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Supersaurus

Supersaurus is a genus of gigantic herbivorous sauropod dinosaur belonging to the family Diplodocidae, subfamily Apatosaurinae, that lived during the Late Jurassic epoch in what is now the western United States. Known primarily from fragmentary skeletal remains, it is renowned for its extraordinary length, with estimates ranging from 33 to 40 meters (108 to 131 feet), potentially making it the longest dinosaur ever discovered. The type species, Supersaurus vivianae, was named in 1985 based on a massive scapulocoracoid measuring 2.44 meters in length, discovered in the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation at Dry Mesa Quarry in Colorado.^[1] Fossils indicate a long, slender neck and whip-like tail typical of diplodocids, adapted for browsing high vegetation, and the animal likely weighed between 35 and 40 metric tons.^[2] The genus includes material previously assigned to other taxa, such as Ultrasauros macintoshi, Dystylosaurus edwini, and Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis, which have been synonymized with S. vivianae following detailed osteological and phylogenetic analyses. A second, more complete specimen from the Morrison Formation near Douglas, Wyoming, provides additional insights into its vertebral morphology, including highly elongated cervical vertebrae with elongation indices of 4 to 7, supporting its classification within Apatosaurinae alongside genera like Apatosaurus and Suuwassea. Recent reassessments suggest lengths of up to 40 meters, emphasizing Supersaurus's status among the most extreme examples of sauropod gigantism.^[3]^[2] Living approximately 155 to 145 million years ago in a floodplain environment rich in conifers and ferns, Supersaurus coexisted with other iconic Morrison Formation dinosaurs such as Diplodocus, Apatosaurus, and Allosaurus. Its discovery highlights the taxonomic challenges of sauropod paleontology, where incomplete fossils have led to ongoing revisions, but phylogenetic studies confirm its distinctiveness within Diplodocidae.^[3]^[2]

Discovery

Initial Discovery and Type Specimen

The initial discovery of Supersaurus vivianae occurred in 1972 at the Dry Mesa Quarry in Mesa County, Colorado, within the Brushy Basin Member of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation.^[4]^[1] Amateur paleontologist Vivian Jones, along with her husband Eddie, identified the first fossils while prospecting the site they had helped establish the previous year.^[4] These remains were subsequently collected by James A. Jensen of Brigham Young University between 1972 and 1982, amid ongoing excavations at the quarry.^[1] The type specimen, designated as BYU 9025 (originally cataloged as BYU 5500), consists of a partial right scapulocoracoid measuring 2.44 meters in length.^[5]^[1] This shoulder girdle element, along with limited referred material including posterior caudal vertebrae (such as BYU 5503 and BYU 5504, comprising 12 articulated caudals each about 30 cm long) and an ischium (BYU 5502), represented the initial recovery.^[1] Excavation proved challenging due to the site's fluvial depositional environment, which had disarticulated the skeleton through extensive transport, and the presence of bentonitic clays and mudstones that accelerated bone deterioration, resulting in only fragmentary posterior skeletal elements being preserved and collected—totaling around 100 tons of matrix over multiple seasons.^[1] Jensen formally described and named the taxon in 1985 as Supersaurus vivianae, with the genus name derived from the Latin prefix "super-" in reference to its immense size relative to other known sauropods like Brachiosaurus and Diplodocus, based on the exceptional dimensions of the scapulocoracoid.^[1] The specific epithet "vivianae" honors Vivian Jones for her role in discovering the key fossil localities at Dry Mesa.^[1] Subsequent analysis revealed that material initially assigned to the related invalid genus Ultrasauros (based on a dorsal vertebra from the same quarry) actually pertained to Supersaurus, rendering Ultrasauros a junior synonym.

