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Tactical formation

A tactical formation is the ordered arrangement and positioning of military forces, units, and elements in relation to each other to employ combat power effectively during engagements, influenced by factors such as terrain, enemy disposition, mission requirements, and anticipated threats.^[1]^[2] In military doctrine, tactical formations enable the integration of firepower, maneuver, and security to create dilemmas for the enemy while minimizing vulnerabilities, forming a core component of tactics defined as the art and science of winning battles through directed actions.^[1]^[2] Common types in offensive operations include the column for rapid movement and control when contact is not imminent, the line to maximize direct firepower across a front during assaults, the wedge for balanced forward and flank security in uncertain environments, the vee for concentrated fire against known threats, echelon for angled mutual support and maneuver, and the diamond or box for all-around protection during approaches.^[1] Defensive formations prioritize depth and resilience, such as the perimeter for isolated all-around security, defense in depth to absorb attacks through layered positions, and sectors with interlocking fires oriented toward enemy avenues of approach.^[1] At higher echelons, broader structures like the advance guard to develop the situation, main body for decisive engagement, and reserve for flexibility support larger maneuvers such as envelopments or pursuits.^[1]^[2] Historically, tactical formations have evolved significantly; ancient examples include the dense phalanx used by Spartan and Roman forces for cohesive shock combat, as exemplified in Hannibal's envelopment at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, where it trapped and annihilated a larger Roman army.^[2] By the 18th century, linear tactics emphasized column-to-line transitions for musket volleys, but modern warfare—marked by increased weapon lethality, mobility, and technology—has shifted toward more dispersed and fluid formations to exploit surprise, combined arms, and the operational environment while reducing exposure to area fires.^[2] This evolution continues in contemporary operations, adapting to asymmetric threats, urban terrain, and joint forces as outlined in U.S. military publications.^[1]^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

A tactical formation is defined as the ordered arrangement of ground military units—such as infantry, cavalry, and armored vehicles—to optimize combat effectiveness, maneuverability, and protection during tactical engagements.^[1] These configurations describe a unit's general positioning on the ground or in operational space, tailored to specific mission requirements and environmental factors such as terrain and visibility.^[3] The primary purpose of tactical formations is to achieve superiority in firepower, mobility, and security by concentrating combat power at decisive points while adapting to enemy threats and mission types like assault, defense, or reconnaissance.^[1] They enable units to transition rapidly between movement and engagement, using dispersion and depth to minimize vulnerabilities and maximize coordinated fires.^[3] Central to tactical formations are the concepts of balancing offensive and defensive postures to respond dynamically to threats, and facilitating command and control for unit cohesion through leader positioning and decentralized execution.^[3] This balance ensures mutual support among elements, enhancing overall operational flexibility and decision-making under combat conditions.^[1]

Basic Principles

Tactical formations are designed according to core military principles that ensure effective application of combat power while minimizing vulnerabilities. These include general principles of war applied to formations, such as firepower concentration (often referred to as mass), which involves synchronizing and focusing combat capabilities at decisive points to overwhelm the enemy, as outlined in U.S. Army doctrine where commanders apply combat power to neutralize enemy functions.^[4] Mutual support requires units to position and employ weapons so they can assist one another against threats, enhancing overall defensive and offensive coherence through integrated fires and movement.^[5] Economy of force dictates allocating the minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts, preserving resources for the main operation and allowing concentration elsewhere.^[4] Surprise aims to strike the enemy at unexpected times or places, disrupting their decision-making and creating opportunities for decisive action.^[4] Simplicity ensures plans and orders are clear and straightforward, reducing complexity to facilitate rapid execution under uncertainty.^[4] Additionally, formation-specific considerations include balancing the trade-offs between speed, security, and control to optimize the arrangement for the tactical situation.^[1] Several factors influence the selection and adjustment of tactical formations to optimize effectiveness. Terrain analysis is fundamental, with open terrain favoring dispersed or extended formations for maneuverability, while restricted terrain like urban or mountainous areas necessitates more compact arrangements to maintain control and mutual support.^[5] Weather conditions, such as fog or rain, can degrade visibility and mobility, prompting shifts to formations that prioritize security over speed.^[2] Enemy disposition requires assessing their strength, position, and likely actions, often leading to formations that exploit weaknesses like flanks.^[5] Unit size further shapes formations, with smaller elements using tighter configurations for cohesion and larger ones employing wider spacing to cover more ground.^[5] In modern contexts, dispersion becomes critical to counter threats like precision artillery and air strikes, spreading units to reduce the impact of area fires while retaining the ability to concentrate effects rapidly.^[6] Command elements play a pivotal role in upholding formation integrity during operations. Leaders position themselves forward to assess the situation and issue timely directives, ensuring subordinates maintain alignment and respond to changes.^[5] Span of control limits the number of subordinates a commander directly supervises, typically two to five units in tactical settings, to avoid overload and enable effective oversight.^[7] Signaling methods, including visual aids like flags for daylight and radio for secure communication, facilitate coordination and prevent fragmentation, with redundant systems ensuring reliability in contested environments.^[8] Formations must exhibit adaptability to operational tempo, transitioning seamlessly between movement and engagement. For instance, units shift from a tactical road march—optimized for speed and security—to combat formations like the wedge upon detecting enemy contact, crossing the line of departure to initiate maneuver.^[5] These transitions, guided by factors such as imminent contact or mission requirements, use fragment orders to maintain momentum without halting, allowing forces to exploit opportunities or consolidate as needed.^[5]

