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Symblepharon

Symblepharon is a pathological condition characterized by the abnormal adhesion of the palpebral conjunctiva (lining the eyelid) to the bulbar conjunctiva (covering the sclera of the eyeball), resulting from severe or chronic inflammation that leads to fibrosis and loss of conjunctival tissue redundancy.^[1]^[2] This adhesion can range from partial fibrous bands to complete obliteration of the conjunctival fornix, potentially restricting ocular motility and eyelid function.^[1]^[3] The condition arises primarily from acquired etiologies, including inflammatory processes such as ocular cicatricial pemphigoid (an autoimmune disorder with an incidence of approximately 0.8 per million), Stevens-Johnson syndrome (incidence around 0.2 per million in some populations), severe bacterial or viral conjunctivitis, chemical or thermal burns, and postoperative complications like those following pterygium surgery.^[3] Less commonly, it may be congenital, as seen in rare cases like cryptophthalmos.^[1] Pathogenetically, the process involves epithelial damage followed by inflammatory cell infiltration (including neutrophils, T cells, and fibroblasts), activation of profibrotic signaling pathways such as TGF-β and BMP, and subsequent tissue remodeling that promotes adhesion formation.^[3] Clinically, symblepharon may be asymptomatic in mild forms but often presents with symptoms including ocular irritation, dryness, burning sensation, photophobia, decreased visual acuity, and restricted eye movement due to mechanical tethering.^[1]^[2] Associated complications can include entropion (inward turning of the eyelid), lagophthalmos (incomplete eyelid closure), diplopia (double vision), and severe cases may progress to corneal exposure, ulceration, or blindness from chronic scarring.^[1]^[2] Diagnosis is typically made through slit-lamp biomicroscopy to visualize the adhesions, with additional tests such as conjunctival swabs, blood work for autoimmune markers, or immunofluorescence biopsies to identify underlying causes.^[1]^[2] Management focuses on treating the underlying etiology to prevent progression, using anti-inflammatory agents like topical or systemic corticosteroids, immunosuppressants (e.g., rituximab for autoimmune cases), and lubricants for symptomatic relief.^[1] Surgical intervention is often required for symptomatic or progressive adhesions, involving lysis of the symblepharon followed by reconstructive techniques such as amniotic membrane transplantation to promote re-epithelialization and reduce recurrence, oral mucosal grafts, or fornix reconstruction to restore anatomy.^[1]^[3] Despite these approaches, challenges persist, including high recurrence rates, graft shrinkage, and limited preventive options, with ongoing research targeting antifibrotic therapies like TGF-β inhibitors to improve outcomes.^[3] Prognosis varies by severity and timeliness of intervention; mild cases may remain stable, while advanced symblepharon can lead to significant visual impairment if untreated.^[1]

Definition and Classification

Definition

Symblepharon is a pathologic condition characterized by an abnormal adhesion between the bulbar conjunctiva, which covers the anterior portion of the eyeball, and the palpebral conjunctiva, which lines the inner surface of the eyelid; this adhesion may extend onto the cornea in severe cases.^[1]^[3] The adhesion arises from cicatricial scarring that fuses these normally separate conjunctival layers, leading to impaired ocular motility, fornix shortening, and potential complications such as exposure keratopathy or restricted eyelid movement.^[1]^[3] The term "symblepharon" derives from the Greek roots sym- (meaning "together") and blepharon (meaning "eyelid"), reflecting the fused nature of the eyelid and ocular surfaces.^[4] It was first formally described in Ernst Fuchs' seminal 1892 ophthalmology textbook as the "cicatricial adhesion between the eyelid and the eyeball conjunctiva," establishing its recognition in modern ophthalmic literature.^[3] This condition can vary in severity from localized fibrous bands to complete obliteration of the conjunctival fornix, though detailed grading is addressed elsewhere.^[1]