Jimbo Specimen

The Jimbo specimen (WDC DMJ-021) of Supersaurus vivianae was discovered in 1996 on a ranch near Douglas, Wyoming, in the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation and subsequently donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center.^[6] This nearly complete associated skeleton represents approximately 30% of the individual and includes a partial presacral vertebral column (10 cervical and 5 dorsal vertebrae), fragmentary sacrals, an incomplete caudal series, numerous ribs, partial pelvic elements, a partial femur, and complete tibiae and fibulae, with an estimated total body length of 33–34 meters.^[7] The specimen was formally described in 2007 by Lovelace, Hartman, and Wahl, who referred it to S. vivianae based on shared apatosaurine traits such as elongated cervical vertebrae (with elongation indices up to 7.5) and opisthocoelous posterior dorsals, confirming its distinction from the fragmentary type specimen while supporting genus-level attribution.^[7] A composite replica mount of the skeleton, measuring 106 feet in length, is on public display at the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis, Wyoming, representing the first such reconstruction informed by this more complete material.^[8] In a 2024 osteohistological analysis by Woodruff, Curtice, and Foster, thin sections from the fibula and dorsal rib of WDC DMJ-021 revealed dense, avascular bone tissue with extensive secondary remodeling (Haversian systems occupying over 80% of cortical area), indicative of skeletal maturity and suggesting the individual had lived well beyond initial maturity, potentially representing a senescent endmember among known Supersaurus specimens. Although precise retrocalculated age was indeterminable due to remodeling obliterating growth lines, comparative modeling with other large sauropods implies an ontogenetic age well beyond skeletal maturity.^[6] These findings highlight individual variation in growth trajectories and longevity in giant diplodocids, providing a benchmark for interpreting maturity in fragmentary Supersaurus remains.^[9]

Synonyms and Nomenclatural History

In 1985, James A. Jensen formally named three new sauropod genera from the Dry Mesa Quarry in Colorado's Morrison Formation: Supersaurus vivianae (based on a partial skeleton including caudal vertebrae), Ultrasaurus macintoshi (holotype BYU 9047, a large dorsal vertebra), and Dystylosaurus edwini (holotype BYU 9043, an anterior dorsal vertebra with divided neural spines).^[1] The name Ultrasaurus was preoccupied by a Korean sauropod described by Kim in 1983, prompting George Olshevsky to emend it to Ultrasauros macintoshi in 1991.^[10] Subsequent analyses revealed taxonomic overlaps. In 1990, John S. McIntosh synonymized Dystylosaurus edwini with Supersaurus vivianae, arguing that the distinctive divided neural spine of BYU 9043 represented variation within Supersaurus rather than a distinct genus, based on shared provenance and morphological similarities with diplodocid vertebrae. McIntosh also questioned the distinctiveness of Ultrasauros but treated it separately pending further study. In 1996, Brian D. Curtice, Kenneth L. Stadtman, and Linda J. Curtice formally synonymized Ultrasauros macintoshi with Supersaurus vivianae, demonstrating that the holotype BYU 9047 is a posterior dorsal vertebra matching Supersaurus anatomy, while a previously associated scapulocoracoid (BYU 9462) belonged to an indeterminate brachiosaurid; this made Ultrasauros a junior subjective synonym due to overlapping material and lack of diagnostic differences. Early debates considered potential synonymy with other diplodocids like Diplodocus, given similarities in vertebral proportions and the shared quarry, but these were rejected based on unique traits such as the extreme elongation of Supersaurus elements.^[11] Since the 2000s, the nomenclature has remained stable, with no new synonyms proposed; recent specimens, such as the "Jimbo" individual, reinforce Supersaurus vivianae as a valid, distinct diplodocid without further taxonomic revisions.^[2]

Description

Size Estimates

Supersaurus is estimated to have reached lengths of 33–40 meters, making it one of the longest dinosaurs known, with some reconstructions extrapolating up to 42 meters for a complete skeleton based on the Jimbo specimen and associated material. Initial size estimates from the type specimen, consisting primarily of a massive scapula, suggested a total length exceeding 30 meters when scaled against related diplodocids. These were revised upward following the description of the more complete Jimbo specimen in 2007, which provided a length of 33–34 meters through direct measurements of preserved elements and proportional scaling. A 2021 analysis by paleontologist Brian Curtice, incorporating additional vertebrae from the Dry Mesa Quarry, further extended estimates to 39–42 meters by integrating data from multiple Supersaurus specimens, including reidentified elements previously assigned to other genera. Recent histological and osteological studies in 2024 confirmed Supersaurus individuals as among the longest sauropods, rivaling titanosaurians like Argentinosaurus in overall scale but surpassing Barosaurus (up to 25–26 meters) in linear dimensions due to proportionally longer necks and tails.^[12]^[2]^[13]^[9] Shoulder height for Supersaurus is approximated at 5–6 meters, derived from limb bone proportions in the Jimbo specimen compared to those of Diplodocus, while the neck alone exceeded 15 meters in length, facilitated by its approximately 15-16 exceptionally elongated cervical vertebrae, similar to other diplodocids. Mass estimates range from 35 to 44 metric tons for adult individuals, with the lower end based on volumetric modeling of the Jimbo skeleton using 3D reconstructions to calculate body cavity volumes and tissue densities. Higher mass figures account for larger referred specimens, such as those from the synonymized Ultrasauros material, emphasizing Supersaurus' slender build relative to more robust sauropods of similar length.^[2]^[13]^[9] Size assessments rely on scaling methods applied to partial skeletons, such as ratios derived from the type scapula (over 2.4 meters tall) and limb elements to infer full body proportions, alongside finite element analysis for estimating skeletal mass and soft-tissue distribution. Comparisons to better-known diplodocids like Diplodocus provide benchmarks, adjusting for Supersaurus' more gracile form and extended axial skeleton. The elongated vertebrae, particularly in the neck and tail, contribute significantly to its record length without proportionally increasing mass.^[12]^[2]^[13]

