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Surface irrigation

Surface irrigation is a traditional method of applying water to agricultural fields by allowing it to flow across the soil surface under the influence of gravity, where it infiltrates into the root zone to meet crop water requirements.^[1] This gravity-fed overland flow distinguishes it from pressurized systems like sprinklers or drip irrigation, and it encompasses several subtypes including basin, border, furrow, and wild flooding methods.^[2] Dating back over 6,000 years, surface irrigation remains the most common form of irrigation globally, accounting for more than 95% of irrigated land worldwide, particularly in developing regions and for crops tolerant of temporary flooding, such as rice and wheat.^[2]^[3]^[4] The primary types of surface irrigation are designed to optimize water distribution based on field topography, soil type, and crop needs. Basin irrigation involves flooding level, diked fields for uniform ponding, ideal for close-growing crops like rice on heavy soils.^[1] Border irrigation uses rectangular strips with gentle slopes (typically 0-0.5%) and parallel borders to guide water flow, suitable for a wide range of row and close-grown crops on medium-textured soils.^[3] Furrow irrigation directs water through small channels along crop rows, minimizing evaporation and allowing precise control for row crops like cotton or corn, though it requires more labor.^[2] Wild flooding, an uncontrolled variant, spreads water haphazardly over unprepared fields, often used for low-value pastures but with high inefficiency.^[1] These methods rely on four key phases: advance (water spreads), wetting/ponding (infiltration begins), depletion (surface water recedes), and recession (soil drains), with efficiency influenced by factors like soil intake rate, field slope, and inflow volume.^[1] Surface irrigation offers notable advantages, including low initial capital and maintenance costs compared to mechanized systems, minimal sensitivity to water quality or weather conditions, and simplicity that requires little technical expertise.^[2] It is particularly effective for reclaiming saline soils through leaching and can achieve application efficiencies up to 92% with modern optimizations like laser leveling, surge flow, or tailwater recovery.^[1]^[2] However, disadvantages include average efficiencies of around 60% due to deep percolation losses, runoff, and uneven distribution, as well as risks of erosion, soil crusting, and salinity buildup in furrows.^[3] Labor demands are high for manual operations, and precise land preparation is essential to mitigate these issues, especially on slopes exceeding 3%.^[2] Despite these challenges, advancements such as computer-aided design and automation continue to enhance its viability for smallholder farms (1-10 hectares) in arid and semi-arid regions worldwide.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Principles

Surface irrigation is a method of applying water to agricultural fields by distributing it over the soil surface, where it spreads and infiltrates into the root zone primarily through gravity flow, without the use of mechanical pressure. This approach, also known as flood or gravity irrigation, contrasts with pressurized systems such as sprinklers or drip irrigation, which rely on pumps to deliver water through pipes or emitters. In surface irrigation, water is typically released from a channel or pipe at the field's upper end, allowing it to flow downslope and wet the soil uniformly or in controlled patterns, thereby replenishing soil moisture for crop uptake.^[3] The fundamental principles governing surface irrigation revolve around gravity-driven flow, soil infiltration characteristics, surface topography, and hydraulic factors that influence water distribution. Gravity propels the water across the field, with flow rates and advance determined by the field's slope, which is ideally minimal (0.0001 to 0.5%) to promote even spreading without excessive erosion. Soil infiltration rate, which dictates how quickly water penetrates the soil, is a critical parameter and is often modeled using the Kostiakov equation for the infiltration rate I = k t^{a-1}, where I is the infiltration rate, t is the time of opportunity for infiltration, and k and a are empirical constants specific to the soil type. Surface topography, including field leveling and shape, ensures uniform water application, while the hydraulic radius—defined as the cross-sectional area of flow divided by the wetted perimeter—affects flow velocity and depth, optimizing distribution in channels or furrows.^[3] Suitability for surface irrigation depends on soil types, which influence infiltration and water retention; for instance, sandy soils with high infiltration rates may benefit from methods like furrows to control rapid advance and minimize deep percolation, while clay soils with low infiltration rates are better suited to basins that allow ponding for gradual infiltration. Common crops include rice, which thrives under basin flooding due to its tolerance for saturated conditions, and wheat, often grown with border or furrow systems to manage moderate infiltration needs. Globally, surface irrigation is the most prevalent method, accounting for approximately 95% of irrigated areas worldwide.^[3]^[5]

