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Tadpole

A tadpole is the aquatic larval stage of frogs and toads (order Anura), emerging from fertilized eggs and characterized by a soft, oval body, a muscular tail for swimming, external or internal gills for respiration, and the absence of limbs.^[1] Tadpoles typically inhabit freshwater environments such as ponds, streams, and wetlands, where they spend weeks to months filter-feeding on algae, periphyton, and microorganisms using a specialized mouth equipped with keratinized tooth rows and jaw sheaths.^[2]^[3] During this larval phase, tadpoles exhibit morphological adaptations suited to their habitat, including a spiracle for expelling water after gill filtration, dorsal and ventral fins along the tail for stability, and eyes positioned dorsally or laterally depending on whether they are surface- or bottom-dwelling forms.^[3] The duration of the tadpole stage varies by species and environmental conditions, ranging from a few weeks in tropical species to over a year in temperate ones, during which they grow rapidly and may form schools for protection against predators.^[1] Metamorphosis, triggered by hormonal changes, marks the transition to the adult form: the tail is resorbed, limbs emerge, gills are replaced by lungs, and the diet shifts from herbivorous to carnivorous, enabling a semi-terrestrial lifestyle.^[1] This dramatic transformation highlights the amphibian life cycle's reliance on aquatic nurseries for reproduction while adapting to diverse ecological roles.^[4]

Morphology and Anatomy

External Morphology

The tadpole, the aquatic larval stage of anurans, exhibits a body plan highly adapted for swimming and feeding in freshwater environments, consisting of a rounded or ovoid body fused to an elongated muscular tail that constitutes the primary means of locomotion. The body lacks external limbs in early stages, with forelimbs developing internally before emerging later, while the tail provides propulsion via lateral undulations generated by segmental myomeres. Eyes are positioned dorsolaterally on the head, offering a broad visual field for predator detection, and the mouth is small, typically ventral in orientation, featuring a hard keratinous beak for scraping algae and organic matter from substrates, surrounded by rows of labial teeth for secure attachment during feeding.^[5]^[6] Respiratory structures visible externally include a series of gill slits on the sides of the body, which in advanced stages are covered by an operculum, and a characteristic spiracle that serves as the primary exit for oxygenated water. In the majority of anuran species, the spiracle is sinistral (on the left side) and positioned posterodorsally, directing the respiratory current away from the tail to maintain efficient oxygen uptake without disturbing the swimming apparatus.^[5]^[6] The skin of tadpoles is generally smooth and glandular, often transparent in early developmental stages to reveal internal structures, though pigmentation develops for camouflage as the larva grows. Mucus secretions from epidermal glands coat the surface, providing a protective barrier against pathogens, osmotic stress, and abrasion in aquatic habitats; additionally, some species feature temporary cement glands on the ventral head or trunk for adhesion to vegetation or rocks immediately after hatching.^[6]^[7] The tail structure is a key adaptation for aquatic life, featuring a central notochord surrounded by zigzag-patterned myomeres that enable powerful, sinuous movements for propulsion and maneuvering. Dorsal and ventral fins extend along the tail's length, formed by connective tissue and providing hydrodynamic stability and directional control during swimming, with the fins typically tapering to a pointed or rounded tip.^[5]^[6] Morphological variations occur across anuran families, influenced by habitat and feeding ecology; for instance, tadpoles in flowing waters often display streamlined bodies and robust tails, while those in still waters may have broader, more buoyant forms. Certain species, such as many in the genus Eleutherodactylus, lack a free-living tadpole stage due to direct development, where embryos hatch as miniature froglets, bypassing the typical aquatic morphology.^[6]

