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Cleaning

Cleaning is the physical removal of foreign material, such as dust, soil, and organic matter like blood, secretions, excretions, and microorganisms, from inanimate objects and surfaces, typically accomplished using water with detergents or enzymatic products alongside manual or mechanical action.^[1] This process does not necessarily kill microorganisms but significantly reduces their presence by eliminating the organic material that supports their growth.^[2] In everyday contexts, cleaning encompasses a range of activities from personal hygiene and household maintenance to industrial and healthcare sanitation, all aimed at preventing the spread of pathogens and maintaining functional environments.^[3] The importance of cleaning lies in its role in safeguarding public health by lowering the risk of infections, allergies, and environmental hazards; for instance, routine surface cleaning in homes removes germs, dirt, and impurities that could otherwise contribute to illness among family members.^[4] In healthcare settings, effective cleaning protocols are critical for reducing healthcare-associated infections, with studies showing that thorough environmental cleaning can interrupt transmission chains of bacteria like Clostridium difficile.^[5] Beyond health benefits, cleaning enhances psychological well-being by reducing stress associated with clutter and disorder,^[6] and it supports food safety by preventing contamination in kitchens and processing areas.^[7]^[8] Historically, cleaning practices trace back to ancient civilizations, with evidence of soap-like materials developed by Babylonians around 2800 BCE for personal and household use, reflecting early recognition of cleanliness for disease prevention.^[9] By the mid-19th century, advancements in microbiology, including Ignaz Semmelweis's advocacy for handwashing in 1847, revolutionized medical cleaning to curb puerperal fever, marking a shift toward evidence-based hygiene.^[10] Modern methods have evolved to include mechanical techniques like pressure washing and steam cleaning, alongside chemical agents, tailored to specific applications such as routine household tasks or specialized industrial decontamination.^[11] These developments underscore cleaning's ongoing adaptation to scientific insights and technological progress.

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Cleaning is the process of removing unwanted substances, such as dirt, contaminants, and microbes, from surfaces or objects to restore or maintain hygiene, functionality, or appearance.^[3] This foundational activity involves both physical and chemical mechanisms to dislodge and eliminate soils that adhere to substrates, ensuring surfaces are free from visible and invisible residues.^[12] The term "cleaning" derives from the Old English word clǣne, meaning pure or clear, which traces back to Proto-Germanic klainiz and Proto-Indo-European gel-, connoting brightness or shining.^[13] This etymological root underscores the historical association of cleaning with purity and clarity, evolving into modern practices that emphasize removal of impurities for health and aesthetic purposes.^[14] At its core, cleaning relies on fundamental physical and chemical principles, including adhesion, which describes how contaminants bond to surfaces through intermolecular forces; solubility, which enables the dissolution of soils in appropriate solvents or detergents; and surface tension, which governs how liquids wet and penetrate surfaces to lift away debris.^[15] These principles facilitate the breakdown of dirt's attachment and its suspension in cleaning media for effective removal.^[12] The scope of cleaning extends from physical removal of visible soils to disinfection, which targets pathogenic microorganisms on surfaces, and sterilization, which eliminates all microbial life including spores, often requiring more intensive processes.^[16] It distinguishes routine maintenance, such as daily surface wiping to prevent buildup, from specialized remediation, which addresses hazardous contaminants in environments like contaminated sites, demanding regulated protocols for safety and efficacy.^[17]

Importance Across Sectors

Cleaning plays a pivotal role in public health by mitigating the transmission of pathogens and reducing the incidence of infectious diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices contribute to 1.4 million deaths annually from related diseases, including diarrheal illnesses and acute respiratory infections.^[18] Poor hygiene alone accounts for approximately 394,000 diarrheal deaths and 356,000 acute respiratory infection deaths each year, underscoring how effective cleaning disrupts pathogen spread in communal and personal settings.^[19] These statistics highlight cleaning's function as a foundational preventive measure, with global disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from unsafe WASH estimated at 1244.29 per 100,000 population in 2019, reflecting a 66% decline since 1990 due to improved hygiene interventions.^[20] Economically, unclean environments impose substantial burdens through direct healthcare expenditures and indirect productivity losses. Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), often linked to inadequate cleaning protocols, result in significant costs; in Europe, HAIs lead to 25 million extra hospital days annually, totaling €13-24 billion in expenses.^[21] In the United States, HAIs among the five most common types alone cost approximately $9.8 billion yearly, with surgical site infections accounting for $3.3 billion due to extended stays and treatments.^[22] Beyond healthcare, unclean conditions exacerbate productivity declines; for instance, water insecurity tied to poor sanitation causes around $8.58 billion in annual U.S. labor and productivity losses, as illnesses force absenteeism and reduce workforce efficiency.^[23] Implementing robust cleaning measures yields returns, with WHO estimating that infection prevention and control (IPC) interventions, including hygiene, save costs by reducing HAIs by 35-70%.^[21] In functional terms, cleaning ensures safety and viability across key sectors, such as food production and property management. In food safety, rigorous cleaning prevents microbial contamination, a critical step in averting foodborne illnesses that affect 600 million people and cause 420,000 deaths globally each year, as reported by WHO.^[24] The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service emphasizes that maintaining cleanliness of surfaces and equipment directly curbs bacterial spread, forming one of the four core steps to safe food handling alongside separation, cooking, and chilling.^[25] For aesthetics and economic preservation, consistent cleaning and maintenance enhance property value; regular upkeep can boost home worth by 1% annually, while neglect may diminish it by up to 10%, particularly through visible deterioration like mold or grime.^[26]^[27] Culturally, cleaning transcends utility to embody moral and spiritual purity in diverse societies, often manifesting in rituals that symbolize renewal and harmony. Spring cleaning traditions, traced to ancient civilizations, persist worldwide; for example, the Persian festival of Nowruz involves thorough home cleansing to welcome prosperity, while Jewish Passover preparations include meticulous removal of leavened remnants to signify spiritual rebirth.^[28] These practices, rooted in historical beliefs linking physical cleanliness to ethical and divine order, illustrate cleaning's role in fostering communal well-being and cultural identity across eras and regions.^[28]