Historical Development

Surface irrigation, one of the oldest agricultural practices, originated in ancient Mesopotamia around 6000 BCE, where communities in the region of modern-day Iraq developed early canal and ditch systems to divert floodwaters from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers into basin-like fields for crop watering.^[6]^[7] These methods relied on gravity to spread water across flat or gently sloped lands, enabling the cultivation of grains in arid environments and supporting the growth of early urban civilizations.^[8] Similarly, in the Indus Valley Civilization around 2500 BCE, flood-based surface irrigation was employed through constructed reservoirs, wells, and canal networks to harness seasonal monsoon floods, fostering extensive agriculture in present-day Pakistan and northwest India.^[8]^[9] Key advancements occurred during the Roman era in the 1st century BCE, when aqueducts were integrated with surface irrigation techniques to deliver water via gravity to agricultural fields in provinces, enhancing distribution efficiency through terracing and channeled flows in Mediterranean and Near Eastern regions.^[10]^[8] In medieval Islamic societies, particularly from the 8th to 13th centuries, engineers refined furrow systems in arid areas of the Middle East and North Africa, introducing precise canal designs and communal management practices that optimized water allocation for diverse crops.^[11]^[12] By the 19th and early 20th centuries in the United States, mechanization transformed surface irrigation, with border strip methods emerging in the 1920s for row crops such as cotton in the Southwest, allowing controlled flooding over leveled strips to improve uniformity and yield.^[13]^[1] In the modern era, post-World War II expansion marked significant growth, notably during India's Green Revolution in the 1960s, where basin irrigation was prioritized for high-yielding rice varieties, dramatically increasing food production through expanded canal networks and flood-prone paddy fields.^[14]^[15] From the 1970s onward, the adoption of laser-leveling technology revolutionized precision in surface systems worldwide, enabling finer land grading to reduce water waste and enhance flow control in large-scale operations.^[16] Regional adaptations highlight this evolution; traditional spate irrigation, involving diversion of flash floods into wadis, has roots over 5,000 years old in Yemen and was formalized in Ethiopia in recent decades for sorghum and maize cultivation.^[17]^[18] In Australia, drainback level basin systems were developed in the 1950s within the Murray-Darling Basin, featuring sequential flooding and drainage recovery to boost efficiency on undulating terrains for crops like rice and pasture.^[19]^[20] As of 2025, ongoing innovations such as sensor-based monitoring and AI-optimized flow control continue to enhance the sustainability of surface irrigation in water-scarce regions.^[1]

Irrigation Process

Phases of Water Application

Surface irrigation involves four sequential phases during water application: the advance phase, the wetting or ponding phase, the depletion phase, and the recession phase. These phases describe the temporal progression of water across the field surface and into the soil, determining the uniformity of water distribution and infiltration. The advance phase begins when water is released at the field inlet and ends when the wetting front reaches the downstream end of the field. During this phase, the water spreads downslope under gravity, with the duration typically ranging from 30 minutes to several hours depending on field conditions; for example, in basin irrigation, the advance often lasts 1-2 hours due to the confined nature of the basins.^[3]^[1] The wetting or ponding phase follows the advance and continues until the inflow is cut off, during which water accumulates on the surface, saturating the soil and potentially forming ponds, particularly in level or low-slope fields. This phase allows for additional infiltration where the water depth builds up behind the advancing front. Next, the depletion phase starts at cutoff, as surface water begins to infiltrate more rapidly without replenishment, progressing from the inlet toward the downstream end. The recession phase occurs last, when the surface flow ceases entirely due to complete infiltration and drainage, leaving the soil profile wetted to the desired depth. Diagrams of phase progression typically depict these stages as time-distance trajectories, showing the wetting front's advance curve, the cutoff line, and the recession curve receding back along the field length.^[3]^[21] Time-based dynamics are central to these phases, particularly the opportunity time, which is the duration water is available for infiltration at any point along the field and directly relates to the applied water depth via the soil's infiltration function. Opportunity time is calculated as the difference between the local recession time (when surface water disappears) and the local advance time (when water arrives), often expressed as t = t_s - t_x, where t_x is the advance time to distance x and t_s is the recession time at x. Longer opportunity times enable greater infiltration depths, but excessive durations can lead to deep percolation losses. Advance time is often approximated using a power-law relationship x = p t^r, where x is distance, t is time, and p, r are empirical coefficients derived from field conditions; this kinematic model assumes minimal infiltration during advance.^[3] Factors such as inflow rate, field slope, and soil surface roughness significantly influence phase durations and uniformity. Higher inflow rates accelerate the advance phase by increasing the driving force for water movement, while steeper slopes enhance velocity but may reduce infiltration opportunity if recession is too rapid. Soil roughness, often quantified by Manning's n coefficient, slows advance on crusted or vegetated surfaces, extending phase times and promoting more even wetting. In practice, these interactions are evaluated through field measurements or models to balance phase lengths for optimal application.^[3]^[22]