Internal Anatomy

The respiratory system of tadpoles undergoes significant changes during development to facilitate gas exchange in aquatic environments. In early stages, external gills protrude from the body and enable diffusion of oxygen from water, but these are soon covered and replaced by internal gills housed within the opercular chamber.^[8] The internal gills, supported by gill arches, provide a larger surface area for efficient oxygen uptake through countercurrent flow.^[9] This adaptation supports the high metabolic demands of herbivorous or carnivorous feeding in oxygen-limited freshwater habitats.^[10] The digestive system in tadpoles is specialized for their primarily aquatic diet, varying between herbivorous and carnivorous species. Herbivorous tadpoles possess a long, coiled intestine that increases surface area for fermenting and breaking down plant matter, such as algae and detritus, aided by symbiotic bacteria.^[11] In contrast, carnivorous tadpoles have a shorter, straighter gut optimized for rapid digestion of protein-rich prey like insect larvae.^[12] Labial teeth arranged in rows around the mouth scrape algae and biofilms from substrates, functioning like a rasping mechanism to ingest food particles efficiently.^[13] The circulatory system of tadpoles features a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria and one ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills for oxygenation before systemic distribution, resembling fish circulation.^[14] Red blood cells are nucleated, containing larval hemoglobin with distinct subunit compositions that enhance oxygen affinity in low-oxygen aquatic settings compared to adult forms.^[15] This hemoglobin, often resolved into multiple fractions like T1, T2, and T3, supports higher unloading efficiency at tadpole tissue pH levels.^[16] The nervous system includes the lateral line system, a network of neuromasts along the head and body that detects water vibrations and pressure changes through mechanoreceptors, aiding in orientation and social coordination.^[17] Brain development emphasizes sensory integration in the optic tectum and hindbrain, where lateral line inputs converge with visual and auditory signals to process environmental cues for schooling behavior.^[18] A functional lateral line is essential for maintaining school geometry, as its ablation disrupts synchronized swimming in groups.^[18] The excretory system comprises mesonephric kidneys, which filter blood and excrete nitrogenous waste primarily as ammonia, an adaptation suited to dilute it directly into surrounding water without energy-intensive conversion.^[19] These kidneys feature numerous nephrons with glomeruli that promote high glomerular filtration rates, enabling efficient removal of ammonia produced from protein metabolism in protein-rich diets.^[19] This ammonotelic strategy minimizes toxicity in aquatic larvae while conserving water.^[20]

Developmental Biology

Life Cycle Stages

The tadpole life cycle commences with the embryonic stage, where the fertilized egg undergoes cleavage and gastrulation, relying entirely on the endogenous yolk sac for nutrition. This initial phase, spanning approximately 1-3 days post-fertilization depending on species and temperature, culminates in hatching around Gosner stage 18-20, at which point the hatchling tadpole absorbs the remaining yolk while developing basic swimming capabilities through tail undulations.^[21]^[22] Following hatching, tadpoles progress through Gosner stages 21-25, marked by the development of external gills for aquatic respiration, elongation of the tail for propulsion, and the onset of exogenous feeding as the yolk sac is fully depleted. In these early larval stages, tadpoles transition from passive yolk-dependent nutrition to active foraging, scraping algae and detritus from substrates using specialized oral structures. Subsequent stages 26-40 involve further growth, including hindlimb bud formation and refinement of feeding behaviors, with tadpoles consuming a diet of algae, organic detritus, and occasionally small invertebrates. The total larval period varies widely among anuran species, lasting as little as 2 weeks in spadefoot toads such as Scaphiopus hammondii in ephemeral desert pools, to over 2 years in species like the tailed frog Ascaphus truei inhabiting cold mountain streams.^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Several environmental factors influence the progression through these stages, including temperature, which accelerates development at optimal ranges of 20-30°C by enhancing metabolic rates and enzymatic activity. Lower oxygen levels in hypoxic waters can delay growth and increase tadpole activity, heightening vulnerability to predation, while predation pressure itself may prompt faster development to reach metamorphosis sooner. In contrast to typical anuran tadpoles, some paedomorphic salamanders, such as the axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum, retain tadpole-like larval forms with external gills and aquatic lifestyles indefinitely, reproducing without undergoing metamorphosis.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]