Historical Development

Ancient and Pre-Industrial Practices

Archaeological evidence from ancient Egypt reveals the use of natron, a naturally occurring sodium carbonate deposit, as a key cleaning agent for household purposes dating back to around 1800 BCE. Natron was applied in powdered form or mixed with water to cleanse laundry by absorbing oils and impurities, as documented in medical papyri such as the Kahun Papyrus. This mineral's alkaline properties made it effective for removing dirt and organic residues, facilitating the maintenance of hygiene in daily life and religious rituals.^[29] In classical civilizations, cleaning practices emphasized public infrastructure and personal tools. Ancient Greeks relied on olive oil applied to the skin before exercise or bathing, followed by scraping with a strigil—a curved bronze tool designed to remove oil, sweat, and dirt efficiently. This method, integral to gymnasium routines from the 5th century BCE, promoted physical cleanliness without abundant water resources.^[30]^[31] Similarly, Romans advanced public hygiene through aqueduct systems constructed from the 4th century BCE onward, delivering fresh water to cities for baths, fountains, and sewers, which supported communal bathing and reduced disease by enabling regular washing. These aqueducts, like the Aqua Appia built in 312 BCE, supplied up to a million cubic meters of water daily to Rome alone.^[32] Indigenous and traditional methods across cultures highlighted the use of natural, locally sourced materials for cleaning. Among Native American communities, such as those in the Southwest, plants like yucca roots served as natural soaps for personal hygiene and laundry due to their saponin content, while abrasive stones from riverbeds were used for scrubbing skin and tools.^[33] In Asian traditions, particularly in India, herbal scrubs known as ubtan—mixtures of gram flour, turmeric, and sandalwood—were applied for body exfoliation and purification, a practice rooted in Ayurvedic texts from the Vedic period around 1500 BCE that emphasized natural exfoliants for skin health.^[34] These approaches underscored sustainability, relying on plant-based abrasives and minerals. Pre-industrial cleaning tools and rituals further relied on rudimentary, natural implements. Brooms crafted from bundled twigs, such as birch or heather branches, were widespread in European societies from antiquity through the 18th century, used to sweep floors and outdoor spaces effectively.^[35] Similar twig brooms, often made from bamboo, were used in Asian societies like China and Japan from ancient times. Ash-based soaps, produced by leaching wood ashes to create lye and combining it with animal fats, emerged as early as 2800 BCE in Mesopotamia and persisted in households for washing fabrics and bodies.^[36] Communal washing rituals, like those in ancient Indian river ghats using natural detergents such as reetha (soapnuts) or medieval European bathhouses with shared water sources, fostered social hygiene.^[37]^[38]

Industrial and Modern Evolution

The Industrial Revolution marked a pivotal shift in cleaning practices, transitioning from manual, labor-intensive methods to mechanized and chemically enhanced processes that enabled large-scale production and application. In 1837, William Procter, a candlemaker, and James Gamble, a soapmaker, founded Procter & Gamble in Cincinnati, Ohio, establishing one of the first major soap factories that industrialized soap production for household and industrial use by leveraging steam-powered machinery to meet growing urban demands.^[39] This era also saw the commercialization of sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda, as a versatile cleaner; in 1846, brothers-in-law Dr. Austin Church and John Dwight began producing it on a large scale in New York, marketing it initially for baking but quickly recognizing its abrasive and deodorizing properties for cleaning surfaces and textiles.^[40] The 20th century accelerated these innovations through electrification and synthetic chemistry, expanding cleaning from domestic chores to essential industrial operations. A landmark invention occurred in 1908 when Ohio janitor James Murray Spangler patented the first portable electric vacuum cleaner, featuring a fan-driven suction system with a cloth filter bag, which he sold to William H. Hoover, leading to the commercialization of the Hoover Model O and revolutionizing dust removal in homes and factories.^[41] Post-World War II, wartime research into surfactants spurred the development of synthetic detergents that performed better in hard water than traditional soaps; Procter & Gamble launched Tide in 1946 as the world's first heavy-duty synthetic laundry detergent, which quickly captured market share by effectively cleaning heavily soiled fabrics without residue buildup.^[42] Concurrently, high-pressure steam cleaning emerged as a cornerstone of industrial maintenance, with steam-powered systems dating back over 150 years to remove grease and oil from machinery in railways, ships, and factories, evolving by the mid-20th century into more efficient hot-water pressure washers like the 1950 KW 350 model by Alfred Kärcher.^[43] By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, automation and digital technologies further transformed cleaning, scaling it for efficiency in both residential and commercial environments. In 2002, iRobot introduced the Roomba, the first commercially successful robotic vacuum cleaner, which used sensors for autonomous navigation and floor cleaning, evolving through subsequent models to incorporate mapping, self-emptying docks, and improved battery life by the 2020s.^[44] The COVID-19 pandemic from 2020 onward drove rapid adoption of UV-C disinfection technology, with far-UVC light (around 222 nm wavelength) proven effective for inactivating SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces and in air without harming humans, leading to widespread integration in healthcare and public spaces as a chemical-free sanitization method.^[45] As of 2025, artificial intelligence has optimized cleaning operations by analyzing occupancy data and real-time sensors to generate adaptive schedules, reducing labor by up to 20% in commercial settings through predictive algorithms for route planning and resource allocation.^[46] These advancements underscore a broader evolution from localized household cleaning to expansive industrial applications, where technologies like high-pressure steam systems now handle vast factory floors, minimizing downtime and enhancing hygiene standards across sectors.^[43]