Water Flow Dynamics

Surface irrigation relies on gravity to distribute water across a field, where the flow dynamics are governed by open-channel hydraulics. The primary equation describing uniform flow in these systems is Manning's equation, which calculates the average velocity V as V = \frac{1}{n} R^{2/3} S^{1/2}, where n is the Manning roughness coefficient, R is the hydraulic radius, and S is the bed slope.^[3] This equation applies to both sheet flow in basins and borders and channel flow in furrows, with typical n values ranging from 0.015 for smooth, previously irrigated surfaces to 0.05 for rough, vegetated borders, influencing flow velocity and depth distribution.^[3] In sheet flow, the hydraulic radius approximates the flow depth due to wide, shallow conditions, while in furrows, it accounts for the wetted cross-section, enabling predictions of advance rates and potential runoff.^[3] Water movement involves a balance between surface runoff and soil infiltration, where infiltration depletes the surface layer, slowing advance and promoting uneven distribution. The advance curve traces the front's progression over time and distance, often nonlinear due to decreasing depth downstream, while the recession curve depicts drainage after inflow cutoff, driven by residual surface storage and continued infiltration.^[23] Micro-topography, such as small depressions or ridges from tillage, exacerbates unevenness by causing localized ponding or preferential flow paths, reducing uniformity in water application.^[3] In high-infiltration scenarios, rapid subsurface intake limits runoff, whereas low rates lead to excess surface flow and potential erosion. Soil texture significantly influences these dynamics, with loamy soils exhibiting moderate to high infiltration rates (around 0.2–0.8 inches per hour steady-state), resulting in faster recession times compared to clayey soils (0.04–0.2 inches per hour), which retain water longer on the surface.^[24] Sandy textures accelerate advance but shorten opportunity times for infiltration downstream, while field preparation like land leveling minimizes slope variations, promoting even flow and reducing ponding by up to 50% in uneven fields.^[25] To quantify these processes, the volume balance method integrates inflow measurements with surface storage and infiltration estimates, using equations like q_o t_x = A_o x + x (\sigma_y K t_x^a + \sigma_z F_o t_x), where q_o is unit inflow rate (per unit width), t_x is advance time to distance x, A_o is cross-sectional area at the inlet, \sigma_y and \sigma_z are shape factors (typically 0.7–0.8) accounting for average storage and infiltration opportunity, and infiltration parameters K, a, and F_o are derived iteratively from field data (assuming Kostiakov infiltration model Z(t) = K t^a + F_o). Inflow-outflow gauges at field inlets and tails provide real-time volumes, enabling calibration of advance and recession curves via volume conservation, with shape factors adjusted for flow geometry to improve accuracy in dynamic modeling.^[3]^[26] This technique reveals imbalances, such as overestimation of storage on steep slopes, guiding refinements in flow predictions.^[26]

Types of Surface Irrigation

Basin Irrigation

Basin irrigation involves the controlled flooding of completely level fields enclosed by earthen bunds or dikes, allowing water to spread uniformly across the entire surface until the desired depth is achieved. These basins typically range in size from 0.1 to 5 hectares, depending on factors such as soil type, available stream size, and field slope, with smaller basins suited to sandy loams and larger ones to clays.^[27] This method is particularly effective on low-infiltration soils like clayey or loamy types, where water retention is high and deep percolation losses are minimized, making it ideal for close-grown crops that tolerate temporary inundation, such as paddy rice, wheat, and orchards like citrus or bananas.^[27]^[2] A common variant is the drainback level basin, prominently used in southeast Australia for rice cultivation on gently sloping terrain. In this system, water advances across near-zero slope basins (often with mild longitudinal gradients of 0.08–0.2%) formed by check banks constructed along contours, with tailwater from the lowest basin recycled back to storage or upstream channels to enhance efficiency. Construction requires precise land leveling—typically within 3 cm tolerance—using tools like A-frames or tractors to form bunds 60–120 cm wide and 15–30 cm high for temporary setups, ensuring even ponding without significant runoff.^[28]^[27]^[28] During application, water is introduced through gated inlets or supply channels, achieving depths of 50–150 mm to meet crop evapotranspiration needs while allowing infiltration into the root zone. The cycle typically lasts 12–24 hours per irrigation event, encompassing advance, ponding, and depletion phases, after which excess water drains or is reused. This approach provides advantages in uniform water distribution on flat or terraced lands, reducing labor for row-specific application and supporting high-yield production for water-intensive crops. Basin irrigation dominates flooded rice systems in Asia, where it accounts for the majority of the region's irrigated paddy fields and contributes significantly to global rice output.^[29]^[27]^[27]