Metamorphosis Process

Metamorphosis in tadpoles represents a profound physiological transition orchestrated primarily by thyroid hormones, transforming the aquatic larva into a terrestrial juvenile frog or toad. This process involves coordinated tissue remodeling, organ development, and behavioral shifts to adapt to life on land. The key hormone driving these changes is thyroxine (T4), which is converted to the more active triiodothyronine (T3) within target tissues, binding to nuclear thyroid hormone receptors to regulate gene expression.^[30] Peaks in circulating thyroxine levels trigger apoptosis—programmed cell death—in the tail and gill tissues, facilitating their resorption, while simultaneously upregulating genes essential for hindlimb bud formation and outgrowth.^[31] This hormonal surge ensures the precise timing and tissue-specific nature of the transformations.^[32] The metamorphosis process unfolds in distinct stages, beginning with prometamorphosis, during which forelimb buds emerge and initial hindlimb growth occurs, marking the preparation for terrestrial life. This progresses to metamorphic climax, characterized by rapid tail resorption through heightened apoptosis, maturation of the lungs for air breathing, and completion of limb development, often culminating in the tadpole's emergence from water.^[33] Post-metamorphosis follows immediately, involving further adaptations such as enhanced skin vascularization and neuromuscular refinements to support locomotion on land, with the juvenile frog or toad fully independent within days.^[34] These stages, observed across anuran species like Xenopus laevis, highlight the orchestrated progression from larval to adult morphology.^[35] Physiological remodeling during metamorphosis extensively alters multiple organ systems to align with the shift from aquatic herbivory to terrestrial carnivory. The intestine undergoes dramatic shortening and restructuring, reducing its length by up to 80% in some species to optimize nutrient absorption from protein-rich prey, driven by thyroid hormone-induced cell death and proliferation.^[35] Gills regress as lungs expand and functionalize, enabling pulmonary respiration, while the skin thickens and keratinizes, developing glands for moisture retention and protection against desiccation.^[10] These changes collectively prepare the organism for its new habitat.^[32] Environmental cues play a critical role in timing and accelerating metamorphosis, ensuring tadpoles complete the process before habitats become unsuitable. Pond drying signals, detected via declining water levels, trigger stress responses that elevate corticotropin-releasing hormone, indirectly boosting thyroid hormone production to hasten development.^[36] Similarly, high larval density in shrinking pools induces density-dependent acceleration through pheromone-mediated or resource-limited mechanisms.^[37] In typical conditions, the metamorphic climax lasts 1-4 weeks, varying by species, temperature, and cues, allowing synchronization with seasonal opportunities.^[38] Pathologies disrupting this process, particularly incomplete metamorphosis, have been linked to environmental pollutants interfering with thyroid signaling. For instance, exposure to the herbicide atrazine during the 1990s studies was shown to disrupt thyroxine levels, leading to delayed or arrested tail resorption and limb deformities in species like Rana pipiens, highlighting vulnerabilities to anthropogenic contaminants, though subsequent research has produced mixed results on the extent and mechanisms of these effects.^[33] Such disruptions underscore the sensitivity of metamorphosis to endocrine interference.^[39]