Classification

Symblepharon is classified according to its anatomical location, extent of adhesion, underlying etiology, and severity, which guide clinical assessment and management decisions. Anatomically, it is divided into anterior, posterior, and total types based on the site and degree of conjunctival fusion. Anterior symblepharon occurs when the eyelid margin or a portion thereof adheres directly to the ocular surface, often without significant fornix involvement. Posterior symblepharon involves deeper adhesions that obliterate the conjunctival fornix, leading to attachment between the palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae. Total symblepharon represents the most extensive form, with complete fusion of the entire eyelid to the globe, resulting in profound functional impairment.^[3] The condition can also be distinguished as congenital or acquired. Congenital symblepharon is rare and typically arises from developmental anomalies such as cryptophthalmos, where incomplete separation of the eyelid from the globe occurs during embryogenesis. In contrast, the vast majority of cases are acquired, stemming from postnatal inflammatory, traumatic, or infectious processes that induce conjunctival scarring.^[3] Severity grading systems, such as that proposed by Kheirkhah et al., evaluate the vertical length of the adhesion (from lid margin to limbus), horizontal width, and associated inflammatory activity to quantify impact on ocular surface integrity and motility. Mild symblepharon features partial adhesions that do not restrict eye movement or cause significant fornix distortion. Moderate cases involve noticeable fornix shortening, impairing lid-globe apposition and tear distribution. Severe symblepharon entails total fornix obliteration, often with corneal exposure or involvement, leading to profound complications like keratopathy. These grades (I-IV for length, with I being least severe and IV near-total adhesion) help predict surgical needs and outcomes.^[5] From an etiological perspective, symblepharon is categorized into traumatic, inflammatory, and infectious subtypes, reflecting the inciting mechanisms of conjunctival fibrosis. Traumatic symblepharon results from direct injury, such as chemical or thermal burns that provoke acute inflammation and subsequent scarring. Inflammatory cases are linked to autoimmune or hypersensitivity disorders, exemplified by post-Stevens-Johnson syndrome adhesions where mucosal sloughing leads to cicatrization. Infectious etiologies include chronic bacterial or viral conjunctivitis, notably trachoma caused by repeated Chlamydia trachomatis infections, which fosters progressive forniceal contraction and symblepharon in endemic regions.^[3]^[6]

Etiology and Pathophysiology

Causes

Symblepharon most commonly arises from acquired causes involving severe injury or inflammation of the ocular surface, leading to abnormal adhesion between the palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae. Chemical burns, particularly those from alkali exposure, are a leading etiology, as they induce extensive conjunctival necrosis and subsequent scarring during healing. Thermal burns, such as those from firework injuries or direct heat exposure, similarly damage the conjunctival epithelium, promoting fibrotic adhesions.^[3]^[7] Infectious processes also frequently contribute to symblepharon development through chronic or severe conjunctival inflammation. Bacterial infections like Chlamydia trachomatis, responsible for trachoma, cause progressive scarring and forniceal contraction that culminates in symblepharon. Viral infections, including herpes simplex virus keratitis, can lead to persistent epithelial defects and cicatrization, while adenoviral keratoconjunctivitis may result in symblepharon as a rare sequela of intense inflammation.^[8]^[9] Autoimmune and inflammatory disorders represent another major category of acquired causes. Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS), often triggered by medications or infections, produces acute mucocutaneous blistering with severe ocular involvement that can result in symblepharon due to conjunctival sloughing and fibrosis, particularly in cases with severe or chronic ocular involvement. Ocular cicatricial pemphigoid (OCP), a chronic autoimmune blistering disease, leads to progressive conjunctival shrinkage and symblepharon through repeated episodes of subepithelial bullae formation.^[3]^[7] Traumatic mechanisms include iatrogenic injuries from ocular surgeries, such as complications following glaucoma filtering procedures or pterygium excision, where conjunctival manipulation disrupts the epithelial barrier and fosters adhesions. Prolonged presence of intraocular foreign bodies can also provoke localized inflammation and scarring, manifesting as isolated symblepharon that may obscure underlying penetration.^[3]^[10] Congenital symblepharon is rare and typically associated with developmental anomalies like cryptophthalmos, where incomplete separation of the embryonic eyelid folds results in persistent conjunctival fusion from birth. Other etiologies encompass radiation exposure and chronic ocular surface disorders. High-dose radiotherapy (>60 Gy) to the head and neck can induce chronic conjunctivitis with telangiectasia and symblepharon due to vascular and epithelial damage. Chronic dry eye disease exacerbates conjunctival shrinkage and adhesion through persistent irritation and goblet cell loss, potentially progressing to symblepharon in severe, untreated cases.^[11]^[3]