Furrow Irrigation

Furrow irrigation is a method of surface irrigation where water is applied through small, parallel channels known as furrows, typically excavated between rows of crops to deliver water directly to the root zone. These furrows are generally narrow, ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 meters in width and depth, and are constructed along gentle slopes of 0.2% to 0.5% to facilitate controlled water flow by gravity. This technique is particularly suited for row-planted crops such as cotton, maize, and sugarcane, allowing water to infiltrate the soil along the furrows while minimizing exposure of the crop rows to standing water. Furrow spacing typically varies from 0.5 to 2 meters, depending on crop requirements and soil type, with furrow lengths commonly extending 100 to 400 meters to optimize water distribution across fields. Water application can involve every furrow or alternate furrows to reduce soil erosion and evaporation losses, with inflow rates adjusted to achieve uniform advance along the field. This layout promotes efficient water use in undulating terrains where broader flooding methods may be impractical. A notable variant is surge irrigation, which involves intermittent pulsing of water flow to enhance advance uniformity and reduce deep percolation losses. Developed in the 1980s, this approach uses gated pipes or surge valves to release water in discrete surges, achieving efficiency gains of 20% to 50% compared to continuous flow by promoting more even wetting fronts. Surge techniques are especially effective in longer furrows, where traditional continuous flow can lead to uneven infiltration. Furrow irrigation is widely adopted for row crops, including significant use in the US Midwest for maize production, where it helps suppress weed growth between rows by limiting water contact to the crop base. This method's targeted application reduces the need for excessive tillage and supports sustainable yields in semi-arid regions.

Border Strip Irrigation

Border strip irrigation is a surface irrigation technique that applies water across long, narrow field strips bordered by low earthen ridges, enabling the water to advance downslope as a shallow sheet without ponding or channeling. These strips are typically 3 to 30 meters wide and 100 to 700 meters long, designed to facilitate uniform coverage on fields with gentle, uniform slopes of 0.1% to 0.4%. The ridges, usually 15 to 30 centimeters high, confine the flow laterally while allowing free advance along the length of the strip.^[30]^[3] The layout features undivided, free-flowing borders without cross-checks or barriers, promoting sheet-like distribution ideal for broadcast-sown or close-growing crops such as alfalfa, pastures, and small grains. This configuration suits mechanized farming operations where fields can be precisely leveled longitudinally to ensure even water advance and recession. Uniform topography is essential, as variations can lead to uneven wetting and reduced efficiency.^[30]^[3] Operationally, water is released at the upstream end of each border at inflow rates of 5 to 20 liters per second per meter of width, allowing the advance phase to complete in 2 to 4 hours depending on soil and field characteristics. Inflow is typically halted once the water front reaches 60 to 100% of the strip length, based on soil texture—earlier for finer soils to avoid excess runoff. The method demands soils with uniform infiltration rates, preferably medium-textured loams or clays, to achieve even distribution and minimize tailwater waste or deep percolation.^[30]^[31] This irrigation approach is prevalent in the western United States and Australia, particularly for forage and pasture production, where it supports a significant share of such applications—for instance, comprising about 30% of irrigated pasture area in Australia as of early 2000s data. In these regions, it is favored for its simplicity and compatibility with large-scale dairy and livestock operations. The technique leverages sheet flow dynamics on gently sloped fields to optimize water use for dense vegetative covers.^[32]^[33]^[3]

Wild Flooding

Wild flooding, also known as uncontrolled flooding, is the simplest form of surface irrigation where water is released onto unprepared or minimally prepared fields without defined channels, borders, or basins, allowing it to spread naturally by gravity. This method is typically used on flat or gently sloping lands for low-value crops like pastures or meadows, but it results in uneven water distribution, high evaporation, and significant losses to runoff and percolation. Due to its inefficiency, wild flooding is less common in modern agriculture and is often replaced by more controlled techniques, though it persists in some traditional or extensive systems.^[1]

Spate Irrigation

Spate irrigation is a traditional floodwater harvesting method that captures infrequent flash floods from ephemeral rivers or wadis in arid and semi-arid regions, diverting them for large-scale surface spreading across agricultural fields. This system supports irrigation over areas ranging from a few hectares to more than 30,000 hectares per scheme, with global coverage estimated at approximately 3.3 million hectares, primarily in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Pakistan.^[17] It relies on gravity to spread nutrient-rich floodwaters, enhancing soil fertility through sediment deposition while providing essential moisture in environments where rainfall is scarce and unpredictable.^[34] The core techniques involve constructing temporary or semi-permanent diversion structures to channel floodwaters into spreading networks. Diversion weirs, often made from local materials like stones, gravel, or earthen bunds, redirect flows from the wadi into main canals, while spreading channels—wide, shallow, and steeply sloped—distribute water across command areas. Retention basins, formed by field bunds typically 0.4–1 meter high, capture and hold water for infiltration, allowing for soil moisture conservation over weeks or months. In Yemen, these methods have been refined over millennia, with evidence of spate systems dating back approximately 5,000 years to the early 3rd millennium BCE, including the ancient Mar'ib dam that irrigated up to 9,600 hectares.^[17]^[35] Operationally, spate irrigation follows an episodic cycle tied to seasonal flash floods, which typically last from hours to a few days and occur 1–5 times per year depending on regional rainfall patterns. Farmers rapidly prepare fields by plowing and bunding in anticipation, then plant drought-resistant crops such as sorghum, millet, maize, or pulses immediately after the flood recedes, relying on residual soil moisture for growth. In Yemen's Tihama plain, for instance, 1–3 floods per year support sorghum yields of 600–3,500 kg/ha, with cultivation concentrated in the March–October wet season.^[17] Modern adaptations, particularly in Ethiopia since the 2000s, incorporate earthworks and durable materials to enhance control and reliability. Projects in regions like East Harrarghe and Konso have introduced gabion weirs, concrete intakes, and improved bunds (raised 20 cm higher than traditional ones) to reduce flood damage and increase equitable water distribution, enabling multiple irrigations per season and conjunctive use with groundwater. These interventions have expanded improved spate areas to about 20,000 hectares, boosting crop productivity and farmer incomes while improving system reliability through better sediment management and flow regulation.^[18]^[17]