Historical Evolution

Ancient and Classical Periods

In prehistoric and early tribal societies, tactical formations were rudimentary, often consisting of loose skirmish lines or mob tactics employed by hunter-gatherer groups during small-scale raids and ambushes rather than large battles. These approaches emphasized individual or small-group mobility over disciplined cohesion, allowing warriors to exploit terrain for surprise attacks while minimizing exposure in open confrontations.^[9] By the Iron Age, some tribes began adopting early shield walls, where fighters aligned their shields to form a defensive barrier against projectiles and charges, providing mutual protection in melee combat; this innovation marked a shift toward more organized group defense among groups like early Germanic peoples.^[10] In Polynesian societies, such as pre-colonial Māori, fluid attack formations enabled warriors to execute rapid, swirling assaults that disrupted enemy lines through speed and unpredictability, contrasting with rigid European structures.^[11] The phalanx emerged in the Ancient Near East and Greece around the 8th century BCE as a hallmark of hoplite warfare, featuring tightly packed ranks of heavily armored infantry, typically 8 to 12 men deep, who locked shields and thrust spears forward in unison to create an impenetrable front. This formation relied on collective pushing and stabbing to break enemy lines, with the overlapping aspis shields forming a continuous barrier that protected the soldiers' left sides while exposing the unshielded right, necessitating strict discipline to maintain cohesion.^[12] Primary accounts, such as those in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, describe how hoplites in the front ranks used overarm spear thrusts to target gaps in opposing formations, while rear ranks added weight through othismos (shoving) to overwhelm foes.^[13] A key evolution occurred in Macedonia under Philip II around 350 BCE, who reformed the phalanx by introducing the sarissa, a pike up to 5.5 meters long, which extended the formation's reach to outrange traditional hoplite spears and allowed deeper files—often 16 men—to project a forest of points that deterred close assaults.^[14] Alexander the Great further refined this Macedonian variant, integrating it with cavalry for combined arms tactics that amplified its offensive power during conquests.^[15] During the Roman Republic and Empire, the manipular system superseded the phalanx for greater flexibility, organizing legions into centuries arranged in a checkerboard quincunx pattern across three lines—hastati, principes, and triarii—which allowed units to maneuver independently and rotate fresh troops into the fray without disrupting the overall line. Polybius' Histories details how this setup, with gaps between maniples enabling skirmishers like velites to operate, addressed the phalanx's rigidity while maintaining depth for sustained engagements.^[16] For sieges, Romans employed the testudo (tortoise) formation, in which legionaries interlocked shields overhead and on the sides to form a armored shell impervious to arrows and missiles, facilitating advances toward fortifications as described by Tacitus in his Histories. This tactical innovation proved vital in campaigns against fortified positions, such as during the Jewish Wars.^[17] Key events highlighted both strengths and limitations of these formations. At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE, Athenian hoplites in phalanx formation charged Persian lighter troops and archers, closing the distance rapidly to negate missile fire and leveraging their armored cohesion to rout the invaders, as recounted by Herodotus in his Histories.^[18] However, the phalanx's vulnerabilities became evident in battles like Leuctra (371 BCE), where Theban commander Epaminondas exploited flanking weaknesses by deepening one wing to shatter the Spartan line, demonstrating how oblique attacks could unhinge the formation's reliance on uniform frontage.^[19] Similarly, at Chaeronea (338 BCE), Philip II's cavalry outmaneuvered Greek phalanxes by enveloping exposed flanks, underscoring the need for integrated mobile elements to protect rigid infantry blocks.^[13] These engagements illustrated the phalanx's prowess in frontal clashes but its susceptibility to disruption on uneven terrain or against agile foes.

Medieval and Early Modern Eras

In medieval Europe, tactical formations evolved from the rigid shield walls of earlier periods, adapting to feudal warfare characterized by heavy cavalry dominance and infantry vulnerabilities. At the Battle of Hastings in 1066, Anglo-Saxon forces under King Harold Godwinson employed a defensive shield wall on [Senlac Hill](/page/Senlac Hill), where infantry interlocked shields and spears to repel Norman cavalry charges, though the formation ultimately broke due to feigned retreats and flanking maneuvers.^[20] This tactic, rooted in earlier infantry traditions, emphasized cohesion to counter mounted assaults but proved insufficient against mobile foes. Scottish armies refined similar concepts with the schiltron, a circular or square pike formation designed to resist cavalry; at Bannockburn in 1314, Robert the Bruce's schiltrons of spearmen formed tight defensive circles that impaled English knights, turning the battle into a decisive Scottish victory.^[21] Meanwhile, European knights often charged in wedge formations to concentrate impact on enemy lines, with the tapered shape allowing the lead riders to pierce infantry ranks before the flanks widened to exploit breaches, a tactic suited to the heavy lance and barded horse of the high Middle Ages.^[22] Byzantine and Islamic military traditions influenced Eurasian tactics through heavy cavalry innovations, while Mongol hordes introduced fluid mobility. Byzantine cataphracts, heavily armored horsemen, deployed in diamond formations during assaults, enabling rapid shifts between ranged archery and shock charges to disrupt enemy centers, as seen in manuals like the Sylloge Tacticorum.^[23] In the 13th century, Mongol armies under Genghis Khan utilized layered horse archer formations, with light cavalry in outer waves harassing foes via arrow storms and feigned retreats, supported by heavier inner units for pursuit; this decentralized setup allowed tumens (units of 10,000) to envelop and dismantle larger, static forces across Asia and Europe.^[24] These influences highlighted a shift toward combined arms, blending cavalry flexibility with infantry anchors, contrasting the more rigid phalanx legacies briefly echoed in pike evolutions. The early modern period (15th-17th centuries) marked a transition to gunpowder integration, transforming melee-focused formations into hybrid systems prioritizing firepower. Spanish tercios, pioneered in the 16th century, combined pikemen in central blocks to defend against cavalry with arquebusiers on the flanks for volley fire, creating a resilient "pike and shot" square that dominated Italian Wars battles like Pavia in 1525.^[25] As muskets improved, linear tactics emerged; in the 1630s during the Thirty Years' War, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden reorganized infantry into shallower brigades—typically 1,200 men in three ranks—with integrated light artillery and commanded musket salvos, enabling faster maneuvers and sustained fire against deeper tercio blocks, as demonstrated at Breitenfeld in 1631.^[26] Key events underscored these shifts, particularly during the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), where English longbowmen in dismounted formations decimated French men-at-arms; at Agincourt in 1415, Henry V's archers, staked in woods-flanked lines, unleashed massed volleys that bogged down armored knights in mud, forcing disorganized charges into melee traps.^[27] This era's "Military Revolution," as theorized by Geoffrey Parker, emphasized drill, discipline, and trace italienne fortifications, scaling armies through professional training and sustaining ranged dominance over feudal levies.^[28]