Contexts of Cleaning

Domestic and Personal Cleaning

Domestic and personal cleaning encompasses the routine maintenance of living spaces and individual bodily care to promote health, comfort, and hygiene in everyday household environments. These practices form the foundation of preventive health measures, reducing the spread of pathogens and allergens within the home.^[4] In households worldwide, such activities are typically performed by family members, balancing daily upkeep with periodic deeper sanitation to sustain a clean living area.^[47] Daily household routines often include targeted tasks to manage common sources of dirt and germs. Dusting surfaces like furniture and shelves should occur regularly, ideally weekly, to prevent accumulation that can harbor allergens.^[48] Laundry involves washing clothes, bedding, and towels in detergent with hot water weekly to eliminate bacteria and dust mites, particularly for items in frequent use.^[4] Kitchen sanitation requires daily wiping of countertops and high-touch areas, with deeper cleans of appliances and floors every few days to remove food residues and prevent microbial growth.^[4] Guidelines recommend weekly deep cleans for less accessible areas, such as behind furniture or inside cabinets, to address buildup over time.^[49] Personal hygiene practices focus on maintaining bodily cleanliness through consistent self-care routines. Bathing or showering daily with soap and water removes sweat, oils, and bacteria from the skin, though frequency can vary by climate and activity level.^[50] Oral care entails brushing teeth twice daily and flossing once a day to prevent plaque and gum disease. Hair washing occurs regularly using shampoo to cleanse the scalp and prevent oil buildup, with brushing daily to distribute natural oils.^[51]^[52] Cultural variations influence these habits; for instance, bidet use for post-toilet cleansing is widespread in parts of Europe like Italy and France, as well as in Asia such as Japan and Thailand, where water-based methods are preferred over dry paper for enhanced hygiene.^[53] Challenges in domestic cleaning often stem from modern lifestyles and environmental factors. Time constraints pose a significant barrier, as busy schedules limit opportunities for thorough routines, leading many to prioritize quick daily tasks over comprehensive weekly efforts.^[54] Allergen control requires vigilant measures like HEPA-filter vacuuming and weekly hot-water washing of bedding to reduce dust mites and pet dander, which can exacerbate respiratory issues in sensitive family members.^[48] In small urban apartments, limited space accelerates dust and clutter accumulation, necessitating multifunctional tools and frequent spot-cleaning to maintain tidiness without overwhelming storage.^[55] The global household cleaning products market, valued at approximately USD 246 billion in 2023, underscores the economic scale of these practices and their integration into daily life.^[56] Effective domestic and personal cleaning plays a crucial role in family health by minimizing germ exposure, which can lower infection risks and support overall well-being, particularly for vulnerable groups like children and the elderly.^[4]

Industrial and Commercial Cleaning

Industrial and commercial cleaning encompasses specialized practices tailored to business, manufacturing, and service settings, emphasizing operational efficiency, regulatory compliance, and risk mitigation to maintain productivity and safety. Unlike domestic routines, which focus on individual households, these operations involve large-scale interventions to prevent contamination, ensure equipment longevity, and meet health standards in high-traffic or hazardous environments. Key applications include factory floor decontamination, where hazardous materials like chemicals or biological agents are neutralized to safeguard workers and machinery; office HVAC maintenance, involving duct cleaning and coil sanitization to improve indoor air quality and reduce allergen spread; and retail space sanitization, targeting high-touch surfaces such as counters and fixtures to minimize pathogen transmission in customer-facing areas.^[57]^[58]^[59] At scale, industrial and commercial cleaning often employs automated systems to handle expansive facilities efficiently, such as clean-in-place (CIP) mechanisms for conveyor belts in warehouses, which spray sanitizing solutions without disassembly to maintain hygiene during operations. In the food industry, compliance with standards like ISO 22000 is critical, requiring robust food safety management systems that incorporate prerequisite programs for cleaning to control hazards throughout the supply chain. These protocols ensure verifiable hygiene practices, reducing contamination risks and supporting certification for global trade. Preventive maintenance through regular cleaning further distinguishes these efforts, as it proactively addresses buildup that could lead to failures, contrasting with ad-hoc domestic approaches.^[60]^[61]^[62] Economically, many organizations outsource cleaning to specialized firms, gaining access to expertise and scalable services that lower overhead costs compared to in-house teams. Preventive maintenance via scheduled industrial cleaning yields significant savings, with studies indicating reductions in downtime for manufacturing equipment by averting breakdowns from debris accumulation. This approach not only cuts repair expenses but also enhances overall facility reliability, allowing businesses to allocate resources toward core operations.^[63]^[64] Post-pandemic case studies in hospitality highlight intensified protocols, such as enhanced disinfection of high-touch areas and reduced frequency of stay-over servicing to limit exposure. For instance, many hotels adopted turnover cleaning every three to five days for occupied rooms, extending full sanitization to checkout only, which streamlined operations while prioritizing guest safety and compliance with health guidelines. These measures, implemented across chains like Marriott and Hilton, improved turnaround efficiency and restored consumer confidence in cleanliness.^[65]^[66]

Environmental and Remediation Cleaning

Environmental and remediation cleaning encompasses large-scale efforts to restore ecosystems affected by pollution and natural disasters, focusing on removing contaminants and debris to mitigate long-term ecological damage. These activities often involve coordinated responses from government agencies, using specialized techniques to address spills, hazardous waste, and post-disaster residues while prioritizing environmental protection.^[67] In pollution remediation, mechanical methods are commonly employed for oil spill cleanups, such as the Exxon Valdez incident in 1989, where booms were deployed to contain the oil slick and skimmers were used to recover approximately 10% of the spilled crude from Prince William Sound. Booms act as floating barriers to prevent oil spread, while skimmers mechanically separate oil from water surfaces, though their effectiveness is limited by weather and spill scale. For soil contamination, bioremediation harnesses naturally occurring microbes to degrade organic pollutants like hydrocarbons, breaking them down into less harmful substances through metabolic processes; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has applied this at numerous Superfund sites, enhancing microbial activity with nutrients to accelerate cleanup.^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71] Natural disaster response includes targeted debris removal to prevent secondary environmental hazards. In flood scenarios, techniques involve clearance and hauling of vegetative, construction, and household debris using heavy equipment, followed by recycling or disposal at designated sites to restore waterways and reduce erosion risks; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) often leads these operations under FEMA directives. Wildfire ash cleanup requires careful handling to avoid resuspension of fine particles, employing methods like gentle sweeping, misting with water to settle ash, and HEPA-filtered vacuuming for indoor and outdoor surfaces, as recommended by the EPA to protect air quality and soil. Dredging supports recovery by excavating sediments and debris from riverbeds and harbors post-disaster, improving water flow and navigation while minimizing flood recurrence.^[72]^[73]^[74]^[75] Global initiatives drive systematic environmental cleaning, exemplified by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6), which targets universal access to clean water and sanitation by 2030 through pollution reduction and sustainable water management. Complementing this, projects like The Ocean Cleanup's Interceptor, deployed since 2019, use solar-powered barriers and conveyor systems to capture plastic waste in rivers before it reaches oceans, aiming to prevent 80% of riverine plastic pollution from entering marine ecosystems. As of mid-2025, the project has removed over 30 million kilograms of plastic and launched a 30 Cities Program to eliminate up to one-third of river plastic pollution by 2030.^[76]^[77]^[78] Challenges in environmental remediation include the need for ongoing monitoring to verify contaminant reduction and ecosystem recovery, often spanning decades, alongside substantial financial burdens; for instance, over the past 20 years (as of 2017), U.S. Superfund cleanups have cost taxpayers over $21 billion in federal expenditures for site assessments and remediation. These efforts highlight the balance between immediate response and sustained investment to achieve lasting ecological restoration.^[79]^[67]