Design and Efficiency

Design Parameters

Surface irrigation systems require careful consideration of field configuration parameters to ensure uniform water distribution and minimize losses. The field slope is a critical factor, typically ranging from 0.05% to 1% depending on the soil type and irrigation method, with lower slopes preferred for finer-textured soils to promote even advance and reduce erosion risks.^[3] Field lengths generally vary between 50 and 800 meters, selected to balance advance time with infiltration opportunities while avoiding excessive runoff.^[3] Inflow rates are determined based on soil infiltration characteristics and crop requirements, often set to achieve a stable advancing front without causing soil erosion, with rates adjusted iteratively during design.^[2] Land leveling is essential for uniformity, with tolerances typically maintained at ±5 cm across the field to prevent ponding or dry spots that could impair water advance.^[36] Infrastructure supporting surface irrigation includes conveyance channels for transporting water from the source to fields, turnouts for dividing flows into individual bays or furrows, and measurement devices such as weirs to control and quantify discharge rates.^[37] Conveyance channels are designed with appropriate cross-sections and linings to minimize seepage losses, while turnouts often incorporate gates or siphons for precise delivery.^[38] Crested weirs serve as reliable flow measurement tools in these systems, enabling accurate calibration of inflow volumes.^[39] Design must match field parameters to soil and crop properties to optimize performance. Soil infiltration capacity is assessed using field tests like the ring infiltrometer, which measures the rate of water entry into the soil under controlled conditions to inform advance and cutoff times.^[40] For clay soils with low infiltration rates, shorter field runs are recommended to ensure adequate wetting without deep percolation losses, whereas sandy soils allow for longer runs to accommodate higher intake.^[3] Crop-specific needs, such as root zone depth and growth stage, further guide parameter selection to avoid water stress or excess. Simulation tools aid in refining these parameters through hydraulic modeling. The SRFR software, originally developed in the 1990s by T. Strelkoff and colleagues for unsteady flow analysis in surface irrigation, has evolved into modern versions like SRFR 5.0, incorporating object-oriented programming for enhanced simulation of advance, wetting, and recession phases across various field configurations.^[41] With the latest version 5.1 released in 2019, it supports design optimization by evaluating slope, length, and inflow combinations against soil data inputs.^[42]^[43]

Efficiency Metrics and Improvements

Application efficiency in surface irrigation quantifies the proportion of applied water that is beneficially stored in the root zone for crop use, typically ranging from 60% to 90% under optimal conditions. It is calculated using the formula:

E_a = \frac{d \times A}{V_{in}} \times 100

where d is the average depth of water infiltrated into the root zone, A is the irrigated area, and V_{in} is the total volume of water supplied to the field.^[44] This metric highlights the balance between water retention and losses, with higher values indicating better performance in matching supply to crop needs.^[45] Distribution uniformity (DU), another key metric, assesses the evenness of water application across the field, expressed as the ratio of the average infiltration in the lowest quarter of the field to the overall average, with values exceeding 80% deemed ideal for minimizing under- and over-irrigation.^[46] In surface systems, DU directly influences yield variability, as uneven distribution can lead to patchy crop growth. Factors such as soil infiltration variability and tailwater runoff significantly impact these metrics, with runoff often comprising 20-40% of total losses due to excess water exiting the field before full infiltration.^[47] Globally, surface irrigation in developing regions averages 50-70% efficiency, constrained by variable soil conditions and management practices.^[48] Improvements in surface irrigation efficiency have focused on technological and management innovations. Surge irrigation, introduced in the 1980s, applies water in intermittent pulses to enhance advance rates and reduce deep percolation, achieving 10-20% gains in application efficiency compared to continuous flow.^[49] Cablegation, developed during the same period through the 2000s, automates furrow delivery via a moving cable-controlled valve, improving uniformity and cutting water use by promoting consistent inflow rates.^[50] Laser-guided land leveling ensures precise field slopes, minimizing ponding and runoff to boost overall efficiency by 15-25%.^[51] Post-2010 integrations of IoT-enabled real-time sensors monitor soil moisture and flow dynamics, allowing adaptive adjustments that further enhance DU and reduce losses in surface setups.^[52] A notable case study from Australia demonstrates these advancements: basin irrigation systems upgraded through infrastructure enhancements, including better leveling and automation, raised whole-farm efficiencies from 57% to 70% by 2020, supporting sustainable water use amid regional constraints.^[53]