Industrial and World Wars

The Industrial Revolution and subsequent technological advancements profoundly transformed tactical formations in the 19th century, shifting infantry tactics from the dense columns and linear formations of the Napoleonic era toward more dispersed and flexible arrangements. Napoleonic tactics emphasized massed infantry lines and columns for volley fire and shock assaults, but the introduction of rifled muskets and improved artillery prompted greater reliance on skirmishers—light infantry operating in loose, extended orders to harass and screen main forces.^[29] Prussian military reforms under Helmuth von Moltke the Elder further accelerated this evolution; the adoption of the Dreyse needle gun, a breech-loading rifle enabling rapid fire without reloading from the prone position, allowed for more dispersed infantry tactics that reduced vulnerability to enemy fire while maintaining offensive momentum. This was vividly demonstrated in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), where Prussian forces used skirmish lines and dispersed advances to outmaneuver French formations, leveraging the needle gun's rapid fire capability, though comparable to the French Chassepot rifle, combined with superior tactics and artillery to inflict heavy casualties on denser enemy units.^[30] World War I marked a stark departure from open-field maneuvers, as industrialization enabled mass mobilization and the proliferation of machine guns, which forced infantry into static, linear trench formations for protection against devastating suppressive fire. Trenches evolved into elaborate networks of linear defenses, often segmented into front, support, and reserve lines, with barbed wire and machine-gun nests creating kill zones that rendered traditional assault columns suicidal.^[31] To counter this stalemate, Allied forces developed the creeping barrage—a rolling artillery bombardment that advanced just ahead of infantry waves, suppressing defenders and allowing troops to follow in dispersed waves or bounds rather than rigid lines.^[32] By 1918, German innovators introduced stormtrooper (Stosstruppen) infiltration tactics, deploying small, elite squads in decentralized, non-linear formations to bypass strongpoints, exploit gaps, and disrupt rear areas, thereby breaking the static trench lines during the Spring Offensive.^[33] In World War II, mechanization and combined arms integration revolutionized formations once again, with blitzkrieg tactics epitomizing the shift to mobile, concentrated breakthroughs. German panzer divisions employed wedge-shaped (or V-) formations, with tanks leading in an arrowhead to punch through defenses, supported by motorized infantry on flanks and close air support from the Luftwaffe, as seen in the 1940 Ardennes offensive where seven panzer divisions shattered Allied lines along the Meuse River.^[34] The Soviet deep battle doctrine countered this with echeloned attacks, organizing forces into successive waves—first-echelon units to seize initial objectives, followed by second-echelon reserves for deep exploitation—integrating tanks, artillery, and infantry to overwhelm enemy defenses in operational depth.^[35] Meanwhile, U.S. forces refined fire-and-maneuver teams, where one element suppressed the enemy with fire while another maneuvered to flank or envelop, often in platoon-sized squads using bounding overwatch to advance under cover of machine guns and mortars.^[36] These innovations, driven by machine guns' enduring demand for dispersion and tanks' ability to form breakthroughs in V-configurations, underscored the era's emphasis on speed, surprise, and integrated firepower over massed infantry alone.^[37]

Types and Examples

Infantry and Dismounted Formations

Infantry and dismounted formations encompass the arranged dispositions of foot-mobile soldiers designed to optimize movement, firepower, security, and control in ground-based operations. These configurations prioritize adaptability to terrain, enemy threats, and mission requirements, drawing from centuries of tactical evolution while remaining central to modern dismounted infantry doctrine. Common formations emphasize linear or dispersed arrangements for combat effectiveness, whereas advanced variants address specific vulnerabilities like flanks or halts. Among the most traditional types is the line formation, which aligns troops shoulder-to-shoulder to maximize frontal firepower through coordinated volleys or suppressive fire. Historically, during the Napoleonic Wars and into World War I, infantry battalions deployed in lines to deliver massed musketry or rifle fire against opposing forces, enabling decisive engagements on open battlefields despite limited maneuverability. The column formation, by contrast, organizes troops in a narrow, files-ahead arrangement ideal for rapid marches or approach movements but highly vulnerable to enfilading fire in combat due to its reduced frontage. In World War I, columns were used for advances in low-visibility conditions, facilitating control and speed while minimizing exposure. The square formation provided a defensive posture against cavalry charges, with infantry forming a hollow perimeter of bayonets outward on all sides to repel mounted assaults. This tactic was standard in 18th- and 19th-century linear warfare, where squares allowed sustained fire from multiple ranks while protecting against envelopment. Skirmish formations involve dispersed, irregular lines of light infantry operating ahead of the main body as a loose screen. Skirmishers conducted reconnaissance, harassed enemies, and disrupted advances, as seen in historical light infantry roles where they preceded denser lines to gain early intelligence and reduce casualties on the primary force. Advanced variants build on these basics for specialized scenarios. The wedge formation concentrates troops in a V-shaped advance with a narrow point for penetration, balancing all-around fire and control during maneuvers where enemy contact is anticipated. U.S. Army doctrine designates the wedge as the foundational fire team setup, scalable to squads and platoons with 10-meter intervals that adjust to terrain for optimal flexibility.^[38] The echelon arranges elements in a staggered, diagonal line to enhance flank protection and overlapping fields of fire, often used to support assaults or secure lateral movement. In World War I operations, echelons enabled sequential positioning to outflank resistance without exposing sides. The coil formation creates a circular perimeter during temporary halts, ensuring 360-degree observation and defense by positioning units in a ring-like pattern. Modern applications, per U.S. Army guidelines, employ coils for platoon-level security when dismounted troops pause in potentially hostile areas. These formations find key applications in diverse environments, underscoring their versatility for dismounted operations. In urban combat, bounding overwatch alternates advancing elements with stationary overwatch teams providing suppressive fire, maintaining momentum while mitigating risks from ambushes or dead space in built-up terrain. This technique is doctrinally emphasized for expected contact, allowing squads to leapfrog through streets or buildings under cover. For patrols along trails or restricted paths, the file—a tight, single-file variant of the column—prioritizes stealth, communication, and navigation in linear terrain like dense vegetation or narrow routes. Their inherent simplicity aids training, as basic drills enable rapid transitions between formations, fostering discipline and cohesion without complex equipment. Specific examples include the forlorn hope, a volunteer-led assault group of pioneers tasked with breaching fortifications or leading storming parties in sieges; historically, these units spearheaded high-risk attacks, such as Union efforts at Vicksburg in 1863, often suffering heavy losses to clear paths for follow-on forces. The diamond formation, akin to a compact echelon or coil, deploys platoons in a four-pointed shape for all-around defense in open areas, maximizing mutual support and firepower in stationary or ambush setups.

