. The xiphoid process forms the inferior, cartilaginous or variably ossified tip, typically triangular in shape and pointing downward, serving as an attachment for abdominal structures.^[3] The sternum articulates superiorly with the clavicles at the sternoclavicular joints and with the costal cartilages of the first and second ribs via its manubrium. The body connects to the costal cartilages of the second through seventh ribs, with the articulation of the second rib defining the sternal angle (angle of Louis), a clinically significant landmark indicating the level of the second intercostal space and the bifurcation of the trachea. These costosternal junctions, reinforced by synovial or synchondrodial articulations, contribute to the flexibility and stability of the thoracic cage during respiration. Functionally, the sternum protects vital thoracic organs, including the heart, great vessels, and portions of the lungs within the mediastinum, while providing key attachment points for pectoral girdle muscles such as the pectoralis major and sternocleidomastoid, as well as the diaphragmatic slips and abdominal rectus sheath.^[3] The blood supply to the sternum is predominantly derived from the internal thoracic artery (also known as the internal mammary artery), which arises from the subclavian artery and descends along the inner surface of the anterior chest wall, giving off anterior intercostal, sternal, and perforating branches that nourish the bone and overlying structures. Venous drainage parallels the arterial supply via the internal thoracic veins, ultimately emptying into the brachiocephalic veins. Innervation is supplied by branches of the intercostal nerves (ventral rami of thoracic spinal nerves T1–T11), which provide sensory and motor input to the sternal periosteum and associated musculature, facilitating proprioception and pain signaling from the anterior thoracic wall.^[3] Anatomical variations in the sternum are relatively common and arise from differences in embryonic fusion and ossification. The body and xiphoid process typically ossify from multiple centers during childhood, with the sternebrae fusing progressively by adolescence; however, incomplete fusion may persist in adults, leading to subtle ridging or pseudofissures. Congenital anomalies include sternal clefts, resulting from failure of the bilateral sternal primordia to fuse in the midline during the sixth to ninth weeks of gestation, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 50,000 to 100,000 live births; these may be complete (bifid sternum) or partial. Another frequent variation is the sternal foramen, a central defect in the body due to incomplete ossification or resorption, occurring in 2.5% to 13.8% of the population and more commonly in males. The xiphoid process exhibits significant variability in shape (e.g., elongated, bifid, or curved) and ossification timing, often remaining partially cartilaginous into adulthood or calcifying irregularly by age 40 to 60.^[3]^[4]^[5]

Epidemiology

Sternal fractures occur in approximately 3% to 8% of patients with blunt chest trauma, with rates reaching up to 18% in cases of polytrauma involving thoracic injuries. In motor vehicle collisions, the incidence is reported between 3% and 6.8%, reflecting the high-impact deceleration forces common in such events.^[6] Overall, sternal fractures represent about 0.33% of all trauma admissions, underscoring their relative rarity in broader trauma populations.^[7] Demographically, sternal fractures are more prevalent in males, with a male-to-female ratio of approximately 2:1, as evidenced by studies showing 63% to 76% of cases occurring in men. While overall more common in males (2:1 ratio) in blunt trauma cohorts, sternal fractures in the elderly (>65 years) from low-energy mechanisms like falls are more frequent in females due to osteoporosis.^[8] The typical age at presentation peaks between 30 and 50 years, with mean ages around 41 to 44 years reported in large cohorts.^[8] Incidence is rising among the elderly, particularly those over 65, due to age-related bone fragility from osteoporosis, which increases susceptibility to fractures from lower-energy impacts. As of 2019, global incident cases of sternal and/or rib fractures reached 4.1 million, with incidence rising and the gender gap narrowing per projections to 2030.^[9]^[10] Mortality associated with isolated sternal fractures is low at 3.5%, based on analyses from the National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB).^[11] However, overall mortality rises significantly to 8.8% when sternal fractures occur alongside other injuries, such as pulmonary contusions or thoracic vascular damage, with outcomes heavily influenced by the severity and number of concomitant traumas.^[11] Data from the NTDB highlight that isolated cases carry minimal risk, while polytrauma contexts elevate fatality rates substantially.^[12] The incidence of sternal fractures has increased since the 1970s, coinciding with the widespread adoption of seatbelt legislation and rising motor vehicle traffic volumes, which promote anterior chest wall loading during deceleration.^[13] This trend is attributed to the protective yet forceful restraint provided by three-point seatbelts, leading to a higher detection of isolated sternal injuries in restrained occupants compared to pre-legislation eras.