Issues and Mitigation

Environmental Impacts

Surface irrigation contributes to notable environmental impacts, particularly through inefficient water use that affects both surface and groundwater resources. A significant portion of applied water—often 30-50% globally—is lost via deep percolation beyond the root zone and evaporation from the soil surface, reducing overall water availability for ecosystems. While deep percolation can recharge aquifers in some contexts, excessive irrigation in overexploited regions leads to groundwater depletion, as seen in areas where 60% of irrigation depends on aquifers like the US High Plains, resulting in lowered water tables and ecosystem stress.^[54]^[55]^[56] These losses, including evaporation rates of 10-30%, exacerbate water scarcity in arid and semi-arid zones, straining natural hydrological balances.^[57] Soil degradation is another critical concern, with salinization affecting about 10% of the world's irrigated croplands due to salt accumulation from evaporation and inadequate drainage in surface-irrigated fields. This process renders soils less productive and contributes to land degradation on a global scale. Additionally, waterlogging from uneven water distribution can saturate soils, reducing oxygen availability to roots and causing average crop yield losses of 23%, which indirectly pressures farmers to expand irrigated areas and further degrade soils.^[58]^[59] Biodiversity faces dual effects from surface irrigation: while excess water application may create temporary wetland-like habitats that support some aquatic species, it more commonly disrupts ecosystems through habitat alteration and pollution. Water diversions for irrigation reduce flows in rivers and wetlands, leading to habitat loss for fish and riparian species, while nutrient leaching from fertilized fields causes eutrophication in downstream water bodies, harming biodiversity via algal blooms and oxygen depletion.^[60]^[61]^[62] The cumulative impacts tie into broader climate challenges, amplifying water scarcity as evaporation and percolation losses intensify under warming conditions. A stark example is the Aral Sea, which has shrunk by over 90% since the 1960s due to intensive surface irrigation for cotton in Central Asia, resulting in the loss of fisheries, desertification, and regional biodiversity collapse.^[63]^[64]

Operational Challenges

Surface irrigation systems frequently encounter operational challenges related to labor-intensive management and precise timing of water applications. Manual gate operations demand significant human effort to regulate flow and prevent overflows or under-irrigation, particularly in traditional setups where operators must adjust structures in real-time based on variable soil conditions and inflow rates.^[65] In shared communal systems, scheduling conflicts exacerbate these issues, as farmers compete for limited turns under rigid rotation schemes like warabandi, leading to disputes and inefficient use of allocated time slots.^[65] Water delivery delays further compound the problem, with unsteady canal flows and lag times, as stabilization can take several hours to days depending on system length and topography—for instance, up to four days in some Sri Lankan schemes.^[65] Economic factors pose additional hurdles to effective operation. Initial land leveling, essential for uniform water distribution in basin, furrow, or border methods, incurs high costs varying by soil type, equipment (e.g., laser-guided systems), and regional labor rates; these expenses can deter adoption in resource-limited areas.^[66] Ongoing maintenance is equally demanding, especially in erosion-prone border strips where unchecked water velocities accelerate soil loss and structural degradation, requiring frequent repairs to ditches and bunds that add 5-10% to annual operating budgets in vulnerable regions.^[67] Mitigation strategies have evolved to address these challenges through technological and educational interventions. Farmer training programs, such as those supported by USAID since the 2010s, emphasize best practices in gate management and scheduling to reduce labor errors and conflicts, with initiatives in Zimbabwe and Nepal demonstrating improved equity and reduced delivery times via community-based workshops.^[68] In the 2020s, automated gates equipped with sensors and real-time control systems have emerged as key advancements, enabling precise flow adjustments and minimizing manual interventions; for example, end-of-row advance sensors in U.S. systems optimize cutoff times, significantly reducing labor needs while enhancing timing accuracy.^[69] Mobile apps for irrigation scheduling further support this by integrating weather data and soil moisture readings to predict optimal turns, fostering more reliable operations in diverse settings.^[70] Policy aspects, particularly water rights in communal systems, present systemic operational barriers. In India and Pakistan, traditional time-based allocations under warabandi often lead to inequities and overuse by upstream users, complicating enforcement and causing chronic scheduling disputes.^[71] Transitioning to volumetric allocation—measuring and distributing fixed water volumes per farm—has proven effective in resolving these issues, as piloted in the Indus Basin, where it promotes accountability, reduces conflicts, and aligns deliveries with crop needs without altering infrastructure.^[72] Poor management under such policies can indirectly amplify environmental risks like soil erosion, underscoring the need for integrated operational reforms.^[65]