Pathophysiology

Symblepharon develops through a cascade of inflammatory and fibrotic processes initiated by epithelial injury to the conjunctiva. Severe trauma, such as chemical or thermal burns, disrupts the conjunctival epithelium, triggering an acute inflammatory response involving neutrophil and T-cell infiltration that perpetuates tissue damage and remodeling.^[3] This inflammation leads to the loss of goblet cells in the conjunctival epithelium, which are critical for mucin production; the resulting deficiency impairs the tear film's protective mucin layer, exacerbating ocular surface dryness and vulnerability to further injury.^[1]^[12] During the healing phase, activated conjunctival fibroblasts differentiate into myofibroblasts, promoting excessive extracellular matrix deposition, particularly collagen, which causes progressive conjunctival shrinkage and abnormal fusion between the palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae.^[3] This fibrotic remodeling is mediated by profibrotic cytokines, such as transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), which upregulates genes involved in collagen synthesis and inhibits matrix degradation, thereby driving persistent scar formation.^[3]^[13] As fibrosis advances, obliteration of the conjunctival fornices occurs, restricting eyelid-globe mobility and disrupting the tear reservoir function essential for ocular lubrication.^[1]^[14] In cases of corneal involvement, adhesions extend to the limbus, leading to corneal exposure and subsequent keratopathy due to inadequate tear distribution and mechanical irritation.^[3]^[2]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

Patients with symblepharon often report ocular discomfort, including a burning sensation and foreign body feeling in the affected eye.^[1]^[15] This discomfort arises due to the abnormal adhesion disrupting normal eyelid movement and tear film stability. Photophobia, or sensitivity to light, is another common complaint, exacerbated by exposure of the ocular surface.^[1]^[16] Functional issues frequently include excessive tearing or a paradoxical dry eye sensation, where poor lid closure leads to inadequate tear distribution despite reflex tearing.^[16] Blurred vision may occur if the adhesion involves the cornea, impairing optical clarity.^[1] In cases of recurrent inflammation, patients describe chronic pain or irritation from ongoing exposure.^[17] Motility-related symptoms are prominent in moderate to severe symblepharon, with patients experiencing difficulty in eye movements due to mechanical restriction.^[18] Diplopia, or double vision, can develop in advanced cases when the adhesion limits extraocular muscle function.^[16]

Signs

Symblepharon presents as an abnormal adhesion between the palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae, manifesting as visible fibrotic bands that connect the eyelid to the globe and can vary in extent from localized linear strands to broad sheets obliterating the fornices.^[19] These adhesions result from conjunctival scarring and lead to fornix foreshortening, which diminishes the conjunctival sac's capacity to hold tears and impairs normal lid movement during blinking.^[19] Lid abnormalities commonly associated with symblepharon include cicatricial entropion, where scarring causes the eyelid margin to invert, leading to aberrant lash contact with the ocular surface and potential corneal abrasion.^[19] Additionally, lagophthalmos may occur due to tethering of the lid by the adhesions, resulting in incomplete eyelid closure and subsequent exposure of the cornea to environmental factors.^[19] In cases where the symblepharon extends toward the limbus, corneal signs such as superficial keratopathy, ulceration, and neovascularization become evident, often compromising visual acuity through progressive opacification or perforation risk.^[20] Keratinization of the corneal epithelium may also develop secondary to chronic exposure and inadequate lubrication.^[19] Ocular surface damage is characterized by extensive conjunctival scarring and fibrosis, which further restricts ocular motility and contributes to instability of the tear film, exacerbating dry eye conditions.^[19] This scarring often appears as whitish, avascular plaques or bands during slit-lamp examination, highlighting the chronic cicatrizing nature of the underlying pathology.^[20]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

The clinical evaluation of symblepharon begins with a detailed history to identify potential etiologies and progression. Patients are questioned about the onset of symptoms, which may be acute following trauma or insidious in chronic cases, and any history of prior ocular trauma, chemical or thermal burns, infections, or autoimmune conditions such as ocular cicatricial pemphigoid or Stevens-Johnson syndrome.^[2]^[21] The timeline of progression is assessed, including the development of adhesions over weeks to years, often linked to recurrent inflammation or scarring from underlying causes.^[22] Physical examination focuses on direct visualization and functional assessment of the ocular surface. Slit-lamp biomicroscopy is essential to evaluate the extent of adhesions between the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva, revealing fibrous bands or membranes that may partially or completely obliterate the fornices.^[23] Fornix depth is measured using a calibrated probe or ruler during eversion of the eyelids to quantify shortening, which correlates with adhesion severity and fornix foreshortening as a key sign.^[22] Ocular motility testing is performed to detect mechanical restrictions imposed by symblepharon. The forced duction test involves topical anesthesia followed by gentle grasping of the conjunctiva with forceps to passively move the globe; passive movement limited by adhesions confirms restrictive strabismus, distinguishing it from neurogenic causes.^[24] If dry eye is suspected based on history or symptoms like burning and photophobia, the Schirmer test is conducted by placing a filter paper strip in the lower conjunctival sac for 5 minutes to measure basal tear production, with values below 10 mm indicating aqueous deficiency often exacerbated by symblepharon-related surface disruption.^[22]