Cleaning Methods and Techniques

Mechanical and Physical Methods

Mechanical and physical cleaning methods rely on the application of force, motion, or energy to dislodge and remove dirt, debris, and contaminants from surfaces without the use of chemical agents. These approaches encompass manual and powered techniques that leverage fundamental physical principles such as friction, airflow, and thermal effects to achieve cleaning. They are particularly valuable in environments where chemical residues must be avoided, such as food processing areas or delicate historical artifacts.^[80] Common techniques include sweeping, vacuuming, and scrubbing. Sweeping involves using a broom or brush to mechanically displace loose particles across a surface, creating localized airflow that gathers dust into piles for collection; this method is effective on uneven floors where finer tools may be impractical.^[81] Scrubbing employs abrasive action between a cleaning tool and the surface, where friction generates shear forces that break adhesive bonds holding dirt in place, removing embedded particles through repeated mechanical agitation.^[82] Vacuuming, meanwhile, utilizes airflow dynamics to suck up debris; a fan accelerates air through a nozzle, reducing pressure at the intake according to Bernoulli's principle, which draws in dirt-laden air for filtration and expulsion.^[83] High-pressure water jetting represents an advanced physical method, propelling water streams at pressures ranging from 1,000 to 40,000 pounds per square inch (psi) to erode and blast away contaminants. At lower pressures (around 1,000–4,000 psi), it suits general surface rinsing, while ultra-high pressures (up to 40,000 psi) effectively remove tough residues like graffiti from concrete or metal by creating high-velocity impacts that fracture and dislodge surface layers without structural damage to the substrate.^[84]^[85] Thermal methods, such as steam cleaning, apply heat to facilitate dirt removal. Steam at temperatures of 100–150°C is directed onto surfaces, where the vapor penetrates microscopic pores in dirt deposits, causing thermal expansion that swells and loosens embedded particles for subsequent wiping or rinsing.^[80]^[86] These methods offer key advantages, including the absence of chemical residues that could contaminate sensitive surfaces like electronics or artwork, making them ideal for applications requiring residue-free results and prolonged material integrity.^[87] However, a primary limitation is their ineffectiveness against microbial pathogens; while physical action can remove over 90% of surface bacteria through mechanical displacement, it does not inactivate or kill remaining viable microbes, necessitating complementary disinfection for hygiene-critical settings.^[88]^[2]

Chemical and Biological Methods

Chemical cleaning methods rely on substances that interact at the molecular level to remove contaminants through chemical reactions, such as dissolution, emulsification, or oxidation. A primary mechanism in detergency involves surfactants, which are amphiphilic molecules that reduce the surface tension of water, enabling it to wet and penetrate soiled surfaces more effectively.^[12] By adsorbing at the air-water or oil-water interface, surfactants disrupt cohesive forces between water molecules, allowing the liquid to spread and lift dirt particles away from substrates.^[89] This process is quantitatively described by the Gibbs adsorption isotherm: \frac{d\gamma}{d \ln C} = -RT \Gamma, where \gamma is the surface tension, R is the gas constant, T is temperature, \Gamma is the surface excess concentration of the surfactant, and C is the surfactant concentration in solution; this equation illustrates how adsorption at the interface lowers surface tension.^[90] Acid and base-based cleaning exploits pH-dependent reactions to dissolve inorganic or organic deposits. Acetic acid in vinegar, typically at 4-10% concentration, reacts with calcium carbonate in limescale (CaCO₃) to form soluble calcium acetate, water, and carbon dioxide, effectively removing mineral buildup from surfaces like faucets and kettles.^[91] Ammonia, an alkaline compound with a pH around 11, saponifies fats and oils by reacting with greasy residues to produce water-soluble soaps and ammonium salts, making it suitable for degreasing kitchen surfaces and ovens.^[92] Biological cleaning methods employ enzymes or microorganisms to catalyze the breakdown of specific organic contaminants. Enzyme cleaners, such as those containing proteases derived from bacteria like Bacillus subtilis, hydrolyze peptide bonds in protein-based stains (e.g., blood, food, or sweat) during laundry cycles, converting insoluble proteins into smaller, rinsable amino acids and peptides, which enhances cleaning efficiency at lower temperatures.^[93] This targeted action improves detergent performance without harsh chemicals, as proteases work selectively on amide linkages in polypeptides.^[94] Microbial bioremediation uses naturally occurring or engineered bacteria to degrade complex hydrocarbons, such as oils and greases, through enzymatic metabolism. In oil spill cleanup, hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria like Alcanivorax and Marinobacter oxidize alkanes and aromatics into carbon dioxide and water, often stimulated by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus to accelerate the process.^[95] This method has been applied successfully in major incidents, where indigenous microbes can mineralize significant portions of spilled oil over months to years.^[96] Disinfection within chemical and biological cleaning targets microbial pathogens through oxidative or inhibitory actions. Oxidizers like sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in bleach dissociate in water to form hypochlorous acid (HOCl) via the reaction NaOCl + H₂O → HOCl + NaOH, where HOCl penetrates bacterial cell walls and denatures proteins, DNA, and lipids, achieving broad-spectrum killing of bacteria, viruses, and fungi at concentrations of 0.05-0.5%.^[97] Antimicrobial agents, including quaternary ammonium compounds and alcohols, disrupt microbial membranes or inhibit metabolic enzymes, complementing cleaning by preventing regrowth on surfaces.^[98]