Pathophysiology

Causes

Sternal fractures most commonly result from blunt trauma to the anterior chest wall, accounting for the majority of cases.^[1] Motor vehicle accidents represent the primary traumatic etiology, comprising approximately 68% of sternal fractures, typically from direct impact against the steering wheel during deceleration.^[1] Other frequent blunt trauma mechanisms include falls from height (7.9% of cases) and motorcycle collisions (7.9%), while sports injuries and assaults contribute less commonly through similar direct force application.^[1] Iatrogenic causes arise during medical interventions involving chest compression. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a notable factor, with sternal fractures reported in 1% to 43% of prolonged efforts, depending on duration and technique.^[14] Direct chest compressions in other procedures, such as during cardiac interventions, can similarly induce fractures due to repeated anterior force.^[1] Pathologic sternal fractures occur secondary to underlying bone-weakening conditions rather than acute trauma. Osteoporosis, particularly in postmenopausal women or those on long-term steroids, leads to insufficiency fractures exacerbated by thoracic kyphosis.^[15] Malignancies, such as breast or lung cancer, cause pathologic fractures via sternal metastasis, observed in up to 15% of advanced cancer cases at autopsy.^[16] Metabolic bone diseases, including hyperparathyroidism, further predispose to such fragility.^[1] Rare etiologies include blast injuries from explosions, which transmit high-pressure waves or fragments to the chest, and direct impacts from animal attacks, both representing exceptional blunt trauma variants.^[1]

Mechanisms of Injury

Sternal fractures commonly result from anterior-posterior compression forces applied directly to the anterior chest wall, such as during blunt trauma from a steering wheel impact in motor vehicle collisions.^[1] These forces cause the sternum to bear the brunt of the load, typically leading to transverse fractures of the sternal body due to the bone's limited ability to dissipate energy in this direction.^[17] Flexion and shear forces, often arising from rapid deceleration in high-energy impacts like car crashes, can also induce fractures, particularly at the manubrium or sternal body.^[17] In these scenarios, the sudden forward momentum of the torso relative to the fixed spine creates bending moments and sliding stresses across the sternum, disrupting its continuity and potentially causing oblique or displaced breaks.^[18] Pathophysiologic weakening of the sternum, such as in osteoporosis, significantly lowers the force required for fracture by reducing bone mineral density and trabecular integrity.^[15] A T-score below -2.5 indicates osteoporosis, which compromises the bone's compressive strength and increases susceptibility to insufficiency fractures even under minimal trauma, as seen in cases with T-scores as low as -3.21.^[15]^[19] The sternum's relative immobility, anchored firmly to the ribs and clavicles while the rib cage allows some flexibility during respiration and movement, results in amplified localized stress during traumatic loading.^[17] This structural rigidity concentrates forces on thinner cortical regions, such as the mid-body, exacerbating fracture risk compared to the more compliant surrounding thoracic skeleton.^[17]

Clinical Presentation

Signs and Symptoms

Patients with sternal fractures typically present with moderate to severe anterior chest pain localized to the sternum, which is often exacerbated by deep breathing, coughing, sneezing, or movement.^[1]^[13]^[7] This pain is usually acute and exquisite, with point tenderness elicited upon palpation of the sternum.^[1]^[7] Physical examination may reveal localized swelling, ecchymosis (sometimes manifesting as a "seat belt sign"), and bony crepitus or a clicking sensation during respiration or palpation.^[1]^[13]^[7] In approximately half of cases, soft tissue swelling or ecchymoses are visible, and severe fractures may show palpable deformity, though paradoxical motion is rare in isolated injuries.^[1] Systemic symptoms are less common in isolated sternal fractures but can include dyspnea in up to one-fifth of patients, potentially due to pleural involvement or pain-related shallow breathing; however, severe respiratory distress is uncommon without associated injuries.^[1]^[13] Symptom severity generally ranges from mild, characterized primarily by localized pain, to more severe presentations involving significant dyspnea or discomfort impacting mobility, though hemodynamic instability typically indicates concurrent trauma rather than the fracture alone.^[1]^[13] Brief evaluation for potential associated organ damage, such as cardiac or pulmonary contusion, is essential if symptoms extend beyond local findings.^[1]