Ancillary Tests

Ancillary tests for symblepharon primarily serve to confirm the diagnosis by identifying underlying etiologies, such as autoimmune or infectious processes, rather than directly visualizing the adhesion itself, which is typically assessed clinically.^[1] These tests are indicated when the clinical presentation suggests a specific cause, like ocular cicatricial pemphigoid (OCP) or infectious conjunctivitis, to guide management and rule out differentials.^[25] Conjunctival biopsy is a key ancillary procedure, particularly for suspected autoimmune conditions like OCP, where sampling of the perilesional conjunctiva allows for histopathological examination and direct immunofluorescence (DIF) to detect linear deposition of IgG, IgA, and C3 at the epithelial basement membrane zone. DIF on conjunctival biopsy serves as the gold standard for confirming OCP, with reported sensitivity ranging from 60% to 80%, though positivity may be lower in advanced scarring stages due to epithelial atrophy.^[26]^[25]^[21] For Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS), conjunctival biopsy during active disease may reveal subepithelial plasma cells and lymphocytic infiltration, supporting the diagnosis when combined with clinical findings, though skin biopsy is more commonly performed for confirmation.^[27] Serologic testing complements biopsy by detecting circulating autoantibodies in autoimmune-mediated symblepharon, offering a less invasive option for patients with suspected pemphigoid diseases. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) target antibodies against basement membrane zone antigens, such as BP180 and BP230, with utility in ocular-predominant cases where biopsy yield is limited.^[28]^[29] In SJS, serology is less routinely used but may identify precipitating factors like infectious agents (e.g., Mycoplasma pneumoniae) through specific antibody titers if systemic involvement is suspected.^[30] Imaging modalities, such as anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT), provide non-invasive assessment of adhesion depth and associated anterior segment changes in symblepharon, revealing subepithelial hyperreflectivity or fornix obliteration in cases linked to SJS or OCP. AS-OCT is particularly valuable for preoperative planning or monitoring progression without contact.^[31]^[32] Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is reserved for rare instances of orbital involvement, such as in sarcoidosis-induced symblepharon, to evaluate soft tissue extension, granulomas, or osseous changes, with MRI preferred for its superior soft tissue resolution.^[33]^[34] For infectious etiologies, such as bacterial or chlamydial conjunctivitis leading to symblepharon, conjunctival cultures and sensitivity testing are essential to identify causative organisms and guide antimicrobial therapy. Swabs from the inferior fornix or tarsal conjunctiva are cultured for bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus or Chlamydia trachomatis) or fungi, with Gram staining and PCR enhancing diagnostic accuracy in chronic or neonatal cases.^[18]^[35]^[36]

Management

Medical Treatment

Medical treatment for symblepharon primarily focuses on addressing underlying causes, preventing progression of adhesions, and managing associated symptoms such as dry eye and inflammation through conservative, pharmacological approaches.^[1] These interventions aim to stabilize the ocular surface and alleviate discomfort without surgical intervention, particularly in mild or early cases.^[2] Lubrication forms a cornerstone of therapy to combat exposure keratopathy and maintain conjunctival hydration, often exacerbated by symblepharon. Preservative-free artificial tears and lubricating ointments are frequently prescribed to reduce friction between the eyelid and globe, thereby minimizing irritation and further adhesion formation.^[1]^[13] These agents are applied multiple times daily, with ointments preferred at night for prolonged coverage.^[2] Anti-inflammatory therapies target the inflammatory processes driving symblepharon, especially in autoimmune or cicatrizing conditions like mucous membrane pemphigoid. Topical or systemic corticosteroids, such as prednisolone acetate drops or oral prednisone, are used to suppress acute inflammation and halt progression.^[1] For chronic or steroid-resistant cases, immunosuppressants like cyclosporine (topical 0.05% emulsion) or systemic agents including azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil, and rituximab are employed to modulate T-cell activity and prevent fibrosis.^[37]^[38] Cyclosporine, in particular, has shown efficacy in ocular surface diseases associated with symblepharon by inhibiting inflammatory cytokine release.^[39] In instances where bacterial infection contributes to symblepharon formation, such as in severe bacterial conjunctivitis, topical antibiotics like erythromycin or fluoroquinolones (e.g., moxifloxacin drops) are administered to eradicate pathogens and reduce secondary inflammation.^[1] These are typically used empirically in acute settings, with culture-guided therapy if resistance is suspected, and combined with lubricants to support epithelial healing.^[35] Supportive measures address secondary complications like severe dry eye or lid abnormalities. Punctal occlusion via plugs or cautery helps retain tears, improving ocular surface integrity in symblepharon-related aqueous deficiency.^[2] These approaches are tailored to individual etiology and monitored closely to avoid complications like infection from prolonged steroid use.^[1]