Cleaning Agents and Tools

Types of Cleaning Agents

Cleaning agents are substances formulated to remove dirt, grease, stains, and microorganisms from surfaces, categorized primarily by their chemical composition and mechanism of action. Common types include soaps and detergents, which emulsify oils; solvents, which dissolve residues; abrasives, which mechanically scour; and disinfectants, which kill pathogens. These agents vary in pH levels and environmental impact, influencing their suitability for different applications.^[99] Soaps are traditionally derived from the salts of fatty acids, typically produced by saponification of animal or vegetable fats with alkali, creating molecules with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails that lower surface tension and lift soils.^[100] In contrast, detergents are synthetic surfactants, often alkylbenzene sulfonates or alcohol ethoxylates, designed to perform effectively in hard water without forming insoluble scum, unlike soaps.^[101] Neutral detergents maintain a pH around 7, suitable for delicate fabrics; alkaline ones (pH 8-14) excel at breaking down proteins and fats in greasy soils; while acidic agents (pH 2-6) target mineral deposits like rust or scale.^[99] Solvents facilitate cleaning by dissolving specific contaminants, with water serving as the universal polar solvent for ionic and hydrophilic materials in aqueous formulations.^[102] Organic solvents, such as isopropyl alcohol, are non-polar and evaporate quickly, making them ideal for degreasing electronics without leaving residues or damaging sensitive components.^[103] Abrasives work through physical friction to dislodge stubborn dirt, with mild options like baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) providing gentle scouring for cookware and countertops due to its fine particle size and low hardness.^[104] Coarser abrasives, such as pumice—a volcanic rock composed of silica and other minerals—offer stronger action for removing grime from porcelain or tiles without excessive scratching when used wet.^[102] Disinfectants, often incorporated into cleaners, include quaternary ammonium compounds (quats), cationic surfactants that disrupt microbial cell membranes to eliminate bacteria and viruses on non-porous surfaces.^[105] Eco-friendly cleaning agents emphasize sustainability, utilizing plant-based surfactants like those derived from coconut oil, which are renewable, non-toxic, and readily biodegradable under aerobic conditions, breaking down into harmless byproducts within 28 days.^[106] These alternatives reduce environmental persistence compared to petroleum-derived synthetics. By 2025, the global biodegradable cleaning products market is projected to reach $30.07 billion, driven by consumer demand for low-impact formulations that minimize aquatic toxicity and promote circular economies.^[107]

Tools and Equipment

Manual tools form the foundation of basic cleaning tasks, offering simplicity and portability for domestic and light commercial applications. Brooms, typically made from natural fibers like corn or synthetic bristles, are designed to sweep loose debris such as dust and dirt from floors and surfaces; soft-bristled variants are suited for smooth floors to avoid scratching, while hard-bristled ones handle rougher terrains like concrete.^[108] Mops, often constructed with absorbent cotton or microfiber heads attached to a handle, facilitate wet or damp cleaning by spreading liquid solutions across floors to dissolve and lift adhered soils.^[109] Sponges, composed of porous cellulose or synthetic materials, provide targeted scrubbing for smaller areas, holding soapy water to mechanically dislodge grime from countertops, dishes, or fixtures through direct pressure and friction.^[110] Microfiber materials, woven from ultra-fine synthetic fibers (typically 1/100th the diameter of a human hair), enhance the efficacy of cloths, mops, and sponges by leveraging capillary action—the process where liquid is drawn into microscopic channels between fibers via surface tension—to trap and remove particles, oils, and bacteria without excessive chemicals. This mechanism allows microfiber tools to absorb up to seven times their weight in liquid and retain dirt electrostatically, reducing the need for rinsing during use.^[111]^[112] Powered equipment introduces mechanical assistance to accelerate cleaning and handle tougher residues, often integrating with cleaning agents for optimal results. Vacuum cleaners employ suction powered by electric motors to capture dry particulates from carpets, upholstery, and hard floors; models equipped with HEPA (High-Efficiency Particulate Air) filters capture at least 99.97% of airborne particles 0.3 microns in size, including common allergens like dust mites, pollen, pet dander, and mold spores, thereby improving indoor air quality.^[113]^[114] Pressure washers utilize a pump driven by gas or electric power to propel water at high pressures (typically 1,000–4,000 PSI) through a narrow nozzle, dislodging stubborn dirt, mold, and paint from exterior surfaces like siding, driveways, and vehicles with minimal manual effort.^[115] Ultrasonic cleaners generate high-frequency sound waves (20–400 kHz) in a liquid bath to create cavitation bubbles that rapidly expand and collapse, producing micro-jets of force up to 20,000 PSI to dislodge contaminants from intricate items such as jewelry, medical instruments, or engine parts without physical contact.^[116] Specialized gear addresses large-scale or automated needs in industrial and commercial settings. Industrial scrubbers, available as walk-behind or ride-on units, combine rotating brushes or pads with detergent dispensing and vacuum recovery systems to simultaneously clean, scrub, and dry hard floors like tile or concrete in warehouses and facilities, achieving thorough sanitation over expansive areas.^[117] Robotic vacuums, particularly 2025 models such as those from Avidbots or Tailos, incorporate AI-driven mapping technologies like LiDAR and SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) to autonomously navigate spaces, avoid obstacles, and optimize cleaning paths for floors, often integrating mopping functions for hybrid dry-wet performance.^[118]^[119] Proper maintenance extends the usability of cleaning tools, ensuring efficiency and hygiene. For vacuums, bags or filters should be replaced when half to two-thirds full to maintain suction power and prevent allergen recirculation, typically every 3–6 months depending on usage frequency; overall vacuum lifespan averages 8 years with regular upkeep like belt checks and hose clearing.^[120] Microfiber tools require laundering after 10–20 uses to restore capillary action, while mops and sponges demand replacement every 1–3 months to avoid bacterial buildup.^[121]