Associated Injuries

Sternal fractures often occur in the context of high-impact blunt chest trauma, such as motor vehicle collisions, and are frequently accompanied by multisystem injuries that significantly influence clinical outcomes. Up to two-thirds of cases involve associated injuries, which can involve the cardiovascular, pulmonary, and musculoskeletal systems, arising from the same deceleration or direct impact forces.^[1] Cardiac injuries are a notable concern, with myocardial contusion occurring in 6% to 18% of patients, depending on trauma severity; these may manifest as arrhythmias or wall motion abnormalities detected via electrocardiogram (ECG) changes, such as ST-segment elevation, and elevated troponin levels. Pericardial effusion or, less commonly, cardiac rupture can also arise, potentially leading to tamponade and requiring prompt evaluation with echocardiography. Blunt cardiac injury overall affects approximately 3.6% of cases in large trauma databases.^[6]^[1]^[20] Pulmonary injuries are among the most prevalent associations, occurring in up to 50% of patients with sternal fractures.^[21] Pulmonary contusion is the leading such injury at 33.7%, often contributing to respiratory compromise, while pneumothorax (22%) and hemothorax are also frequent, stemming from direct thoracic compression or shearing forces.^[21]^[20] Vascular injuries, including aortic dissection, are less common but critical, with an incidence of less than 2% in sternal fracture cases, typically resulting from rapid deceleration that stretches the aortic arch. Spinal injuries, particularly vertebral fractures, are associated in about 21.6% of instances, often involving the thoracic spine (T1-T6) due to flexion-distraction mechanisms; these may be overlooked without targeted imaging.^[6]^[20] The presence of associated injuries markedly elevates risk, with mortality rates reaching 25% to 45% in such cases, compared to near-zero (0.7%) for isolated sternal fractures, underscoring the need for comprehensive trauma assessment.^[1]^[6]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

Clinical evaluation of a suspected sternal fracture begins with a detailed history to identify the mechanism of injury, which most commonly involves blunt anterior chest wall trauma from motor vehicle collisions (accounting for approximately 68% of cases) or falls (about 7.9%), often in the context of high-impact deceleration forces.^[1] Patients typically report localized anterior chest wall pain that intensifies with deep breathing, coughing, or movement, and associated symptoms may include shortness of breath in up to 20% of cases, with rarer presentations such as hemoptysis suggesting potential concurrent injuries such as pulmonary contusion or vascular disruption.^[22]^[1] Targeted questioning focuses on the timing and nature of the pain to differentiate traumatic etiology from non-traumatic causes. The physical examination involves systematic inspection, palpation, and auscultation to assess for injury severity and complications. Inspection may reveal soft-tissue swelling, ecchymosis, or deformity in around 50% of patients, while palpation elicits point tenderness or crepitus at the fracture site, though displacement is uncommon unless the injury is severe.^[22]^[1] Auscultation evaluates breath sounds for asymmetry indicative of associated thoracic injuries like pneumothorax, and vital signs are monitored closely for signs of hemodynamic instability or shock, such as tachycardia or hypotension, particularly in cases with comorbidities.^[1]^[23] Differential diagnosis requires distinguishing sternal fracture from conditions like costochondritis (characterized by reproducible pain without trauma history), myocardial infarction (prompted by radiation to the arm or jaw and ECG changes), or pulmonary embolism (suggested by sudden dyspnea without chest wall tenderness) through focused history and exam elements, such as the absence of systemic symptoms or normal cardiac biomarkers.^[22]^[1] Trauma scoring tools, including the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) for neurological assessment and the Revised Trauma Score (RTS) incorporating vital signs and GCS, are employed to stratify injury severity and prioritize care in polytrauma patients with suspected sternal fractures.^[23]^[24] If clinical suspicion remains high, confirmatory imaging such as chest radiography may follow.^[1]