Taxonomy and Evolution

Taxonomic Classification

Tadpoles constitute the aquatic larval stage exclusively within the order Anura (frogs and toads) of the class Amphibia, distinguishing them from the larvae of other amphibian orders.^[40] As of November 2025, Anura encompasses 7,915 species across 57 families.^[41] Unlike the larvae of salamanders (order Caudata), which typically exhibit external gills and a body form more closely resembling adults, or caecilian larvae (order Gymnophiona), which are carnivorous and morphologically similar to their parents, anuran tadpoles possess a highly specialized, fish-like morphology adapted for aquatic life.^[42] Anura is traditionally classified into three suborders: Archaeobatrachia, Mesobatrachia, and Neobatrachia, based on anatomical and developmental characteristics.^[43] Archaeobatrachia comprises primitive taxa, such as the family Ascaphidae (e.g., Ascaphus truei), whose tadpoles feature a large oral sucker enabling attachment to substrates in fast-flowing streams, reflecting an ancestral torrent-dwelling adaptation.^[44] Mesobatrachia includes transitional forms with intermediate traits, while Neobatrachia represents the most diverse suborder, containing over 90% of anuran species and encompassing advanced reproductive strategies, including direct development in genera like Gastrotheca (marsupial frogs), where embryos develop in a maternal pouch without a free-living larval phase.^[45] Within the subclass Lissamphibia, the tadpole stage emerges as a derived synapomorphy unique to Anura, supported by molecular phylogenetic analyses from the early 2000s that robustly confirm anuran monophyly through nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences.^[46] However, exceptions occur in certain lineages; for instance, viviparous species in the genus Nectophrynoides (family Bufonidae) lack a free-living tadpole stage entirely, with females giving birth to fully formed froglets after internal embryonic development.^[47] Developmental modes vary between exotrophic (tadpoles feeding externally on algae and detritus, the ancestral condition) and endotrophic (non-feeding tadpoles reliant on yolk reserves), with the latter often associated with terrestrial or protected breeding sites.^[48] Anuran diversity peaks in tropical regions, where environmental stability supports complex aquatic larval phases, and approximately 90% of species undergo a tadpole stage, underscoring the prevalence of biphasic life cycles in the order.^[49]

Fossil Record

The fossil record of tadpoles is sparse due to the soft-bodied nature of these larval stages, which are poorly preserved compared to adult anuran skeletons. The earliest tadpole-like fossils come from the stem-anuran Triadobatrachus massinoti, discovered in Early Triassic deposits of Madagascar dating to approximately 250 million years ago (mya). This proto-frog exhibits primitive features such as an elongated body, a short tail composed of unfused vertebrae, and a high number of presacral vertebrae (at least 14, compared to 4–9 in modern frogs), suggesting a transitional form between more basal amphibians and true anurans with larval stages.^[50] However, Triadobatrachus represents a fully metamorphosed juvenile rather than a true tadpole, highlighting the gradual evolution of the biphasic life cycle.^[51] Mesozoic records provide the first definitive evidence of tadpole morphology among early anurans. A key example is Prosalirus bitis from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation in Arizona, USA, approximately 190 mya, where specimens preserve impressions of external gills and a tail, indicating an aquatic larval phase shortly after the origin of salientians (the clade including frogs). More complete preservation occurs in the Middle Jurassic Notobatrachus degiustoi from Patagonia, Argentina, with a recently described late-stage tadpole fossil dated to 168–161 mya. This exceptionally large specimen (over 16 cm long) shows detailed soft-tissue features, including a cartilaginous skeleton, branchial baskets for gill support, and spiracular openings, confirming the tadpole form's stability early in anuran evolution.^[52] These fossils demonstrate that the tadpole stage, characterized by a tail for propulsion and gills for respiration, was already established by the Jurassic as an adaptation for prolonged aquatic larval development.^[52] The Cenozoic era marks a diversification of anuran fossils following the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary extinction event around 66 mya, which created ecological opportunities leading to rapid radiations in frog lineages. Post-K-Pg deposits yield increased numbers of tadpole remains, reflecting expanded habitats and species richness. A prominent example is the extinct genus Palaeobatrachus, known from Eocene to Pliocene sediments across Europe, where Miocene specimens from the Czech Republic reveal giant tadpoles (up to 17 cm long) with well-ossified skeletons and hypertrophied tails, adapted to fully aquatic lifestyles in ancient lakes.^[53] Palaeobatrachus tadpoles underwent standard metamorphosis, as evidenced by transitional fossils showing tail resorption and limb emergence.^[53] Bone histology in these and other Cenozoic anuran fossils, including growth lines in long bones and urostyle formation, provides direct evidence of metamorphosis, where larval aquatic adaptations gave way to terrestrial adult forms, underscoring the tadpole stage's role in enabling niche partitioning.^[54] Despite these insights, significant gaps persist in the tadpole fossil record, primarily due to the delicate, cartilaginous structures of larvae that rarely fossilize in fine-grained sediments or amber. This bias likely underestimates the antiquity and diversity of tadpole forms, particularly in the Triassic and early Jurassic. Recent advancements in the 2020s, such as micro-CT scanning, have mitigated these issues by revealing internal anatomies without damaging specimens; for instance, CT analyses of the Notobatrachus tadpole exposed hidden gill arches and skeletal elements, confirming its pre-metamorphic state and refining our understanding of early anuran development.^[52]