Cleaning by Category

Buildings and Infrastructure

Cleaning buildings and infrastructure involves specialized techniques to maintain structural integrity, ensure occupant safety, and comply with health regulations. Interior cleaning focuses on surfaces that accumulate dust, pathogens, and wear from daily use, while exterior methods address weathering, pollutants, and vandalism. Infrastructure cleaning targets public works like roads and transit systems, where environmental factors and high traffic demand robust, efficient approaches. These practices are guided by industry standards emphasizing minimal environmental impact and cost-effectiveness. For building interiors, floor polishing enhances appearance and durability by removing scratches and applying protective coatings. In commercial settings, this is typically performed using high-speed burnishing machines equipped with pads that rotate to buff the floor surface, often after stripping old wax layers. Window washing employs squeegees for streak-free results; professionals apply a cleaning solution with a sponge or cloth, then draw the squeegee blade downward in overlapping strokes, wiping the blade between passes to prevent drips. HVAC duct cleaning prevents mold growth and improves air quality by removing construction debris, dust, and contaminants using vacuum systems combined with pneumatic brushes, ensuring no wet methods are used to avoid moisture buildup. These interior methods are essential in high-occupancy spaces to reduce allergens and extend material lifespan. Exterior cleaning of buildings prioritizes gentle techniques to avoid surface damage, particularly on historic or sensitive facades. Pressure washing, when used, starts at low to medium pressures (under 500 psi) with water and mild detergents to remove dirt, algae, and pollutants, followed by thorough rinsing to eliminate residues. For graffiti removal, gels or poultices—such as solvent-infused pastes made from clays like attapulgite—are applied in a thick layer (¼ to ¾ inch) and covered with plastic sheeting to allow penetration without excessive runoff, minimizing environmental contamination; the material is then scraped off after drying and rinsed. These approaches follow preservation guidelines that recommend testing on small areas first and avoiding abrasives to preserve masonry integrity. Infrastructure cleaning addresses large-scale public assets exposed to harsh conditions. Road sweeping utilizes mechanical broom-equipped vehicles that collect litter, debris, and sediments along curbs, often supplemented by hand tools in dense urban areas; wet-sweeping variants spray water with detergents to target oil and grease, improving stormwater quality. Bridge de-icing employs chemical agents like calcium magnesium acetate (CMA) as a less corrosive alternative to traditional salts, applied via sprayers during winter storms to melt ice without accelerating structural corrosion; urea is used in specific contexts such as airports due to low corrosion to metals, though it may pose higher risks to concrete. Urban subway sanitation faces challenges such as high passenger volumes leading to garbage accumulation, rodent infestations, and biohazards; methods include daily mechanical sweeping of platforms, high-pressure washing of tracks during off-peak hours, and enhanced disinfection protocols to combat pathogens. Cleaning frequencies and costs vary by facility type and usage intensity, with standards set by organizations like the International Sanitary Supply Association (ISSA). In high-traffic environments such as hospitals, waiting rooms and corridors require disinfection 2–3 times daily, public restrooms hourly, and high-touch surfaces every 2–3 hours to mitigate infection risks. Commercial building cleaning typically costs $0.10–$0.25 per square foot for standard services, influenced by factors like frequency and complexity, representing 20–35% of overall facility maintenance budgets.

Personal Hygiene and Health Items

Personal hygiene practices involve the regular cleaning of the body to remove dirt, oils, and microorganisms, primarily through the use of soap and water. Soap functions by reducing surface tension via surfactant molecules that emulsify fats and oils on the skin, allowing them to be rinsed away, while also disrupting the lipid envelopes of bacteria and viruses to detach them from surfaces.^[122]^[123] For oral hygiene, the American Dental Association recommends brushing teeth twice daily for two minutes with fluoride toothpaste to remove plaque and prevent cavities.^[124] Additionally, flossing or using interdental cleaners once daily is advised to clean between teeth where brushes cannot reach, with tools such as string floss, floss picks, or water flossers all endorsed as effective options.^[125] Cleaning health items focuses on sterilization and disinfection to prevent infections, particularly for reusable medical devices. Surgical tools are commonly sterilized in autoclaves using saturated steam at 121°C and 15 psi for at least 30 minutes in gravity displacement cycles, ensuring the destruction of bacteria, viruses, and spores.^[126]^[127] For contact lenses, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommends using approved solutions such as multipurpose disinfecting solutions for cleaning, rinsing, and storing, or hydrogen peroxide-based systems that require neutralization after a specified soaking period, typically involving rubbing the lenses to remove debris before disinfection.^[128]^[129] Wearable health devices require gentle cleaning to maintain functionality and hygiene without damaging electronics. Fitness trackers, such as those from Apple or Fitbit, should be wiped with a soft, lint-free cloth dampened with water or a mild alcohol solution, avoiding submerging in liquids or using abrasive materials.^[130]^[131] Hearing aids are cleaned daily by wiping exteriors with a soft, dry cloth to remove earwax and moisture, with specialized brushes for vents and occasional use of alcohol wipes on non-electronic parts; non-water-resistant models should never be exposed to water, while modern water-resistant hearing aids (e.g., with IP67 ratings as of 2025) can tolerate limited moisture exposure per manufacturer guidelines.^[132]^[133] Handwashing protocols emphasize thoroughness for infection control, with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommending scrubbing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, covering all hand surfaces, to effectively reduce pathogens.^[134] This practice, often guided by the "happy birthday" song sung twice, links directly to public health outcomes by minimizing transmission of illnesses.^[135]