Diagnostic Imaging

Plain radiography serves as the initial imaging modality for suspected sternal fractures, typically involving posteroanterior (PA) and lateral chest X-rays. The PA view has a sensitivity of approximately 50% for detecting sternal fractures, while the lateral view improves diagnostic accuracy by visualizing transverse fractures and any displacement in the sagittal plane. However, plain radiographs are prone to false negatives, particularly in obese patients or those with non-displaced fractures, where overlying soft tissues or subtle disruptions may obscure findings.^[1]^[23] Computed tomography (CT) scanning is considered the gold standard for confirming and characterizing sternal fractures, offering superior sensitivity and detailed visualization compared to plain radiography. Spiral or multi-slice CT is particularly effective, detecting up to 94% of fractures that may be missed on X-rays, and allows for 3D reconstruction to assess displacement, fragment alignment, and associated thoracic injuries such as aortic or cardiac trauma. In trauma protocols, chest CT is routinely performed in patients with high clinical suspicion, identifying concomitant injuries in over 80% of cases.^[1]^[13]^[23] Additional imaging modalities include ultrasound for bedside evaluation, especially in unstable patients, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for assessing soft tissue involvement. Clinician-performed ultrasound demonstrates sensitivity equal to or greater than plain radiography (around 88.5% in blunt trauma cases), rapidly identifying cortical disruptions or step-offs without radiation exposure, though it is operator-dependent and less effective for displacement assessment. MRI is reserved for equivocal cases involving myocardial contusion or ligamentous injury, providing excellent soft tissue contrast but limited by availability and patient tolerability in acute settings.^[1]^[13]^[25] Key limitations of these modalities include radiation exposure risks from plain radiography and CT, which must be balanced against diagnostic benefits in younger patients, and challenges in detecting non-displaced or minimally displaced fractures across all techniques. Axial CT views may occasionally miss transverse fractures, underscoring the need for multiplanar reconstructions.^[1]^[13]^[23]

Treatment

Initial Management

The initial management of sternal fractures follows the Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) guidelines, emphasizing the ABCDE approach to prioritize life-threatening conditions. Airway patency is secured first, with cervical spine immobilization if indicated, followed by assessment of breathing to identify and treat issues such as tension pneumothorax or flail chest through supplemental oxygen administration if hypoxia is present. Circulation is stabilized by establishing intravenous access and administering fluids as needed to maintain hemodynamic stability, alongside rapid evaluation for associated cardiac injuries.^[1]^[23] Pain control is a cornerstone of conservative management for isolated sternal fractures, typically achieved with analgesics such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or opioids, titrated to avoid respiratory depression that could exacerbate pulmonary complications. Multimodal analgesia, including acetaminophen and regional blocks if severe, supports adequate pain relief to facilitate deep breathing and mobility.^[1]^[23] Patients undergo continuous monitoring, including serial cardiac enzyme measurements (e.g., troponin I or T) and electrocardiography (ECG) to detect myocardial contusion, arrhythmias, or ST-segment changes, with a second troponin level checked 4-6 hours after the initial normal result if suspicion persists. In low-risk cases without associated injuries or instability, observation for 24-48 hours in a monitored setting suffices, allowing discharge with outpatient follow-up.^[1]^[23] Immobilization focuses on comfort rather than rigid fixation, often using a sling, soft brace, or sternal bracing device to reduce pain and stabilize the fracture site during initial recovery. Early mobilization, supported by physical therapy and respiratory exercises, is encouraged within 24-48 hours to prevent atelectasis, pneumonia, and deconditioning, particularly in elderly patients. Sternal bracing has been shown to enable pain-free ambulation, simplify hygiene, and shorten hospital stays to an average of 4 days in select cases.^[1]^[26]^[23]