Mounted and Mechanized Formations

Mounted formations have historically emphasized the mobility and shock power of cavalry units, enabling rapid strikes against enemy lines. Traditional cavalry charges were often executed in linear formations to maximize the impact of lances and sabers across a broad front, particularly on even terrain where disciplined units could maintain cohesion until the moment of contact. Wedges, a denser triangular arrangement, allowed cavalry to penetrate enemy formations by concentrating force at the point of attack, with the flanks providing supporting fire or follow-up pressure; this tactic was employed by light cavalry such as Hungarian hussars during pursuits or breakthroughs. For instance, at the Battle of Sahagún in 1808, British 15th Hussars charged in line through French dragoons, routing them despite incoming fire. Polish uhlans, renowned lancers, used charges to exploit gaps, halting enemy squadrons within paces of impact. A seminal innovation in mounted tactics was the oblique order, developed by Frederick the Great of Prussia, which angled an attack to overwhelm one enemy flank while refusing the opposite wing to guard against counterattacks.^[39] This maneuver combined a march in parallel lines that wheeled into echelons at a 30- to 45-degree angle, reforming into assault lines within about two minutes to deliver concentrated firepower, often supported by cavalry on the flanks and 30 to 40 artillery pieces.^[39] Famously applied at the Battle of Leuthen in 1757, it enabled Prussian forces to outflank a larger Austrian army, rolling up their line and forcing a retreat; the tactic's success relied on a professional army with precise training, though it failed when terrain or execution faltered, as at Prague and Kolin.^[39] In mechanized warfare, formations prioritize armored mobility and firepower projection, adapting cavalry principles to vehicles for speed and penetration. Armored spearheads often advance in V or vee formations, with lead vehicles providing frontal overwatch while flanks cover against threats, maximizing mutual support in open terrain during assaults or advances.^[38] Convoy wedges, a triangular arrangement for road-bound movements, enhance anti-ambush defenses by positioning heavier weapons outward to engage threats from multiple angles, dispersing the column to reduce vulnerability to enfilade fire.^[38] Bounding overwatch, a core mechanized tactic, involves alternating elements where one provides suppressive fire while the other advances in bounds of 100 to 300 meters, using cover to minimize exposure; successive bounds keep squads abreast, while alternate bounds allow overtaking for fluid progression.^[38] Combined arms integrate infantry with mounted or mechanized elements to balance mobility and protection. During World War II, U.S. half-tracks like the M3 transported rifle squads alongside tanks, enabling mechanized infantry to maintain pace and provide close support by spotting anti-tank threats or minefields, effectively serving as mobile firing platforms in platoon formations.^[40] Modern armored personnel carriers (APCs) and infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) operate in traveling formations such as columns for rapid road movement (50- to 100-meter intervals) or wedges for uncertain threats, transitioning to combat setups like vees for all-around firepower during assaults.^[41] In a typical platoon, vehicles may lead in open terrain or follow infantry in restrictive areas, with echelons providing flank protection; herringbone dispersals counter air attacks by angling vehicles perpendicular to the direction of travel.^[41] These formations serve key tactical roles, including the exploitation of breakthroughs and reconnaissance screens. Mechanized units, often reinforced with artillery and aviation, conduct reconnaissance-in-force to probe defenses, identifying weaknesses for main forces to penetrate and hold, thereby enabling rapid exploitation to seize terrain or pursue withdrawing enemies.^[42] Reconnaissance screens deploy forward elements to gather intelligence on enemy dispositions, channeling breakthroughs while protecting flanks, as seen in battalion-sized advances that transition to offensive exploitation upon success.^[42] However, mounted and mechanized forces remain vulnerable to anti-tank mines, which disrupt mobility through track-width blasts causing immobilizing damage or full-width shaped charges penetrating hulls for catastrophic kills.^[43] Minefields with densities of 0.5 to 1.1 mines per meter can fix or block advances with 50- to 85-percent encounter probabilities, amplified in water or urban terrain where concealment and tilt-rod fuses heighten lethality against tracks and underbellies.^[43]