Vehicles and Machinery

Cleaning vehicles and machinery is essential for maintaining operational efficiency, safety, and longevity, particularly in environments exposed to contaminants like road salt, grease, and industrial residues. For automobiles, common methods include touchless car washes, which use high-pressure water jets and detergents to remove dirt without physical contact, reducing the risk of scratches on paint surfaces.^[136] In contrast, brush or soft-touch washes employ foam or cloth applicators for more thorough cleaning of tough grime, though they may introduce minor swirl marks if not maintained properly.^[137] Engine degreasing typically involves solvent-based cleaners, such as petroleum distillates or n-propyl bromide formulations, applied to break down oil and carbon buildup while ensuring quick evaporation to minimize residue.^[138] These processes help preserve engine performance and prevent overheating. In industrial settings, machinery cleaning addresses specific operational needs, such as flushing coolant systems in CNC machines to remove contaminants and bacteria that degrade cutting fluids. This involves draining the sump, treating with biocides, scrubbing interiors, and refilling with fresh coolant to maintain precision machining and tool life.^[139] For aviation, de-icing fluids primarily consist of propylene glycol mixed with water and inhibitors, heated and sprayed to shear off ice from aircraft surfaces before takeoff, ensuring aerodynamic integrity in cold weather.^[140] These glycol-based solutions are preferred over ethylene glycol variants due to lower toxicity, complying with SAE International standards for holdover times.^[141] Key challenges in vehicle and machinery cleaning include preventing corrosion, especially after exposure to moisture or salts. Post-wash application of rust inhibitors, such as undercarriage sprays containing corrosion-resistant compounds, forms a protective barrier on metal surfaces to inhibit oxidation and extend component durability.^[142] Regulatory frameworks enforce these practices; for instance, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recommends aircraft washing at regularly scheduled intervals to mitigate corrosion and maintain airworthiness under Advisory Circular 43-4B.^[140] In automotive contexts, emissions-related cleaning is mandated through EPA regulations, such as 40 CFR § 86.1834-01, which specifies allowable maintenance for emissions control systems like catalytic converters and diesel particulate filters to ensure compliance with air quality standards and prevent tampering.^[143]

Occupations and Professional Practices

Cleaning Professions

Cleaning professions encompass a range of roles focused on maintaining hygiene and order in various environments, from residential and commercial spaces to industrial and specialized sites. These workers ensure safe, clean conditions essential for health and functionality, often performing physically demanding tasks under varying schedules. In the United States, the building and grounds cleaning and maintenance sector employed approximately 4.5 million workers as of May 2024, representing a significant portion of the service industry workforce.^[144] Key roles include janitors and building cleaners, who handle general maintenance in offices, schools, and public facilities; housekeepers, primarily in hotels and homes, focusing on light cleaning and bed-making; and industrial cleaners, who address heavy-duty sanitation in factories and warehouses using specialized equipment. Specializations extend to crime scene cleaners, trained in biohazard remediation to safely remove biological contaminants from traumatic sites, and pool maintenance technicians, responsible for chemical balancing, filtration system checks, and debris removal in swimming pools. These positions often require adaptability to diverse settings, with janitors and industrial cleaners frequently working in larger commercial or institutional buildings.^[145]^[146]^[147]^[148]^[149] Daily tasks vary by role but typically involve routine sanitation, such as emptying trash, mopping floors, disinfecting surfaces, and restocking supplies, often structured around shift-based routines to minimize disruption. For instance, office cleaners commonly work evening or night shifts, performing deep cleaning like vacuuming carpets and polishing furniture after business hours to prepare spaces for the next day. These shifts can extend to weekends in hospitality settings for housekeepers, ensuring comprehensive coverage without interfering with occupants.^[145]^[150] Demographically, the global cleaning workforce exhibits gender imbalances, with nearly 70% identifying as female, alongside notable representation of immigrants (about 25%) and people of color (around 20%). In the U.S., the overall sector gender distribution is approximately 38% female (as of 2023), with patterns differing by subrole: janitors and building cleaners are 34.4% female, while housekeeping roles skew higher toward women at over 80%. The workforce is diverse, with many entering the field without advanced education, though physical demands lead to higher turnover in entry-level positions.^[151]^[152]^[153]^[154] Economically, median hourly wages in the U.S. range from $16.08 for maids and housekeeping cleaners to $16.84 for janitors and other cleaners, equating to annual medians of $33,450 and $35,020, respectively (as of May 2023), though rates can reach $25 per hour in unionized or high-cost areas. Unionization provides benefits like higher pay and job security, with about 10.5% of U.S. cleaning workers represented by unions in 2023, particularly in public sector roles such as school or government facilities. This contrasts with non-union positions, where wages often hover near minimum levels, highlighting economic disparities within the profession. Internationally, organizations like the International Labour Organization (ILO) emphasize decent work standards, including fair wages and safety protections for cleaning workers globally.^[147]^[146]^[155]^[156]

Training and Certification

Training and certification in the cleaning industry emphasize practical education to ensure safe, effective, and efficient practices among professionals. Vocational programs often focus on core competencies such as chemical handling, where participants learn to identify hazards, select appropriate agents, and apply them without risk to health or surfaces. For instance, the Singapore Service Academy offers a one-day course on handling cleaning chemicals, equipping learners with skills for safe storage, dilution, and disposal in professional settings.^[157] Similarly, Ecolab provides foundational training on cleaning basics and chemical safe handling, covering principles like proper dilution ratios and personal protective equipment usage.^[158] The International Sanitary Supply Association (ISSA), founded in 1923, plays a pivotal role through its Cleaning Management Institute (CMI), established in 1964, which has certified over 500,000 individuals worldwide in cleaning techniques and management.^[159]^[160] ISSA's programs range from entry-level courses like the Certified Cleaning Technician to advanced specialties, including the Cleaning Industry Training Standard (CITS) launched in 2014 for frontline workers.^[161] These initiatives promote standardized practices, with CMI offering tailored courses in multiple languages to support global career development.^[162] Certifications validate expertise and compliance, particularly in specialized areas. For green cleaning, professionals can pursue credentials under Green Seal's GS-42 standard for commercial and institutional services, which certifies adherence to environmentally safe methods that minimize chemical and respiratory hazards.^[163] In remediation contexts, such as hazardous waste cleanup, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates training under 29 CFR 1910.120 (HAZWOPER), requiring at least 40 hours for initial operations, including site-specific hazards and emergency response for workers handling contaminated materials.^[164] This ensures certified individuals can safely manage decontamination in industrial or post-disaster scenarios.^[165] Essential skills training covers ergonomics and time management to enhance worker well-being and productivity. Ergonomics programs teach techniques like proper lifting, using adjustable tools, and alternating postures to prevent musculoskeletal disorders, as outlined in resources for housekeeping staff that emphasize warming up and reporting discomfort.^[166] Time management modules focus on prioritizing tasks, creating schedules, and estimating cleaning durations to optimize workflows, reducing delays and improving service quality.^[167] Since 2020, online modules have proliferated for flexible learning, with ISSA's CMI providing virtual courses on these topics and ISSA Canada offering subscription-based access to updated training resources.^[160] Platforms like Cleaning Masterclass deliver self-paced online programs worldwide, covering post-pandemic protocols and advanced techniques.^[168] Career paths in cleaning typically progress from entry-level roles requiring minimal formal education to supervisory and managerial positions through accumulated certifications and experience. Beginners often start as janitors or housekeepers, advancing to technicians or supervisors after completing programs like ISSA's Certified Cleaning Manager, which builds leadership skills.^[169] Further progression to facility management or business ownership involves specialized training, with opportunities in diverse sectors like healthcare or hospitality.^[170] As of 2025, trends highlight automation training, integrating AI-powered robots and IoT devices into curricula to prepare workers for efficient, data-driven operations that address labor shortages.^[171] ISSA and similar bodies now include modules on robotic maintenance and smart scheduling, enabling professionals to oversee hybrid human-machine teams.^[46]