Surgical Interventions

Surgical interventions for sternal fractures are reserved for cases where conservative management fails or specific complications arise, such as flail chest leading to respiratory compromise, significant displacement with offset greater than 50%, or associated intrathoracic injuries necessitating thoracotomy.^[27]^[28]^[29] These indications ensure that surgery addresses instability, persistent severe pain, or threats to cardiac or pulmonary function, while most isolated fractures (>95%) heal without operative intervention.^[30] The primary technique involves open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF), which stabilizes the fracture through direct exposure via median sternotomy.^[31] Fixation methods include stainless steel wires for simple approximation, particularly in comminuted fractures, and titanium plates secured with locking screws for rigid stabilization in displaced or unstable cases.^[28]^[32] Minimally invasive approaches, such as endoscopic-assisted wiring, have been described to reduce incision size and tissue trauma, though they are less commonly applied than open methods.^[33] Postoperative care emphasizes infection prevention with prophylactic antibiotics administered perioperatively, typically continued for 24-48 hours or until chest tubes are removed if present.^[34] Chest tubes are placed intraoperatively if there is risk of pneumothorax or hemothorax, with routine postoperative imaging to confirm positioning and exclude complications.^[28] Surgical outcomes demonstrate high efficacy, with sternal healing achieved in 98% of cases and significant pain relief reported in the majority of patients, outperforming conservative management in reducing chronic pain and opioid requirements.^[30]^[33] These results highlight improved respiratory function and quality of life, particularly in unstable fractures, with low complication rates around 2%.^[7]^[30]

Prognosis and Prevention

Complications and Outcomes

Sternal fractures, particularly isolated ones, carry a low risk of acute complications, but associated injuries can elevate morbidity. Painful breathing often leads to shallow respirations, increasing the risk of atelectasis and pneumonia, with reported incidence rates around 10-12% in conservatively managed cases.^[27] Delayed union or non-union occurs rarely, affecting less than 1% of patients, though it may necessitate surgical intervention if symptomatic.^[6] Other acute issues include potential cardiac contusions or pericardial effusions, though these are more common in high-impact trauma.^[1] Long-term outcomes for isolated sternal fractures are generally favorable, with most patients achieving full recovery within 4-6 weeks, though pain may persist for 8-12 weeks in some.^[1] Disability affects a notable portion, with approximately 57% of patients experiencing moderate to severe disability at 90 days post-injury, often related to persistent pain and exacerbated by movement or respiration.^[7] Impaired respiratory function can linger due to ongoing discomfort, and cosmetic deformities such as sternal overlap may occur in untreated displaced fractures, impacting quality of life.^[6] Non-union, when it develops, contributes to persistent instability and discomfort, but surgical fixation yields high healing rates (over 98%) and pain relief in affected individuals.^[30] Prognostic factors include advanced age (over 50 years), which prolongs symptom duration; comorbidities such as osteoporosis or diabetes, which delay healing; and higher injury severity scores (ISS >16), which correlate with worse overall outcomes due to associated thoracic trauma.^[7]^[1] Patients with polytrauma face elevated risks compared to those with isolated fractures.^[6] Mortality from isolated sternal fractures remains low at under 1%, primarily driven by associated injuries like aortic rupture or severe pulmonary contusion rather than the fracture itself.^[6] In hospitalized patients, 30-day mortality reaches about 8%, rising to 25-45% with significant concomitant injuries.^[1]

Prevention

Preventing sternal fractures primarily involves targeted safety measures to mitigate high-impact trauma to the chest, such as those from motor vehicle accidents, falls, and certain medical procedures. In vehicular contexts, proper use of three-point seatbelts is essential, as they distribute crash forces across the body and reduce the risk of fatal injuries by approximately 45%, though belted occupants may still experience sternal fractures in severe collisions due to direct compression against the restraint.^[35] Airbags complement seatbelts by providing additional cushioning during frontal impacts, further lowering mortality from thoracic trauma when deployed correctly, with combined use reducing overall death risk by 61% in frontal crashes.^[36] Advances in steering wheel design, including energy-absorbing materials and collapsible columns, minimize chest intrusion during crashes, thereby decreasing the incidence of sternal impacts compared to older vehicles.^[37]^[38] Fall prevention strategies are particularly important for older adults, who are at higher risk of low-energy falls leading to sternal fractures due to reduced bone density and balance. Home modifications, such as installing grab bars near toilets and in bathtubs, removing loose rugs, and ensuring adequate lighting, have been shown to significantly lower fall rates by improving stability and visibility.^[39]^[40] In sports activities, wearing appropriate protective gear like helmets can indirectly reduce the risk of falls or collisions that might result in chest trauma, although helmets primarily safeguard the head; for contact sports, additional chest protectors are recommended to absorb impacts.^[41] Comprehensive fall prevention programs incorporating exercise, environmental assessments, and assistive devices further decrease injury incidence among at-risk populations.^[42]^[43] During cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), employing proper techniques helps balance effective circulation with minimizing skeletal injuries like sternal fractures, which occur in about 20% of attempts due to the force required. Rescuers should aim for chest compression depths of 5-6 cm at a rate of 100-120 per minute, using straight-arm positioning and body weight distribution to avoid excessive force, as depths exceeding 6 cm increase fracture risk.^[44]^[45] Training emphasizes perpendicular compression on the lower sternum and full chest recoil between cycles to optimize outcomes while reducing trauma.^[46]^[47] Public health initiatives targeting osteoporosis play a key role in preventing pathologic sternal fractures, which arise from weakened bone structure rather than high trauma. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening postmenopausal women aged 65 and older—or younger women at increased risk—using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry to identify low bone density early, enabling interventions like calcium supplementation, exercise, and medications that reduce fracture risk by up to 20-30% for major sites.^[48] Bone health programs, including vitamin D assessment and lifestyle counseling, further mitigate pathologic fractures in the sternum and other areas by addressing underlying metabolic bone disease.^[49]^[50] As of 2025, global burden analyses project increasing trends in sternal and rib fractures due to aging populations, underscoring the need for enhanced prevention strategies.^[10]