Ecology and Behavior

Habitats and Distribution

Tadpoles, the aquatic larval stage of anurans (frogs and toads), primarily inhabit a variety of freshwater environments that serve as breeding sites for adult amphibians. These include temporary ponds, permanent lakes, slow-moving streams, and phytotelmata—small water bodies accumulated in plant structures such as bromeliad pools or tree holes.^[55]^[56] Species preferences vary by family; for instance, members of the Ranidae family often favor lotic (flowing water) systems like streams, where tadpoles can exploit current-driven food sources, while many pond-breeding species thrive in lentic (still water) habitats such as ephemeral pools.^[57] These habitats provide essential resources for feeding on algae, detritus, and microorganisms, but they also expose tadpoles to risks like predation and desiccation in temporary sites.^[58] Globally, tadpole distribution mirrors that of anurans, which are cosmopolitan across temperate and tropical zones but absent from extreme polar regions and most oceanic islands due to unsuitable climates and isolation. The highest diversity occurs in biodiversity hotspots, particularly the Amazon basin in South America, where over 1,000 anuran species contribute to dense tadpole assemblages in rainforest wetlands and streams.^[49] In these regions, tadpoles occupy microhabitats adapted to local conditions; lotic-adapted species, such as those in the genus Hyloscirtus, feature suction mouths for adhering to substrates in fast-flowing water, whereas lentic species often exhibit schooling behavior to reduce predation risk in open ponds. Altitudinal ranges extend from sea level to over 4,000 meters, as seen in Andean species that exploit high-elevation streams and pools.^[59]^[60] Seasonal patterns strongly influence tadpole occurrence, with breeding typically synchronized to environmental cues like monsoons in tropical areas or spring thaws in temperate zones, leading to mass depositions in available water bodies. In ephemeral pools, tadpoles face heightened desiccation risks, prompting accelerated development to metamorphosis before habitats dry.^[61] Climate change is driving documented range shifts in tadpole distributions, including poleward migrations in North American species as warming alters breeding site availability and phenology.^[62]^[63]