Health, Safety, and Environmental Considerations

Health Risks and Safety Protocols

Cleaning activities expose workers to various health risks, primarily from chemical, physical, and biological hazards. Chemical exposures, such as inhalation of ammonia from household cleaners, can cause acute respiratory irritation, coughing, shortness of breath, and in severe cases, pulmonary edema—a potentially life-threatening buildup of fluid in the lungs.^[172] Mixing ammonia with bleach produces chloramine vapors that lead to toxic pneumonitis, resulting in life-threatening lung inflammation.^[173] Prolonged exposure to spray cleaning products has been linked to a 35% increased risk of asthma among hospital cleaning workers.^[174] Physical hazards include musculoskeletal strains, particularly low back pain from repetitive lifting and awkward postures; studies report a 58.1% prevalence of low back pain among hotel housekeepers, often exacerbated by temporary employment status.^[175] Biological risks arise from disturbing dust containing rodent droppings, which can release hantavirus particles; inhalation during cleanup may lead to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, a severe respiratory illness with high mortality if untreated.^[176] According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) 2023 data, private industry employers reported 2.6 million nonfatal workplace injuries and illnesses, with an incidence rate of 2.2 cases per 100 full-time equivalent (FTE) workers; however, janitorial services experienced a higher rate of 2.0 per 100 FTE workers, driven largely by overexertion and slips.^[177] Cleaning workers also face elevated mental health impacts, including chronic stress from high workloads and low control, which correlates with poorer mental wellbeing; a study of Hispanic female domestic cleaners found significant associations between demanding work conditions and elevated psychological distress.^[178] Psychosocial factors like job insecurity further contribute to anxiety and depression in this profession.^[179] Safety protocols emphasize personal protective equipment (PPE), proper ventilation, and emergency preparedness to mitigate these risks. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommends NIOSH-approved respirators, such as half-face masks with HEPA filters, for airborne hazards like dust or chemical vapors, along with chemical-resistant gloves (e.g., nitrile or vinyl) to prevent skin contact.^[180] Adequate ventilation, including local exhaust systems or working in well-ventilated areas, is essential to dilute chemical fumes and reduce inhalation risks, as outlined by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).^[181] For emergency responses to chemical exposures, workers should immediately remove contaminated clothing, flush affected areas with water for at least 15 minutes, and seek medical attention; calling 911 or the national poison control center at 1-800-222-1222 is advised for severe symptoms like difficulty breathing.^[182] In biological scenarios, such as hantavirus cleanup, use a 10% bleach solution to disinfect and avoid sweeping to minimize aerosolization.^[183] Vulnerable groups, particularly immigrant cleaning workers, face heightened risks due to language barriers that hinder comprehension of safety training. NIOSH identifies language differences as a primary challenge, contributing to higher injury rates among non-English speakers; OSHA mandates that training be delivered in a language and vocabulary workers understand, often requiring translated materials or bilingual instructors.^[184] For instance, providing safety protocols in Spanish for Hispanic workers has been shown to improve adherence and reduce accidents in multilingual workforces.^[185]

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability

Cleaning activities contribute significantly to environmental degradation through the release of pollutants into water systems. Phosphates in traditional detergents promote nutrient loading in water bodies, fostering eutrophication and harmful algal blooms that deplete oxygen and harm aquatic life.^[186] Similarly, non-biodegradable cleaning wipes, often composed of synthetic fibers, fragment into microplastics during use and disposal, contaminating waterways and entering food chains.^[187] These impacts exacerbate marine pollution and biodiversity loss, particularly in regions with inadequate wastewater treatment.^[188] To mitigate these effects, sustainable cleaning practices emphasize zero-waste approaches and reusable tools, such as microfiber cloths and refillable dispensers, which reduce single-use plastic consumption and landfill waste. Certifications like the EU Ecolabel verify products and services that limit toxic substances, optimize energy use, and ensure biodegradability, promoting a holistic reduction in environmental footprint across the cleaning lifecycle.^[189] These methods not only conserve resources but also align with circular economy principles by extending product durability and minimizing extraction of raw materials. Innovations in biodegradable cleaning agents, particularly enzyme-based formulations developed prominently since the 2010s, offer effective alternatives to chemical-intensive cleaners by breaking down organic soils naturally and degrading rapidly without persistent residues.^[190] Waterless cleaning technologies further enhance sustainability by eliminating water usage—saving more than 99% of the water in some applications like vehicle washing—while reducing chemical runoff and energy demands associated with heating and disposal.^[191] Global regulatory efforts, such as the EU's REACH regulation enacted in 2007, mandate registration, evaluation, and restriction of hazardous chemicals in cleaning products, thereby curbing their release into ecosystems and fostering safer alternatives to prevent environmental contamination.^[192] Recent developments include the UK's ban on wet wipes containing plastic, effective in 2025, aimed at reducing microplastic pollution from such products.^[193] These measures have supported broader reductions in chemical pollution, contributing to improved water quality in regulated areas through phased-out substances and enhanced industry accountability.

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Real-time coefficient of friction (COF) analysis is used to determine the extent of normal and shear forces during post-CMP PVA brush scrubbing and identify ...
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### Summary: Janitors & Building Cleaners (2023)
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