Historical Perspectives

Early Recognition

The earliest documented references to chest trauma in medical literature date back to ancient times, with Hippocratic texts from around 400 BCE describing blunt injuries to the chest wall, such as rib fractures leading to hemoptysis and respiratory complications, though these accounts lack a specific focus on the sternum itself.^[51] Such descriptions emphasized the vulnerability of the thoracic cage to direct blows but treated sternal involvement as part of broader contusions rather than isolated pathology.^[51] A significant advancement in understanding the sternum's anatomy—and by extension, its susceptibility to fracture—occurred in the 16th century through the work of Andreas Vesalius. In his seminal 1543 publication De humani corporis fabrica, Vesalius detailed the sternum's composition as three distinct segments (manubrium, body, and xiphoid process) based on direct human dissections, correcting Galen's erroneous claim of seven parts derived from animal studies and underscoring the bone's relatively thin, subcutaneous position that predisposes it to traumatic disruption.^[52] This anatomical precision laid foundational knowledge for later recognition of sternal injuries, though Vesalius himself did not report clinical fractures.^[53] Sternal fractures emerged as a recognized entity in the medical literature during the 19th century, coinciding with the Industrial Revolution's rise in high-impact accidents involving machinery, falls, and early rail collisions. Autopsy examinations of these trauma victims frequently revealed sternal disruptions alongside other thoracic injuries, marking the first systematic documentation of the condition as a complication of blunt force.^[54] These postmortem studies highlighted the fracture's association with severe deceleration or direct anterior chest impacts, often fatal due to concomitant cardiac or pulmonary damage.^[55] Before the 20th century, sternal fractures remained exceedingly rare, primarily because trauma mechanisms were limited to low-velocity incidents like falls from modest heights or manual labor mishaps, which seldom generated the force required to break the sternum's resilient structure.^[6] This scarcity contributed to delayed clinical awareness, with most cases only identified incidentally during autopsies rather than in living patients.^[1]

Evolution in Diagnosis and Treatment

The rise of automobile use in the early 20th century, particularly during the 1920s, marked a significant milestone in the epidemiology of sternal fractures, as motor vehicle collisions became a leading cause of blunt chest trauma and increased the reported incidence of these injuries.^[1] The discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895 enabled the first radiographic visualization of fractures, and by the 1930s, lateral chest radiographs had become a standard diagnostic tool for confirming sternal fractures, improving detection rates over clinical examination alone. Following World War II, the introduction and mandatory use of seatbelts in the 1960s highlighted a new pattern of sternal fractures, often resulting from deceleration forces transmitted across the chest, as documented in early studies of restrained occupants.^[56] By the 1970s, clinical experience led to a paradigm shift toward conservative management for the majority of isolated sternal fractures, emphasizing analgesia, respiratory support, and observation, given the low rate of complications in stable cases.^[23] The first surgical fixation of a sternal fracture was reported in 1943 using Kirschner wires, with further developments in intramedullary fixation using Rush pins in 1957 and Steinmann pins in 1972.^[7] Advancements from the 1980s onward further refined diagnosis and treatment. The development of computed tomography (CT) in the 1970s provided superior visualization of sternal fractures and associated injuries, such as retrosternal hematomas, leading to a notable increase in detection rates.^[13] Surgical fixation techniques for unstable or displaced fractures advanced in the late 20th century with open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF), including plating systems, offering better stabilization and reducing chronic pain compared to earlier nonoperative approaches.^[57] Contemporary guidelines, including those from Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS, 11th edition, 2025), integrate these modalities into a systematic evaluation protocol, prioritizing multidisciplinary assessment for polytrauma patients.^[58] Looking to future directions, bioabsorbable fixation devices, such as poly-L-lactide plates, show promise for reducing long-term complications like hardware removal and infection in selected cases.^[59] Additionally, artificial intelligence-assisted imaging is emerging to enhance diagnostic accuracy in detecting subtle sternal fractures on radiographs and CT scans, potentially streamlining trauma workflows.^[60]