Surgical Interventions

Surgical interventions for symblepharon primarily involve the lysis of adhesions to separate the conjunctiva from the cornea or eyelid, followed by reconstruction of the ocular surface to prevent recurrence. These procedures are indicated when adhesions cause significant functional impairment, such as restricted ocular motility, exposure keratopathy, or obstruction of the visual axis, and are typically performed under local or general anesthesia with magnification to minimize trauma to surrounding tissues.^[40] Adhesion lysis is achieved through manual dissection of the fibrotic symblepharon bands, carefully separating the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva while preserving viable tissue and avoiding iatrogenic injury to the globe. Intraoperative application of mitomycin C (MMC) at concentrations of 0.02-0.04% for 2-5 minutes is often used adjunctively to inhibit fibroblast proliferation and reduce the risk of re-adhesion, particularly in inflammatory etiologies like chemical burns or cicatrizing conjunctivitis. Laser-assisted lysis, such as with argon or CO2 lasers, has been explored for precise ablation in select cases but remains less common than manual techniques due to limited evidence of superior outcomes.^[5]^[1] Following lysis, grafting is essential to cover denuded areas and promote epithelialization. Amniotic membrane transplantation (AMT) is a widely adopted first-line option, involving the placement of preserved amniotic membrane—either as a single layer graft sutured or glued (e.g., with fibrin adhesive) over the recipient bed—to act as a biological barrier that modulates inflammation and supports conjunctival regeneration. In a study of 20 eyes with symblepharon, AMT achieved complete epithelization in 100% of cases with no significant complications, demonstrating its safety and efficacy for mild to moderate defects. For severe or recurrent symblepharon, particularly involving extensive fornix obliteration, oral mucosal autografts harvested from the buccal or labial mucosa are preferred; these are thinned, sized to the defect (e.g., 2-3 cm²), and secured with absorbable sutures (e.g., 9-0 Vicryl) to reconstruct the conjunctival fornix and restore eyelid-globe apposition.^[41]^[42]^[40] Fornix reconstruction techniques enhance surgical durability by deepening the fornix depth, often incorporating anchoring sutures passed through the eyelid and tarsus to secure the graft and maintain separation during healing. In a series of 61 eyes graded by symblepharon severity, this approach combined with AMT and MMC yielded an 85% success rate at the first surgery, rising to 97% with revisions, with higher efficacy in less severe cases. For cases with corneal involvement and limbal stem cell deficiency, advanced procedures integrate symblepharon release with limbal stem cell therapy, such as autologous simple limbal epithelial transplantation (SLET), where limbal tissue from the contralateral eye is expanded on a carrier and transplanted alongside conjunctival autografts to restore corneal epithelium and prevent further adhesion.^[5]^[43] Timing of surgery varies by etiology: acute interventions within weeks of injury (e.g., chemical burns) aim to halt progression, while chronic cases require stabilization of underlying inflammation through preoperative medical management before operative correction. Overall success rates with grafting range from 70-90%, influenced by disease severity and adjunctive measures like MMC.^[40]^[5]