Naval and Air Formations

In naval warfare, the line of battle formation emerged as a dominant tactic during the age of sail, where fleets arranged ships in a single line to maximize broadside volleys while minimizing exposure of rigging and hulls to enemy fire. This linear arrangement allowed for coordinated cannon fire along the length of the enemy line, as exemplified at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, where British Admiral Horatio Nelson initially adhered to the formation but innovated by breaking the Franco-Spanish line with two columns to concentrate fire and disrupt cohesion.^[44]^[45] As naval technology advanced into the 20th century, formations evolved from rigid lines to more protective, circular screens centered on aircraft carriers, enabling multidomain operations in three-dimensional maritime environments. In modern carrier strike groups, such as the U.S. Navy's Carrier Strike Group One (CSG-1), the carrier occupies the core, surrounded by concentric rings of escorts including destroyers and cruisers that provide layered anti-air warfare (AAW) and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) defenses. These circular screens facilitate networked sensor fusion and rapid response, allowing the group to detect and engage threats from aircraft, missiles, or submarines across vast distances.^[46]^[47] Submarine tactics have similarly adapted, with the wolfpack strategy—pioneered by German U-boats during World War II—representing a shift toward coordinated, dispersed attacks on convoys to overwhelm defenses through numerical superiority and night surface assaults. In this formation, submarines operated in loose packs, shadowing targets and striking in unison from multiple angles, which inflicted heavy losses on Allied shipping until countered by improved convoy escorts and radar. Contemporary submarine wolfpacks build on this by integrating stealthy, networked operations for stealthy encirclement and torpedo volleys, emphasizing mutual support akin to ground infantry principles but optimized for underwater maneuverability.^[48] Anti-submarine screens form a critical unique aspect of naval formations, often deploying destroyers in ring or picket line configurations to patrol around high-value assets like carriers or convoys, using sonar, depth charges, and helicopters to detect and neutralize submerged threats. These ASW rings, as seen in World War II Pacific Fleet doctrines, create overlapping coverage zones that force submarines into predictable paths for interception.^[49]^[50] In aerial domains, tactical formations prioritize mutual cover and intercept efficiency in three-dimensional airspace. The finger-four formation, developed by the German Luftwaffe in World War II, arranged four fighters in a loose, echelon-like pattern—two pairs offset like extended fingers—to enhance situational awareness and defensive firing angles during patrols, allowing pilots to scan 360 degrees while maintaining visual contact. This tactic proved superior for dogfighting, influencing Allied adoption and reducing vulnerability to surprise attacks compared to tighter vic formations.^[51] Bomber operations employed echelon stacks to mass defensive firepower and bombing accuracy, with aircraft arranged in stepped layers—often in combat boxes of stacked Vees—enabling gunners to cover approaches from multiple altitudes while concentrating payloads on targets. During World War II, U.S. Army Air Forces B-17 formations used this stacking to form protective "boxes" of 12 to 18 bombers per squadron, where overlapping machine-gun fields deterred fighters and improved survival rates over Europe.^[52] Contemporary air formations extend these concepts to unmanned systems, with drone swarms adopting V or lattice patterns for resilient, distributed operations that mimic bird flocks for collision avoidance and signal relay. In V formations, lead drones create aerodynamic upwash for trailing units, enhancing endurance, while lattice arrays enable scalable reconnaissance or strike capabilities through decentralized autonomy. Military applications, such as U.S. and allied tests, leverage these for overwhelming electronic warfare defenses in contested airspace.^[53]^[54] A key unique aspect across air and naval formations is vectoring for intercepts, where ground or airborne controllers direct units along optimal paths to engage threats, combined with formation flying for fuel efficiency—trailing aircraft or ships exploiting wake vortices to reduce drag by up to 10-15%. This efficiency, demonstrated in trials with C-17 transports and potential carrier air wings, extends operational range without refueling, supporting prolonged missions in expansive domains.^[55]

Modern Applications

Post-WWII Developments

Following World War II, tactical formations evolved significantly in response to the nuclear age, decolonization conflicts, and rapid technological advancements during the Cold War period from 1945 to 1990. The advent of nuclear weapons prompted NATO forces to adopt dispersed formations to mitigate the risks of devastating strikes, emphasizing mobility and reserves over concentrated deployments. For instance, the U.S. Army's Active Defense doctrine, formalized in the 1976 edition of FM 100-5, advocated for a mobile defense that used armored reserves to counter Soviet breakthroughs while maintaining dispersion to survive tactical nuclear exchanges.^[56] This approach influenced NATO's overall strategy, where forces were spread across fronts to avoid massed targets, as seen in exercises simulating Warsaw Pact invasions.^[57] In asymmetric warfare, particularly during decolonization struggles, guerrilla forces developed innovative subterranean and ambush-oriented formations. The Viet Cong in Vietnam constructed extensive tunnel networks, spanning over 200 miles in areas like Cu Chi, which served as concealed bases for ambushes, storage, and medical facilities, allowing small units to emerge unpredictably against superior conventional forces. These tactics disrupted U.S. operations by enabling hit-and-run engagements from hidden positions. Similarly, Israel's rapid armored thrusts in the 1967 Six-Day War represented a blitz variant adapted to Middle Eastern terrain, where integrated air-ground formations overwhelmed Egyptian and Syrian lines through preemptive strikes and deep penetration, capturing the Sinai Peninsula in days.^[58] Technological integrations further transformed formations, with early night-vision devices enabling more fluid nocturnal operations. Introduced in the Vietnam War during the 1960s, the U.S. "Starlight" scope amplified ambient light for infantry patrols and ambushes, allowing dispersed units to conduct surprise attacks under cover of darkness without relying on flares. On the Soviet side, motor-rifle battalions were organized in echelons for offensive depth, typically comprising three companies in the first wave supported by a reserve, facilitating sequential assaults with combined arms to maintain momentum against NATO defenses.^[59] A pivotal doctrinal shift came with the U.S. Army's AirLand Battle concept in the 1982 FM 100-5, which stressed operational depth—striking enemy follow-on forces—and high tempo through synchronized air-ground maneuvers to disrupt Soviet echelons. This built on Vietnam-era airmobile tactics, where helicopter assault boxes—coordinated landing zones for rapid troop insertion—evolved into standard procedures for the 1st Cavalry Division, enabling vertical envelopments in dense jungle terrain. These developments reflected a broader trend toward flexible, technology-enhanced formations suited to bipolar confrontation.