Predation and Defense Mechanisms

Tadpoles face predation from a diverse array of aquatic and semi-aquatic predators, including fish such as largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), birds like great blue herons (Ardea herodias), insect larvae including dragonfly nymphs (Odonata: Anisoptera), and even conspecific tadpoles in cases of cannibalism.^[64]^[65]^[66] These interactions often involve size-selective predation, where smaller tadpoles are disproportionately targeted, allowing larger individuals to survive and grow at higher rates.^[67] Morphological defenses play a key role in tadpole survival, with many species exhibiting cryptic coloration that blends into their surroundings, such as greenish hues matching pondweed vegetation to evade visual detection by predators.^[68] Some tadpoles employ tail fin movements, interpreted as waving or beating, to create distractions that draw predator attention away from the body during attacks.^[69] Behavioral adaptations further enhance antipredator strategies, including schooling behavior that confuses predators through the dilution effect, where the risk to any single individual decreases in larger groups.^[70] In lake ecosystems, tadpoles often undertake diel vertical migrations, descending to deeper, darker waters during the day to avoid avian and surface predators and ascending at night for feeding.^[71] When threats are detected, some species burrow into mud substrates, reducing exposure to active hunters like fish or invertebrates.^[72] Chemical defenses provide an additional layer of protection, particularly in toxic species; for instance, tadpoles of poison dart frogs (Dendrobatidae, e.g., Oophaga pumilio) sequester alkaloids from their parents' diet via trophic eggs, rendering them unpalatable or toxic to predators.^[73] Similarly, common toad (Bufo bufo) tadpoles produce bufadienolides that contribute to their unpalatability, deterring consumption by fish and insect predators.^[74] In response to predation risk, tadpoles exhibit inducible antipredator behaviors and life-history shifts, such as accelerating development and metamorphosis upon detecting chemical alarm cues released from injured conspecifics, as demonstrated in experiments with species like cane toads (Rhinella marina) during the early 2000s.^[75] These cues trigger heightened vigilance and faster growth to reach the less vulnerable juvenile stage sooner.^[76]

Cultural and Human Significance

Mythology and Historical References

In ancient Greek philosophy, tadpoles were observed as part of the remarkable transformation of frogs, viewed as a natural wonder emerging from mud in marshes. Aristotle, in his History of Animals (circa 350 BCE), described how frogs arise spontaneously from moist earth, initially appearing as small, fish-like creatures with tails—resembling what we now call tadpoles—before developing legs and completing their change into adult frogs.^[77] This account highlighted the tadpole's aquatic, limbless form as an intermediary stage, evoking awe at nature's generative processes without fully grasping the reproductive cycle from eggs. Across Mesoamerican cultures, tadpoles and frogs symbolized fertility, rebirth, and the cyclical renewal tied to water and rain, often linked to deities governing these forces. In Aztec mythology, the rain god Tlaloc, depicted with frog-like goggle eyes and associated with aquatic life, embodied the transformative life cycle of amphibians, where tadpoles' emergence after rains represented agricultural abundance and the earth's regenerative power.^[78] Similarly, in various African traditions, including ancient Egyptian lore, frogs and their larval stages signified fertility and resurrection; the goddess Heqet, portrayed with a frog head, oversaw childbirth and renewal, mirroring the tadpole's metamorphosis as a metaphor for life's rebirth from watery origins. During the medieval and Renaissance periods in Europe, tadpoles were noted as the immature offspring of toads or frogs, embodying themes of change and peril within a moral and symbolic framework. By the 17th century, Dutch microscopist Jan Swammerdam advanced these observations through meticulous dissections, publishing detailed illustrations in Bybel der Natuere (1662) that revealed the internal anatomy of tadpoles, including their developing lungs and limbs, challenging spontaneous generation and emphasizing preformationist ideas of embryonic continuity.^[79] Indigenous Australian narratives in the Dreamtime tradition wove frogs into stories of water's origins and ecological balance, portraying them as integral to the creation of life-sustaining landscapes. In tales from southeastern Aboriginal groups, such as the Kulin nation, frogs appear in accounts of ancestral beings shaping billabongs and rivers, where their presence after rains signifies the awakening of fertility after drought, as seen in variants of the Tiddalik story where the frog's release of water revives aquatic life.^[80] In Asian folklore, Japanese kappa myths feature a mischievous water yokai with a turtle-like shell and scaly skin, representing the hidden dangers of waterways and the cycle from vulnerability to maturity. In the 19th century, tadpoles featured prominently in evolutionary discourse as evidence of gradual transformation across generations. Charles Darwin, in On the Origin of Species (1859), referenced the larval stages of amphibians, including tadpoles, to illustrate how embryonic and juvenile forms retain ancestral traits—such as fish-like gills and tails—before metamorphosing, supporting his theory of descent with modification and common ancestry among vertebrates.^[81]