Prognosis and Complications

Prognosis

The prognosis of symblepharon is generally favorable in mild cases that receive early treatment, often resulting in complete resolution with minimal or no vision loss.^[2] In such instances, prompt intervention prevents progression to significant scarring, allowing for restoration of normal eyelid and conjunctival function.^[17] However, outcomes are poorer in severe cases, particularly those associated with autoimmune conditions like Stevens-Johnson syndrome or mucous membrane pemphigoid, or extensive burn injuries, where recurrent adhesions are common and carry a substantial risk of blindness due to corneal involvement.^[44] Recurrence rates following surgery are notably higher in autoimmune etiologies compared to traumatic burns.^[44] Key factors influencing recovery include the underlying etiology, with traumatic causes generally yielding better long-term results than inflammatory or autoimmune ones, as the latter promote ongoing fibrosis.^[44] Timely intervention is critical, as delays exacerbate adhesion formation and reduce the efficacy of treatments like symblepharon release.^[17] Patients require regular follow-up monitoring to detect early signs of recurrence and manage any progression.

Complications

Symblepharon, if untreated or recurrent, can give rise to various ocular complications, primarily due to mechanical distortion of the ocular surface and impaired tear dynamics. One significant issue is corneal ulceration, which arises from persistent exposure of the corneal epithelium secondary to adhesions that disrupt normal eyelid closure and tear film stability.^[45] Corneal neovascularization frequently develops in severe cases involving corneal encroachment, where fibrovascular tissue invades the avascular cornea, often accompanied by opacification that further compromises visual acuity.^[46] In the context of underlying cicatricial conditions like ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, extensive conjunctival scarring associated with symblepharon can contribute to secondary glaucoma, often open-angle, by damaging the trabecular meshwork and obstructing aqueous outflow through chronic inflammation.^[25] Functionally, symblepharon often induces chronic dry eye syndrome through obliteration of the conjunctival fornices, which impairs tear reservoir function and lacrimal drainage, resulting in persistent ocular surface inflammation and discomfort.^[1] Ptosis may occur as adhesions pull the eyelid downward, exacerbating exposure and contributing to further surface drying.^[2] Restricted ocular motility is another common consequence, as fibrous bands tether the conjunctiva, limiting extraocular muscle excursion and potentially causing diplopia; in pediatric cases, this mechanical restriction can lead to amblyopia if it results in chronic visual deprivation or misalignment.^[1]^[3] In patients with underlying autoimmune disorders such as mucous membrane pemphigoid or Stevens-Johnson syndrome, the development of symblepharon often signifies disease progression, as chronic ocular inflammation and cicatrization reflect ongoing systemic autoimmune activity that may worsen without targeted immunosuppression.^[47]^[25] Rarely, untreated symblepharon with associated exposure keratopathy can predispose to secondary infections that spread posteriorly, potentially resulting in orbital cellulitis, particularly in immunocompromised individuals or following trauma.

Epidemiology

Prevalence and Incidence

Symblepharon is a rare ocular condition in the general population, primarily occurring as a complication of underlying disorders such as cicatrizing conjunctivitis, which has an estimated minimum annual incidence of 1.3 cases per million individuals in the United Kingdom (2008 data), with symblepharon present at diagnosis in 62% of cases.^[48] Large-scale epidemiological studies are limited, and most available data derive from case series and retrospective analyses rather than population-wide surveys. In general ophthalmology practices, the incidence remains below 1%, reflecting its dependence on precipitating events like trauma or infection.^[1] Prevalence varies significantly by etiology and cohort. In survivors of severe chemical eye burns, symblepharon develops in 18.4% of affected pediatric eyes one year post-injury, with higher rates reported in severe (grade III-IV) injuries.^[49] For Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS), acute ocular involvement occurs in 50-88% of cases, escalating to 47.5% of eyes with symblepharon in those with persistent chronic sequelae.^[50] Symblepharon is present at diagnosis in 62% of cicatrizing conjunctivitis cases across etiologies, underscoring its frequency as a key feature in advanced disease.^[48] Global variation is notable, with higher prevalence in developing regions due to elevated rates of chemical burns, infections (e.g., trachoma), and limited access to early intervention.^[6] In contrast, industrialized areas like Europe and North America report lower incidences, tied to reduced exposure to occupational hazards and infectious agents. Demographically, symblepharon predominantly affects adults, with median ages ranging from 42 years in SJS-related cases to 71 years in ocular mucous membrane pemphigoid.^[48] Gender distribution is generally equal overall, though autoimmune etiologies exhibit a female bias (e.g., 75% female in SJS cases).^[48] Recent large-scale studies remain limited, with most data from pre-2025 cohorts.