Contemporary Doctrines and Adaptations

In the 1990s and 2000s, coalition forces during Operation Desert Storm utilized wedge formations with armored units, such as M1 Abrams tanks and M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles, to enable rapid advances across open desert terrain while providing overlapping fields of fire and mutual protection against Iraqi defenses.^[60] These V-shaped arrangements allowed leading elements to suppress threats while flanks maneuvered, contributing to the swift ground campaign's success in February 1991.^[60] Later, in urban counterinsurgency operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, U.S. infantry squads adapted wedge and stack formations for room clearing, positioning soldiers in compact, sequential lines to dominate entry points, clear sectors methodically, and minimize exposure to ambushes or improvised explosive devices (IEDs).^[61] This approach, emphasizing low- or high-ready weapon carries and reflexive fire within close quarters, supported stability tasks by reducing collateral damage in populated areas.^[61] Contemporary military doctrines reflect adaptations to diverse threats, with the U.S. Army's FM 3-21.8 emphasizing formations for full-spectrum operations that integrate offensive maneuvers, defensive postures, stability engagements, and civil support across varied environments.^[62] In Russian hybrid warfare, as demonstrated in Crimea and eastern Ukraine since 2014, Spetsnaz special forces employed loose, dispersed networks of elite units and paramilitaries to seize key infrastructure like parliament buildings and security sites, blending covert mobility with local agitators for deniable escalation.^[63] Similarly, China's anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) strategy deploys naval fleets in layered formations, incorporating submarines, antiship cruise missiles, and coast guard vessels to contest maritime approaches in the Indo-Pacific, particularly around the Paracel and Spratly Islands.^[64] Technological advancements have profoundly influenced tactical formations, with unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarms enabling coordinated, autonomous groupings of dozens to thousands of drones for saturation attacks, reconnaissance, or electronic warfare, as seen in U.S. demonstrations and Ukraine-Russia conflicts.^[65] Network-centric warfare further supports dynamic reshaping of formations by leveraging GPS for blue-force tracking and satellite communications (satcom) for real-time data sharing, enabling the display of updated situational information in under 15 seconds through shared situational awareness, while achieving over 99% network availability.^[66] In the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War (2022–present), both Russian and Ukrainian forces have increasingly adopted highly dispersed tactical formations at the small-unit level—often squads or teams of 4–6 personnel—to counter threats from precision-guided artillery, loitering munitions, and first-person-view (FPV) drones. These adaptations emphasize tactical reconnaissance-strike operations, where unmanned systems integrate with infantry for real-time targeting and rapid adjustments, prioritizing mobility and concealment over massed deployments to preserve combat effectiveness amid contested environments, as analyzed in reports through 2025.^[67]^[68] Challenges in modern operations include countering IED threats through dispersed formations, such as team-sized vehicle elements spread across multiple routes to dilute risks during movements like the 40-kilometer Operation Dragon Spear.^[69] In peacekeeping missions, linear patrols often adopt column formations with platoons of 30-40 personnel to monitor ceasefires and buffer zones, combining mobility with observation to deter violations and report compliance.^[70] Looking ahead, artificial intelligence (AI) promises optimized adaptive formations, facilitating mass deployments of low-cost robotic swarms that overwhelm defenses via quantity and deception, while enhancing hybrid command structures for resilient, decentralized tactics.^[71]