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[21]
5. Surface irrigation design
Compute the advance time for a range of inflow rates between Qmax and Qmin ... tco = td - Ao L / (2 Qo) = 680 - .0355 * 200 / .12 = 631 min. Finally ...
[22]
https://www.fao.org/4/t0231e/t0231e07.htm
[23]
[PDF] Inherent Factors Affecting Soil Infiltration
Soil texture. (percentage of sand, silt, and clay) is the major inherent factor affecting infiltration. Water moves more quickly through large pores of sandy ...
[24]
[PDF] Irrigation Land Leveling
The uniform surface that results from this practice increases infiltration and reduces the potential for transport of nutrients to surface water.
[25]
None
### Summary of Volume Balance Method for Surface Irrigation
[26]
CHAPTER 2. BASIN IRRIGATION
These are usually root and tuber crops such as potatoes, cassava, beet and carrots which require loose, well-drained soils.
[27]
Design and management guidelines for contour basin irrigation ...
Aug 19, 2003 · These basins are characterised by drain-back drainage. Water is allowed to fill the basin from the supply channel and upon completion of ...
[28]
[PDF] Basin Irrigation
The basin can be in- creased to 0.2 ha using the same flow on a clay soil. Notice also how large the stream sizes must be even for the smallest basins. Table 1 ...
[29]
https://irre.ku.ac.th/slideshow/pdf/34.pdf
[30]
404 - Page Not Found | Natural Resources Conservation Service
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[31]
Chapter 16: Surface Irrigation
**Summary of Border Strip Irrigation Details:**
[32]
https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/Lookup/4618.0Main%2BFeatures12002-03
[33]
An integrated model for simulation of border-check irrigated dairy ...
Border-check irrigation is the predominant method of applying water to dairy pastures in Australia. Dairy pastures consume 40% of total irrigation water in ...
[34]
Improving Traditional Spate Irrigation Systems: A Review | IntechOpen
Although the spate irrigation system is an ancient practice, it is only in the past very few decades the system has undergone little modernization ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[35]
[PDF] Irrigation systems in ancient Yemen: Epigraphic and historical study
Flood irrigation has a long history and tradition in ancient South Arabia. The earliest hydraulic structures range back to the 4th. Millennium BCE. South ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
CHAPTER 5 - IRRIGATION SYSTEM
The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the whole irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the ...
[37]
[PDF] Canal Systems Automation Manual, Vol. 2 - Bureau of Reclamation
major turnouts will help define conveyance channel requirements. Minor turnouts should be estimated or lumped together to produce approximate location and ...
[38]
[PDF] Irrigation Organizations: Water Storage and Delivery Infrastructure
The third most common turnout in irrigation organization conveyance systems is crested weirs. There are nearly 30,000 crested weirs used by irrigation ...
[39]
Annex 2 Infiltration rate and infiltration test
The most common method to measure the infiltration rate is by a field test using a cylinder or ring infiltrometer. Ring infiltrometer of 30 cm diameter and 60 ...
[40]
The SRFR 5 Modeling System for Surface Irrigation - ASCE Library
Dr. Strelkoff was a pioneer in the field of unsteady flow modeling of surface irrigation systems and led the development of the SRFR code and its predecessors ...
[41]
Current Developments in Software for Surface Irrigation Analysis
Jul 11, 2012 · The simulation engine, known as SRFR, has been entirely rewritten using modern object-oriented programming concepts. This recoding effort was ...
[42]
Irrigation Chapter 8 - Irrigation Efficiencies
Water application efficiency pertains to an individual irrigation event. Equation 8.1 is used to determine water application efficiency.
[43]
Annex I: Irrigation efficiencies
A scheme irrigation efficiency of 50-60% is good; 40% is reasonable, while a scheme Irrigation efficiency of 20-30% is poor. It should be kept in mind that the ...
[44]
[PDF] Using Distribution Uniformity to Evaluate the Quality of a Sprinkler ...
In this ordinance irrigation efficiency for landscape irrigation systems must be a minimum of 62.5%. That would require that a site have a “Good” irrigation ...
[45]
Irrigation Fundamentals - Water Well Journal
Nov 18, 2019 · As water is applied to the top end of the field, it will flow or advance over the length of the field. The advance phase refers to that length ...
[46]
A Review of Precision Irrigation Water-Saving Technology under ...
This study further reported the water application efficiency of various irrigation methods, including surface irrigation (50–70% for furrow, 40–60% for border, ...
[47]
Surge Irrigation Reduces Irrigation Requirements for Soybean on ...
Aug 17, 2017 · Water savings with SURGE compared with CONV increased by 2% per 100 ft as row length increased from 540 to 1800 ft. Advantages of SURGE extend ...Missing: 1980s- | Show results with:1980s-
[48]
https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/14/7/1141