Risk Factors

Symblepharon susceptibility is heightened in individuals with a history of certain autoimmune or inflammatory conditions, such as Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and ocular cicatricial pemphigoid (OCP), where chronic conjunctival scarring predisposes to adhesion formation.^[26] In SJS, severe ocular involvement during acute episodes can progress to symblepharon as a long-term sequela. Similarly, OCP, an autoimmune blistering disorder, leads to progressive forniceal contraction and symblepharon through repeated episodes of conjunctival inflammation and fibrosis.^[25] Prior trachoma infection in endemic regions, particularly in areas of sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia, also increases risk due to recurrent chlamydial conjunctivitis causing cicatricial changes.^[51]^[52] Demographic factors play a role, with autoimmune-related symblepharon more common in adults over 40 years, particularly those aged 60 to 80, as seen in OCP where advanced age correlates with disease onset and severity.^[26]^[53] Congenital symblepharon, though rare, predominantly affects children and may present as part of developmental anomalies like cryptophthalmos, requiring early intervention to prevent visual impairment.^[1]^[17] Occupational exposure to chemicals, such as alkalis or acids in industrial settings, elevates risk by inducing acute ocular surface injury that heals with adhesions.^[54] Workers in manufacturing, cleaning, or agriculture face higher susceptibility due to potential for thermal or caustic burns leading to symblepharon formation.^[55] Lifestyle elements, including poor hygiene, amplify infection risk and subsequent scarring; inadequate sanitation facilitates transmission of pathogens like Chlamydia trachomatis in trachoma-endemic communities, indirectly promoting symblepharon.^[56] Vitamin A deficiency, prevalent in malnourished populations in developing regions, contributes through xerophthalmia, where corneal and conjunctival dryness fosters adhesion development.^[57]^[16]