References

[1]
Field Manual (FM) 3-90, Tactics - Army Pubs
No information is available for this page. · Learn why
[2]
None
Summary of each segment:
[3]
[PDF] infantry rifle platoon and squad
Jan 11, 2024 · ... Formations ... ATP 3-21.8 addresses the tactical application of techniques ...
[4]
CAMS/HIST 180: Ancient Warfare
In the Archaic Period (700-500 BCE) infantry warfare in Greece was transformed by the appearance of the heavily-armored infantryman (the hoplite), deployed in a ...
[5]
[PDF] 20171005_US-Army-Field-Manual-FM-3-0-Operations.pdf
Oct 6, 2017 · FM 3-0, Operations, provides a doctrinal approach for our theater armies, corps, divisions and brigades to address the challenges of shaping ...
[6]
None
Below is a merged summary of the tactical concepts from FM 3-90, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a comprehensive response. To retain the maximum detail and density, I will use a structured table format where appropriate, followed by a narrative summary for additional context and quotes. The table will cover key topics (Tactical Formations Principles, Mutual Support, METT-TC, Command and Control, Transitions from March to Combat) across the various sections, with page references and specific details. Due to the complexity and volume of information, I’ll ensure all unique details, quotes, and URLs are included.
[7]
[PDF] Dispersing to Win in 2025 - DTIC
May 21, 2001 · By 2025, there is an imperative for dispersed tactics due to improved anti-access defenses, unconventional threats, effective counters to stand- ...
[8]
[PDF] Span of Control and The Operational Commander
The Army's position on the optimum tactical span of control appears to be between two and five subordinate units.
[9]
[PDF] Maximizing Command and Control - DTIC
Jul 4, 2003 · These increases have required commanders to transmit orders and to exercise control by means of messengers, flag or smoke signals, trumpet or ...
[10]
[PDF] WARFARE IN THE EUROPEAN NEOLITHIC
Advanced tactics and manoeuvres require discipline, training and leaders, so a simple line was often the only formation used in primitive battles (Otterbein ...<|separator|>
[11]
On the use of hide in Germanic shields of the Iron Age and Viking Age
Hide has long been recognised as an essential component of shield constructions of the Iron Age and Viking Age in Northern Europe.
[12]
Story: Traditional Māori warfare – Riri
May 12, 2016 · One tribe made a large fake whale out of dog skin and hid warriors inside to attack the villagers who came to investigate. Preparations for ...
[13]
(PDF) The battle mechanics of the Hoplite Phalanx - Academia.edu
This paper, based on primary sources so as to avoid the haze of later inter pretation, aims to review the identity of the phalanx formation focusing on various ...
[14]
[PDF] The Evolution of Greek Battlefield Tactics, 394 BC - The Scholarship
His conclusions regarding ancient warfare established that the winners of ancient battles triumphed not only through refined tactics and discipline but though ...
[15]
Pezhetairoi: Infantry Reform in the Time of Phillip II - Academia.edu
Of these reforms, one of the most notable is the creation of the Macedonian phalanx, or pezatrairoi, and its main weapon, the sarissa, a five and a half meter ...
[16]
(PDF) Syvanne_Macedonian_Art_of_War - Academia.edu
The Greek hoplite phalanx was much more flexible in that respect than the Macedonian phalanx. ... Ancient Greek History addFollow; History of Ancient ...
[17]
Polybius 6.19-42 - The Latin Library
Along one side of this square in the direction which seems to give the greatest facilities for watering and foraging, the Roman legions are disposed as follows.
[18]
Roman Battle Tactics, 390-110 BC - Academia.edu
THE MANIPULAR LEGION The next stage in the development of the Roman army ... formation the quincunx, from the five dots on a dice-cube. contact: first ...
[19]
Herodotus, The Battle of Marathon – Wendell Hunnicutt
Herodotus's story of the battle of Marathon is substantially the only complete one we have, and on the whole seems reasonably correct.
[20]
The Changing Role of the Phalanx Infantry between 490 and 323 B.C.
In this dissertation I will argue that the role of the phalanx infantry changed from having an attacking role at the battle of Marathon, into having a ...Missing: BCE | Show results with:BCE
[21]
Battle of Hastings | Summary, Facts, & Significance - Britannica
Sep 23, 2025 · The easy slope allowed William's knights an open approach, against which Harold relied on the close “shield wall” formation of his trained ...
[22]
[PDF] Saber and Scroll Journal Volume II Issue III Summer 2013 ... - APUS
Medieval military historian John France makes a direct correlation between the tactics at Jaffa and Falkirk. To him, “the schiltron is very like the formation ...
[23]
Knights on the battlefield: tactics and strategies of medieval combat
Jul 4, 2024 · Knights used coordinated units, charged on horseback, and used lances for precise blows. They fought in formations with infantry and archers.
[24]
The Roman tank of the eleventh century - jstor
The cataphracts were an elite unit, the 'tank' of the Byzantine army. Often clad in full armour and armed with lance, sword or mace, and some- times a bow ...
[25]
[PDF] "All the Khan's Horses," by Morris Rossabi - Columbia University
Mobility and surprise characterized the military expeditions led by Genghis Khan and his commanders, and the horse was crucial for such tactics and strategy.Missing: 13th | Show results with:13th
[26]
The Pike and Shot of the Spanish Tercio | Military History Matters
May 11, 2011 · Numbering 3,000 men – the equivalent of a modern brigade – the tercio was formed of 12 companies of about 250 men each, with the companies ...
[27]
[PDF] Gustavus Adolphus: Father of Combined Arms Warfare - DTIC
created the grand army of Sweden which in the early 1630s during the Thirty Years' War, saved Germany from becoming a Catholic state under the auspices of ...
[28]
Miracle in the Mud: The Hundred Years' War's Battle of Agincourt
Men-at-arms attended to their weapons, while English longbowmen and French archers checked the condition of their bows and crossbows and supplies of arrows.
[29]
The Military Revolution. By Geoffrey Parker. Second edition. - jstor
The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transform ation of Early Modern Europe. Edited by Clifford J. Rogers. Boulder,. San Francisco, Oxford: ...
[30]
Tactics - French Revolution, Revolutionaries, Uprising - Britannica
French tactics included increased use of skirmishers, better artillery, and infantry columns for assault, with cavalry in reserve.Missing: reforms | Show results with:reforms
[31]
Weapons and Soldiers on the Nineteenth-Century Battleªeld In
Franco-Prussian War, the lesson was reinforced as the bolt-action. French chassepot rifle took a fearful toll of any Prussian unit that manoeuvred within ...
[32]
Military Technology in World War I | Articles & Essays
Infantry warfare had depended upon hand-to-hand combat. World War I popularized the use of the machine gun—capable of bringing down row after row of soldiers ...
[33]
Western Front | World War I, Definition, Battles, & Map | Britannica
Oct 2, 2025 · The use of tanks combined with other new advances, such as the use of “creeping” artillery barrages to cover troops' progress across no-man's- ...
[34]
[PDF] The Big Issue: Command and Combat in the Information Age - DTIC
The First World War eventually saw decision making decentralised down to the lowest possible levels. The infiltration tactics which were the German response ...
[35]
[PDF] U.S. Army Tank Destroyer Doctrine in World War tf
Seven of the ten panzer divisions sprang through the Ardennes forest and shattered the weakest sector of the Allied front, along the Meuse River.
[36]
[PDF] Deep Operations: Theoretical Approaches to Fighting Deep
The Soviets used two concepts to define their doctrine—deep battle and deep operations. Deep battle is a tactical measure to gain success in penetrating the ...
[37]
Defensive Strategies, Maneuvers, & Tactics | Britannica