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Sternal bracing appears to offer a rational compromise. It is easy to apply and provides early painfree ambulation, satisfactory fracture immobilization, and ...Missing: management | Show results with:management<|control11|><|separator|>
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A decade of treating traumatic sternal fractures in a single-center ...
Nov 30, 2023 · INTRODUCTION. Sternal fractures resulting from trauma are relatively rare, representing 3% to 8% of all blunt trauma cases [1–4]. The most ...
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Surgical Fixation of Sternal Fractures: Preoperative Planning and a ...
This manuscript describes one possible safe way to stabilize different types of sternal fractures in a step by step guidance for anterior sternal plating using ...
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A decade of treating traumatic sternal fractures in a single-center ...
Surgical indications ranged from intrathoracic organ or blood vessel injuries necessitating thoracotomy to unstable fractures with severe dislocations. Factors ...
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Car Accident With Airbag Deployment Trauma Showed Special...
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Sternal Fractures Occur Most Often in Old Cars to Seat-Belted ...
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Home Modifications to Help Prevent Falls for Older Loved Ones
Install grab bars to walls in the tub or shower and next to the toilet. These should be strong enough to support the full weight of an adult. Add slip-proof ...Missing: sternal | Show results with:sternal
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Protective Equipment | Korey Stringer Institute
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A rare complication of cardiopulmonary resuscitation - PMC - NIH
Chest compressions during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) can be traumatic to patients. Sternal fractures occur in 1 of 5 resuscitation attempts, ...
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... pathological fractures can be classified as “spontaneous sternum fractures” (3). All diseases that induce osteoporosis are prone to develop insufficiency ...
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Nov 18, 2023 · Hippocrates' contributions in Orthopaedics and Traumatology are unprecedented, making him a true pioneer in this field.
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Between Galen's errors, Vesalius showed that the sternum consisted of three sections, instead of seven, that the mandible consisted of one bone, instead of two, ...
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Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius - Understanding Evolution
Left, Vesalius dissecting a cadaver; right, the human sternum has three segments. ... In this 1543 masterwork, men and women now stood stripped of skin (left).
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Sternal Injuries in Sport: A Review of the Literature - PubMed
Sternal fractures were first described in published literature in the 19th century as a complication of traumatic injury. Though sternal fracture and other ...
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Osteoarchaeological evidence for medical dissection in 18th to 19th ...
Oct 7, 2021 · This paper describes the analysis of a small assemblage of fragmentary human remains discovered during renovations in a residential property in Aberdeen City, ...
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Seat-Belt Fractures of the Spine and Sternum - JAMA Network
The implication has been that seat-belt injuries may be prevented by proper positioning of the laptype belt or by the use of the "bandolier" or shoulder-type ...Missing: 1960s | Show results with:1960s
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Fixation of Sternal Fractures: A Systematic Review - PubMed
Methods: We conducted a systematic review of the literature published from 1990 through September 2010 regarding the treatment of traumatic sternal fractures.Missing: ORIF techniques
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Fixation of sternal fracture using absorbable plating system ... - NIH
Absorbable plates may be considered in fixation of traumatic sternal fractures as they have low incidence of failure, inflammation, and allergic reactions.Missing: future | Show results with:future
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Advancements and initial experiences in AI-Assisted X-ray based ...
Mar 14, 2025 · Future advancements in AI for fracture diagnosis will likely include integration with multimodal imaging techniques, and enhancing diagnostic ...