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May 8, 2025 · IIF testing enables detection of circulating antibodies and deposition patterns, whereas ELISAs both identify and semiquantify antibodies to ...
[30]
Viral Conjunctivitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The three most common causes of conjunctivitis are viral, allergic, and bacterial, and the majority of cases are caused by adenovirus.
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Concomitant Presence of Symblepharon and Salzmann's Nodular ...
Sep 8, 2025 · Anterior segment optical coherence tomography(AS-OCT) revealed a dense subepithelial hyperreflective lesion with Bowman's layer ...
[32]
Corneal irregularity of the anterior and posterior surface in patients ...
Jul 21, 2025 · Anterior-segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) is a non ... Second, patients with SJS/TEN or OCP sometimes have symblepharon ...<|separator|>
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Sarcoid-induced symblepharon
investigations include CT and magnetic resonance imaging. (MRI).4,6 To rule out vascular injuries angiography and/ or CT angiography may be needed.6 However ...
[34]
CT and MR imaging of orbital inflammation - PMC - NIH
Oct 11, 2018 · MRI is the modality of choice for the evaluation of orbital inflammation because of its superior soft tissue contrast and spatial resolution, as ...
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Symblepharon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Symblepharon is a term that describes adhesions between conjunctiva and adjacent conjunctiva or cornea, and is expected after marked or chronic ulceration.Missing: etymology origin
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A Review of the Differential Diagnosis of Acute Infectious Conjunctivitis
Mar 12, 2020 · Conjunctival cultures should be obtained for all diagnoses of suspected infectious neonatal conjunctivitis. Bacterial cultures are recommended ...Introduction · Epidemiology And Clinical... · Viral Conjunctivitis
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Topical Ophthalmic Cyclosporine in the Treatment of Toxic ...
At this point, cyclosporine could be a good candidate for systemic and topical ophthalmic use as an immunosuppressant agent that acts selectively to suppress T ...
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https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2019.00008
[39]
Guidelines for the use of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with ...
For ocular disease, cyclosporine usually is given at a dose of 2 to 5 mg per kg per day, administered in an equally divided twice daily doses. Some clinicians ...
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Symblepharon: A Review of Etiology, Clinical Features, and ...
Jun 25, 2025 · A symblepharon is an adhesion between the bulbar and the palpebral conjunctiva and is a manifestation of the loss of conjunctival redundancy.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[41]
Evaluation of the outcome of amniotic membrane transplantation for ...
Apr 30, 2004 · AMT appears to be a safe and effective procedure for the surgical treatment of symblepharon. We observed a 100% rate of epithelization of the graft.
[42]
Optimizing Surgical Correction of Symblepharon Secondary to ...
Dec 18, 2024 · Symblepharon is a condition that occurs when abnormal healing after injury to the conjunctiva leads to adhesion between the bulbar and palpebral ...
[43]
Simultaneous surgical management of unilateral limbal stem cell ...
Dec 9, 2020 · Treatment. The patient underwent RE autologous SLET and simultaneous symblepharon release with two CAGs. The order of steps in the surgery were ...Missing: therapy | Show results with:therapy
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A Review of Etiology, Clinical Features, and Management Strategies
It occurs due to conjunctival scarring, most commonly resulting from trauma or chronic inflammation. Vision can be affected either if the symble-pharon is ...
[45]
Long-term outcome of allogeneic cultivated limbal epithelial ...
Jan 31, 2017 · Forty eyes (50%) achieved complete success after the first surgery for symblepharon lysis, 25 eyes (31.3%) achieved partial success, and 15 eyes ...
[46]
Symblepharon as Ocular Manifestation Post Stevens-Johnson ... - NIH
Symblepharon was classically described for the first time by Fuchs (1892) as a cicatricial adhesion between the eyelid and the conjunctiva. Symblepharon is a ...
[47]
Evaluation of chronic ocular sequelae in patients with symblepharon ...
Jul 18, 2020 · The total severity score was defined as Grade I (1-9), Grade II (10-18), and Grade III (19-27). Moreover, the correlation between the severity ...
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Epidemiology of Ocular Manifestations in Autoimmune Disease - PMC
Nov 2, 2021 · This review provides detailed insights into the epidemiological factors affecting the increasing prevalence of ocular complications associated with several ...Missing: amblyopia cellulitis<|control11|><|separator|>
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Incidence, presenting features, and diagnosis of cicatrising ...
Jun 22, 2012 · This study was designed to assess the annual incidence and underlying diagnosis of patients with cicatrising conjunctivitis (CC) within the United Kingdom.
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Demographic, Clinical Profile and Management Outcomes of Ocular ...
Oct 1, 2022 · Sixty percent of cases had eyes with grade I and II chemical burns. Table 2 presents the complications occurring one year after management. ...
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Study of Ocular Manifestations of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome/Toxic ...
Among all, 27 patients had ocular involvement and among them 7 patients (25.9%) had mild, 17 patients (62.9%) had moderate, and 3 patients (11.1%) had severe ...
[52]
Clinical Characteristics and Treatment of Ophthalmic Sequelae of ...
Mar 20, 2024 · In patients with chronic SJS/TEN, the most commonly found ocular sequelae were conjunctival hyperaemia in 45 (56.3%) eyes, symblepharon in 38 ( ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Ocular cicatricial pemphigoid - PMC - PubMed Central
Ocular cicatricial pemphigoid predominantly affects females twice more than males [1], and the age of onset is around 60 years or older. There is no racial ...
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Trachoma. EyeRounds.org: Online Ophthalmic Atlas
Trachoma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the eye and the leading cause of blindness. Trachoma is due to Chlamydia trachomata infection.
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Trachoma and Inclusion Conjunctivitis - IntechOpen
May 8, 2013 · Inclusion conjunctivitis is caused by serotypes D to K of Chlamydia tachomatis. The LGV strains (L1, L2, and L3) of C. trachomatis are ...
[56]
Ocular Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid | Johns Hopkins Medicine
It can occur at different ages, but most commonly manifests when a person is between 40 and 70 years old. Symptoms of Ocular Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid.
[57]
Chemical (Alkali and Acid) Injury of the Conjunctiva and Cornea
Sep 8, 2025 · Chemical injuries to the eye can produce extensive damage to the ocular surface and anterior segment leading to visual impairment and disfigurement.
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Treating Acute Chemical Injuries of the Cornea
Oct 1, 2012 · Direct chemical damage to the conjunctiva can lead to scarring, forniceal shortening, symblepharon formation, and cicatricial ectropion or ...
[59]
Trachoma - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Oct 21, 2020 · Trachoma (truh-KOH-muh) is a bacterial infection that affects your eyes. It's caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.Missing: symblepharon | Show results with:symblepharon
[60]
Vitamin A deficiency with xerophthalmia and symblepharon formation
Vitamin A deficiency with xerophthalmia and symblepharon formation ... This is a horrendous example of vitamin A deficiency's devastating effect on the eye.Missing: risk factors hygiene