The attacking troops were organized in small, self-contained storming parties. Armed with light machine guns, hand grenades, light mortars, and even some ...
[38]
How The Machine Gun Changed Combat During World War I
The machine gun revolutionized combat efforts and quickly drove out nations with their horse-drawn carriages into submission.
[39]
Cavalry Tactics and Combat: Napoleonic Wars : Charges : Melees
In general the best light cavalry were the Polish uhlans (lancers), Hungarian hussars, and the irregular Russian Cossacks. The first two were so good that ...
[40]
Frederick the Great at Leuthen: The Oblique Order
The purpose of the oblique order was to bring together a superior concentration or overwhelming force against a specific sector of the enemy's position, usually ...
[41]
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Summary of each segment:
[42]
The Role of US Army Halftracked vehicles - War History
Dec 27, 2024 · Halftracks of all kinds moved the infantry, combat engineers, signalers and artillery around the battlefields of World War II at speeds.
[43]
FM 7-7: The Mechanized Infantry Platoon and Squad (APC)
The herringbone formation is a battle drill formation used to disperse the platoon when traveling in column formation. It is used during air attacks or when ...
[44]
[PDF] Reconnaissance-in-Force Russian Style - Fort Benning
With the successful advance of the reconnaissance-in-force, the main forces assigned to the attack are introduced into the breakthrough area to exploit success.Missing: mechanized | Show results with:mechanized
[45]
None
Below is a merged summary of the vulnerabilities of mechanized forces to anti-tank (AT) mines based on the provided segments from FM 20-32. To retain all information in a dense and organized format, I will use a combination of narrative text and tables in CSV format where appropriate (e.g., for mine characteristics, densities, and delivery systems). The response includes all details from the summaries, organized by key themes: mine types and effects, vulnerabilities, detection challenges, environmental factors, deployment, and safety considerations.
[46]
Lasting Lessons of Trafalgar | Naval History Magazine
Oct 9, 2005 · One of the most noteworthy tactics he outlined was his intention to break the Combined Fleet's line of battle with several units of ships, ...
[47]
Battle of Trafalgar Timeline | National Maritime Museum
The Battle of Trafalgar took place on 21 October 1805 during the Napoleonic War (1803–1815), as Napoleon Bonaparte and his armies tried to conquer Europe.
[48]
[PDF] carrier strike groups: - the formation of seapower
Coordinated network of sensors, weapons systems, data sharing and intelligence fusion to defend against enemy aircraft, ships, submarines, cruise missiles, and ...
[49]
Multiple Allied Carrier Strike Groups Operate Together in 7th Fleet
The Ronald Reagan Carrier Strike Group and CSG 1 are deployed to the U.S. 7th Fleet area of operations in support of a free and open Indo-Pacific region. U.S. ...
[50]
The Wolfpacks - German U-boat Operations - Kriegsmarine - uboat.net
The wolfpacks, known to the Germans as Rudeltaktik, were created by Karl D nitz as a means to defeat the allied convoy system after his experiences as U-boat ...
[51]
1944 Pacific Fleet Anti-submarine Screens - Researcher @ Large
The Inner Antisubmarine Screen, a close screen around a single ship or a formation of ships for the purpose of destroying a submarine approaching the screened ...
[52]
Tactics 101: Naval Formations - Part 2 - General - HarpGamer
Dec 13, 2008 · Within HCE's formation editor, the screen is further broken down into the AAW (Anti-Air Warfare) Ring, the Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) Ring, ...
[53]
Finger-Four / Schwarm Flying Formation | Defensionem
The two planes, composed of a leader upfront and a wingman behind and beside, would share the burden. The leader would scan ahead, the wingman would keep an eye ...
[54]
"Combat Box": Bomber Formations - Air Force Museum
Formations were designed to protect heavy bombers against fighter attack and to concentrate the bomb pattern on the target.Missing: echelon | Show results with:echelon
[55]
Military Drone Swarm Intelligence Explained - Sentient Digital, Inc.
Apr 1, 2024 · A “V” formation of geese is made up of individual birds who each follow simple rules to stay in formation. Such self-organized and adaptive ...
[56]
Nature-Inspired Drone Swarming for Real-Time Aerial Data ... - MDPI
In this article we present a nature-inspired algorithm that enables a UAV-swarm to operate as a collective which provides real-time data such as video footage.
[57]
The aircraft that may fly like a flock of geese - BBC
Feb 8, 2025 · Some species of birds like geese save energy by flying in close formation. Airliners could use a similar trick to burn less fuel.
[58]
[PDF] Airland Battle Doctrine - DTIC
In 1982, the United States Army promulgated a new warfighting doctrine. Dubbed AirLand Battle because of its purported emphasis on.
[59]
Restoring NATO's Flexible Response | Air & Space Forces Magazine
Without the presence of NATO nuclear weapons, the Warsaw Pact would be freer to mass its forces instead of dispersing them. Countering this would require a NATO ...
[60]
[PDF] The Trinity in Balance: Israel's Strategy for Victory in the Six Day War
There is no doubt that the tactical skill of the IAF and the IDF were indispensable to Israel's victory in the 1967 Six Day War. But the overall success of the ...Missing: blitz variants<|separator|>
[61]
[PDF] The Soviet Combined Arms Battalion - DTIC
Soviet motorized rifle battalion composition has undergone several significant changes since World War II. In 1949, the. Soviet mechanized regiment's ...
[62]
[PDF] Certain Victory: - Army University Press
Jan 25, 1993 · "Certain Victory" provides a clear picture of the Army's role in the Gulf War, based on combat interviews and reports, and built on "ground ...
[63]
None
Below is a merged summary of room clearing tactics and squad formations in urban fighting based on the provided segments from TC 3-21.76 Ranger Handbook. To retain all information in a dense and organized manner, I’ve used tables in CSV format where applicable, alongside narrative text for clarity and completeness. The response integrates details from all segments, ensuring no information is lost, and includes relevant URLs at the end.
[64]
None
Summary of each segment:
[65]
[PDF] Lessons from Russia's Operations in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine
Mar 3, 2015 · In Chapter Three, the report charts the course of conflict in Eastern Ukraine and its phases of escalation from political warfare to a hybrid ...Missing: loose | Show results with:loose<|separator|>
[66]
U.S. & Japan Can Counter Chinese A2/AD | Proceedings
Chinese antiaccess/area denial (A2/AD) capabilities in the Indo-Pacific region are alarming. China seeks to wield its growing might to challenge the stable ...Missing: formations | Show results with:formations
[67]
[PDF] Unmanned Aerial Systems Intelligent Swarm Technology - RAND
Feb 15, 2024 · Intelligent drone swarms can communicate among individual drones and respond to external stimuli, unlike surrogate swarms.
[68]
[PDF] Net-Centric Operational Environment Joint Integrating Concept
Oct 31, 2005 · with dynamic network management capabilities focused on “first tactical mile” users. Joint Task Force (JTF) elements are increasingly facing ...
[69]
[PDF] Assured Access Through Tactical Mobility - Fort Benning
With conditions set, we moved into a linear formation to minimize the improvised explosive device (IED) threat and mask the size of the formation, increasing ...
[70]
[PDF] Handbook on United Nations Multidimensional Peacekeeping ...
Dec 10, 2003 · These operations involve military tasks such as monitoring ceasefires and patrolling buffer zones between hostile parties and are carried out ...
[71]
[PDF] An AI Revolution in Military Affairs? How Artificial Intelligence Could ...
Jul 4, 2025 · 8 For example, researchers are developing AI tools to enable large swarms of autonomous drones to coordinate with each other.9 Advanced AI might ...