Skeletal Anatomy

Supersaurus exhibits distinctive osteological features adapted to its enormous size, particularly in its vertebral column, which emphasizes elongation and pneumaticity for structural efficiency. The cervical vertebrae are exceptionally long and slender, facilitating an extended neck. For instance, specimen BYU 9024 represents a mid-to-posterior cervical vertebra measuring 1.38 meters in centrum length, the longest known from any animal, with low neural spines and prominent pneumatic foramina that open into internal chambers known as pleurocoels. The assignment of BYU 9024 to Supersaurus is supported by some analyses but debated, with alternatives proposing it belongs to Barosaurus.^[14]^[15] These features indicate extensive invasion by cervical air sacs, reducing skeletal mass while maintaining rigidity. The Jimbo specimen (WDC DMJ-021) preserves portions of at least ten cervical vertebrae, all exceeding 1 meter in length, with elongation indices ranging from 4 to 7, and dual pneumatopores separated by a septum on the ventral surface, further evidencing lightweighting adaptations.^[7] The dorsal and caudal vertebrae demonstrate robustness in the anterior regions transitioning to delicacy posteriorly. Posterior dorsal vertebrae are tall and sturdy, as seen in the referred Ultrasauros holotype (BYU 9044), which stands 1.33 meters high with a pronounced ventral keel and shallow lateral sulci, supporting the massive trunk.^[10] In the Jimbo specimen, five dorsal vertebrae exhibit opisthocoelous centra and neural spines comprising over half the vertebral height, with pneumatic fossae indicating air sac diverticula. The caudal series comprises more than 80 vertebrae, beginning with heart-shaped, keeled anterior centra featuring shallow pleurocoels and short neural spines; these give way distally to a whip-like tail with elongated, procoelous vertebrae lacking pneumaticity, enabling flexible locomotion.^[1]^[7] The limb girdle and extremities reflect a pillar-like posture suited to bearing extreme weight, with splayed feet for stability. The scapulocoracoid is remarkably elongated, reaching 2.44 meters in the type specimen (BYU 5500), with a shallowly curved inferior border and expanded distal end for robust shoulder articulation.^[1] In the Jimbo specimen, limb bones including fragmentary humerus and femur elements indicate robust proportions estimated at around 2.0-2.5 meters for major long bones, based on scaling from related diplodocids, while the tibia features a prominent cnemial crest and intermediate robusticity, contributing to a sprawling pedal posture.^[2] Although no complete skull is known, fragments from the Jimbo specimen suggest a long, narrow cranium akin to that of Diplodocus, with simple, peg-like teeth arranged in a U-shaped dental battery for cropping low vegetation.^[2] Overall, Supersaurus's skeleton incorporates extensive pneumaticity across the vertebrae and ribs—evidenced by pleurocoels and camerate internal textures—implying a system of air sacs that lightened the skeleton and may have provided buoyancy to the elongated neck, optimizing energy use in foraging.^[7]