[49]
Laser-land leveling adoption and its impact on water use, crop ...
Adoption of laser-land leveling has a positive impact on irrigation water savings, wheat and rice yields and household income.
[50]
Real-time monitoring of water level and storage dynamics of ...
Sep 30, 2020 · This paper illustrates the novel idea of real-time monitoring of water level dynamics of an irrigation tank through IoT. In addition to this ...Sensor Calibration Of Water... · Methodology And Materials · Sensor NetworkMissing: surface post-
[51]
Water-use efficiency and productivity trends in Australian irrigated ...
Jan 6, 2025 · The whole-farm irrigation efficiency index improved from 57% to 70%, and the crop water use index is >3kg/mm.ha, high by international standards ...
[52]
Irrigation Water Loss and Recovery in Utah | USU
This fact sheet 1 will define irrigation application efficiency, describe the destinations of irrigation water losses, and discuss how the fraction of ...
[53]
Groundwater depletion and sustainability of irrigation in the US High ...
Aquifer overexploitation could significantly impact crop production in the United States because 60% of irrigation relies on groundwater.
[54]
Groundwater Decline and Depletion | U.S. Geological Survey
Groundwater depletion is primarily caused by sustained groundwater pumping. Some of the negative effects of groundwater depletion: drying up of wells; reduction ...
[55]
Estimation of agricultural flood irrigation water consumption in the ...
However, irrigation water use does not directly correlate with crop yield, as 10–30 % of the irrigation water is lost to evaporation from the soil surface and ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[56]
FAO launches first major global assessment of salt-affected soils in ...
Dec 11, 2024 · It further estimates that 10 percent of irrigated cropland and 10 percent of rainfed cropland are affected by salinity, although uncertainty ...
[57]
Implications of soil waterlogging for crop quality: A meta-analysis
We reveal that soil waterlogging has less impacts on grain quality than on yield; the latter decreasing by an average of 23 %.
[58]
[PDF] impacts of farming practices and pathways to sustainability
Agriculture pressures wetlands through land conversion, excessive nutrients, pesticides, and water diversion, causing wetland loss and increased pollution.
[59]
Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion
Additional irrigation would divert more water from aquatic ecosystems and impact groundwaters and surface waters via additional leaching of agrochemicals. A ...
[60]
Toward sustainable irrigation practices safeguarding groundwater ...
Mar 28, 2025 · We identified two major potentially harmful effects of irrigation on groundwater ecosystems: habitat loss from lowering water tables and irrigation-induced ...
[61]
World of Change: Shrinking Aral Sea - NASA Earth Observatory
A massive irrigation project has devastated the Aral Sea over the past 50 years. These images show the decline of the Southern Aral Sea in the past decade, ...
[62]
Dry Tears of the Aral | United Nations
Jun 12, 2017 · The world's fourth largest lake in 1960, the Aral Sea has already shrunk to half its former size - a result of unsustainable cotton cultivation ...
[63]
[PDF] Modern Wlater Control in Irrigation - World Bank Document
difficult to operate or that cause conflicts among users; inflexible water deliveries; lack of monitoring and field data. Gap between actual and expected ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
[PDF] Indus Basin of Pakistan - World Bank Documents & Reports
(US$500–2,000 per acre). The cost for new storage can be found on the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) website. The estimated cost for. Basha ...
[65]
[PDF] Irrigation Guide - Natural Resources Conservation Service
The Irrigation Guide provides technical information and procedures that can be used for successful plan- ning, design, and management of irrigation systems.
[66]
[PDF] Does A Market Systems Approach Revitalize Smallholder Irrigation ...
Mar 20, 2019 · The MSA that was embraced by USAID in 2010 to revive Mutema Irrigation Scheme in Zimbabwe is a local systems framework focused on sustainability ...
[67]
Irrigation Advance Sensors Are Having Large Impacts in Surface ...
End-of-row sensors can be an inexpensive, simple tool for improving surface irrigation in many scenarios. They can save time, fuel, money, water, and lost sleep ...
[68]
Automatic sensing and control device for crop irrigation scheduling
Apr 4, 2024 · This paper proposes a new design for monitoring agricultural conditions and controlling the amount of soil moisture by determining the required irrigation ...
[69]
[PDF] Pakistan Irrigation and Drainage: Issues and Options
Mar 25, 1994 · Surface Water Rights Allocation: Free distribution based on historically allocated entitlement would legalize these rights, give ...
[70]
Enabling Volumetric Flow Measurement in the Indus Basin Irrigation ...
Jan 10, 2022 · We present results from a pilot study that overcomes this challenge, develops a reliable measurement program for the IBIS, and illustrates how information alone