Classification

Phylogenetic Position

Supersaurus is classified as a member of the family Diplodocidae within the clade Neosauropoda, sharing key synapomorphies of diplodocoids such as an extremely elongated neck comprising more than 15 cervical vertebrae and a flagellicaudatan tail with numerous chevron-facetted caudals.^[16] These traits distinguish it from more basal sauropods and align it with other Morrison Formation diplodocids like Diplodocus and Apatosaurus. Upon its initial description, Supersaurus vivianae was placed in the subfamily Diplodocinae by Jensen (1985), grouped with Diplodocus and Barosaurus based on preliminary comparisons of axial and appendicular elements.^[1] This assignment persisted in early reviews but faced reevaluation with new specimens. A 2008 phylogenetic analysis by Lovelace et al., incorporating the WDC DMNH 'Jimbo' specimen, shifted Supersaurus to Apatosaurinae, citing shared robust humeri, wide pedal unguals, and vertebral proportions indicative of a stockier build compared to the more gracile diplodocines.^[2] Subsequent cladistic studies refined this debate. Whitlock's (2011) analysis of 134 morphological characters across 28 diplodocoid taxa recovered Supersaurus as the sister group to a clade comprising all other diplodocines (including Diplodocus, Barosaurus, and Kaatedocus), supporting a basal position within Diplodocinae under equal-weights parsimony with a consistency index of 0.42. Building on this, Tschopp et al. (2015) conducted a specimen-level phylogeny using an expanded matrix of 380 characters for 81 operational taxonomic units focused on Diplodocidae, placing Supersaurus firmly in Diplodocinae; it appeared as sister to the smaller Kaatedocus siberi in 67% of 300 most parsimonious trees (tree length 1195 steps, retention index 0.65), but as sister to Apatosaurus louisae in 28% of trees and to Brontosaurus yahnahpin in 5%.^[16] More recent work has revisited the apatosaurine hypothesis. Curtice (2021) reviewed axial elements from the Dry Mesa Quarry type locality, arguing for Apatosaurinae based on character states like tall, plate-like neural arches in the posterior dorsal vertebrae and robust pneumaticity patterns matching those of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus, rather than the lower, more elongate arches of diplodocines.^[9] This ongoing subfamily debate highlights ambiguities in diplodocid character evolution, particularly in quantifying limb robustness and vertebral height ratios.^[16] Phylogenetically, Supersaurus derives from earlier, smaller Morrison sauropods such as Suuwassea (early diplodocoid) in the lower formation members, evolving toward extreme elongation and mass in the upper Brushy Basin Member during the late Kimmeridgian–early Tithonian. It exemplifies the pinnacle of gigantism in Late Jurassic diplodocids, with total body lengths exceeding 35 meters in reconstructed specimens.^[16]

Proposed Second Species

In 2015, paleontologists Emanuel Tschopp, Octávio Mateus, and Roger B. J. Benson proposed the recognition of Supersaurus lourinhanensis as a second species within the genus Supersaurus, based on a reanalysis of the partial skeleton originally described as Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis from the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian–Tithonian) Lourinhã Formation in Portugal.^[16] The holotype specimen, ML 414, consists of several cervical and dorsal vertebrae, along with other fragmentary elements such as limb bones, recovered from Praia do Porto Novo.^[16] This material exhibits diplodocid affinities, including elongated cervical vertebrae with proportions similar to those of the type species S. vivianae from North America's Morrison Formation, such as paired pneumatic foramina on the ventral surfaces of posterior cervicals and a posterior ventral keel.^[16] However, S. lourinhanensis differs from S. vivianae in subtle morphological features, including taller neural spines relative to centrum height in cervical vertebrae and variations in centrum length ratios among dorsals, quantified through 11 character state differences in the phylogenetic dataset.^[16] Tschopp et al. supported the validity of S. lourinhanensis as a distinct species via a specimen-level phylogenetic analysis using 81 operational taxonomic units and 477 morphological characters, which recovered it as the sister taxon to S. vivianae within Diplodocinae, with a mean pairwise dissimilarity of 0.2—indicative of species-level distinction but below the generic threshold of 0.222.^[16] The geographic separation between European and North American populations further bolstered this interpretation, suggesting potential allopatric speciation despite shared synapomorphies like dorsally inclined transverse processes exceeding 30° in dorsals.^[16] Counterarguments to the proposal emphasize the limited nature of the holotype material, which lacks diagnostic elements such as the skull or complete limbs, potentially hindering a robust diagnosis and allowing for intraspecific variation within Supersaurus or referral to related diplodocids like the Morrison Formation taxon Kawekaweau. Subsequent studies have maintained Dinheirosaurus as a valid genus sister to Supersaurus, citing insufficient shared derived traits to justify synonymy and highlighting the risks of over-referral in fragmentary European diplodocid remains.^[17] This ongoing debate in post-2015 literature underscores the challenges of sauropod taxonomy with incomplete specimens.^[18] If validated as a second species, S. lourinhanensis would significantly expand the geographic range of Supersaurus across Laurasia, implying broader dispersal capabilities for diplodocids during the Late Jurassic and challenging prior views of their primarily North American distribution.^[16]

Paleoecology

Morrison Formation Environment

The Morrison Formation, a major Upper Jurassic sedimentary sequence, dates to the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian stages, approximately 155 to 145 million years ago, and extends across western North America from Montana in the north to New Mexico in the south.^[19]^[20] This vast depositional basin formed during a period of tectonic stability in the region, with sediments accumulating in a foreland setting influenced by distant subduction along the western continental margin.^[21] The formation's depositional environment primarily consisted of fluvial and lacustrine systems within a semi-arid floodplain landscape, characterized by seasonal rivers, braided streams, and oxbow lakes that periodically flooded and dried.^[22] Sedimentary layers, such as those in the Brushy Basin Member—where key Supersaurus specimens including those from the Dry Mesa Quarry and the Jimbo individual were discovered—reveal evidence of overbank deposits, paleosols, and localized wetland areas that supported episodic aquatic habitats amid predominantly terrestrial conditions. The upper members of the formation, including the Salt Wash and Brushy Basin, host the majority of Supersaurus remains, with these divisions marked by fining-upward sequences transitioning from coarser fluvial sands to finer mudstones and tuffaceous layers; over 100 quarries across the formation have yielded abundant sauropod fossils, highlighting its role as a prolific vertebrate-bearing unit.^[23]^[24] The prevailing climate was warm and subtropical, featuring pronounced wet-dry cycles that drove seasonal aridity and influenced sediment deposition and biota distribution.^[25] Vegetation was dominated by ferns, cycads, and conifers, forming riparian forests and understory cover along watercourses in an otherwise open landscape.^[26] Oxygen isotope analyses from pedogenic carbonates and aquatic fossils indicate a warm climate consistent with a greenhouse world but modulated by regional monsoonal patterns.^[27] Taphonomic features, such as dense bonebeds in floodplain mudstones, suggest episodes of drought-induced mortality, where animals congregated at shrinking water sources before rapid burial.^[28] Preservation was enhanced by volcanic ash layers, derived from the proto-Sierra Nevada magmatic arc to the west, which contributed bentonitic clays that stabilized remains against weathering and promoted mineralization in low-oxygen settings.^[29] This interplay of climatic variability and volcanic input created a dynamic environment shared by diverse Morrison Formation dinosaurs.^[30]

Contemporaneous Fauna

The Morrison Formation of Late Jurassic North America supported a diverse assemblage of dinosaurs and other vertebrates contemporaneous with Supersaurus vivianae, primarily from the Brushy Basin Member. Among the sauropods, Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, Camarasaurus, and Brachiosaurus coexisted with Supersaurus, with evidence from cranial biomechanics and dental microwear indicating niche partitioning in browsing heights to reduce competition for foliage; Supersaurus, with its exceptionally long neck, likely occupied a high-browsing niche targeting upper canopy vegetation, while diplodocids like Diplodocus focused on lower levels and Brachiosaurus emphasized vertical reach.^[31]^[32] Theropod dinosaurs such as Allosaurus, Ceratosaurus, and Torvosaurus served as apex predators, with bite and tooth marks on juvenile sauropod bones providing direct evidence of predation or scavenging on young individuals, though adults were likely too large to be targeted. Ornithischian herbivores, including Stegosaurus and Dryosaurus, filled complementary roles as low- to mid-level browsers and grazers, occupying open woodlands and floodplain edges distinct from the taller sauropods.^[33] Non-dinosaurian vertebrates further enriched the ecosystem, with crocodylomorphs like Goniopholis inhabiting aquatic and semi-aquatic environments as opportunistic predators, pterosaurs such as Kepodactylus soaring above the floodplains, and small early mammals scavenging or insectivory in understory habitats; fish taxa thrived in riverine systems supporting the overall food web.^[34] Ecological dynamics among these taxa involved resource competition, particularly among sauropods for plant matter dominated by C3 vegetation as revealed by carbon isotope analyses of bones and teeth, which show dietary overlap but separation in foraging strata. Flood events in the fluvial depositional environment concentrated fossils in bonebeds, preserving snapshots of this community structure.^[34]

References

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