Modern Uses and Conservation

Tadpoles, particularly those of the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis), serve as key model organisms in developmental biology research, including studies on thyroid hormone regulation of metamorphosis that have been conducted since the mid-20th century.^[82] This species' external fertilization and rapid development make it ideal for investigating embryonic toxicity and environmental contaminants, with tadpoles frequently used in assays to assess pollutant impacts on growth and behavior.^[83] In ecotoxicology, X. laevis tadpoles are employed in standardized tests, such as the Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX), to evaluate pesticide effects like those of metamifop on neurotransmitter synthesis and fat metabolism.^[84] In education, tadpole rearing kits are utilized in schools to demonstrate amphibian life cycles, though guidelines emphasize responsible care to avoid long-term commitments for resulting frogs.^[85] The pet trade includes X. laevis tadpoles for aquarium hobbyists, often sold as part of kits for observing metamorphosis, but trade in native species is restricted to prevent ecological harm.^[86] Use of tadpoles as fishing bait is limited by regulations in many regions; for instance, while some U.S. states permit frogs as bait, native tadpoles are protected as nongame species and cannot be commercially harvested without permits.^[87]^[88] In aquaculture and food contexts, tadpoles contribute to small-scale rural systems in Asia, where they are harvested alongside frogs for consumption as nutritious aquatic products.^[89] In Laos, frogs and tadpoles form part of local diets, including fermented preparations, providing protein in food-scarce areas, though overharvesting affects wild stocks.^[89] Frog farming, prominent in Southeast Asia for species like the American bullfrog, relies on tadpole rearing in controlled systems but can pressure wild populations through escapement and habitat competition.^[90] Tadpoles face significant conservation threats, including habitat loss from wetland destruction, which has contributed to global amphibian declines affecting over 40% of species as reported by the IUCN.^[91] The chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) infects larval stages, reducing tadpole survival and growth, and exacerbates mortality when combined with stressors like herbicides.^[92] Pollution, particularly from atrazine, induces deformities and intersex conditions in tadpoles, altering development and reproduction in species like the African clawed frog.^[93] Protection efforts include captive breeding programs for endangered amphibians, such as those targeting Leptodactylus species, to bolster populations through head-starting and reintroduction.^[94] Wetland restoration initiatives monitor tadpole responses as indicators of habitat recovery, enhancing breeding sites in degraded areas like river basins.^[95] Certain frog species with vulnerable tadpole stages are protected under CITES, regulating international trade in captive-bred specimens to prevent overexploitation.^[96] IUCN guidelines further support these measures by integrating disease screening and habitat management in reintroduction plans.^[97]

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May 9, 2019 · Thyroid hormone (TH) is the most important hormone in frog metamorphosis, a developmental process which will not occur in the absence of TH but can be induced ...
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Thyroid and Corticosteroid Signaling in Amphibian Metamorphosis
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In addition, the fact that frog metamorphosis is regulated by thyroid hormones (THs), promoting the remodeling of the aquatic larvae into an adult tetrapod, ...
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Normal Table of Xenopus development: a new graphical resource
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The body plans of larval anurans, the tadpoles, look very different from adults and from any other vertebrate. Although tadpoles are aquatic, they do not look ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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AmphibiaWeb Species Lists
The total number of amphibian species is currently 8,963 (Nov 8, 2025) . Anura (frogs and toads) # families: 57 # genera: 503 # species: 7905. Allophrynidae (3)
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Tadpole - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Caecilian and salamander larvae resemble adults in general appearance and anatomical organization (Fig. 2.4). The transition (metamorphosis) from embryonic ...
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Anura - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
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Ascaphidae - AmphibiaWeb
Tadpoles may take up to 7 years to metamorphose, although 4 is average. They are small, brown or gray, have reduced lungs, and vertical pupils. Males do not ...
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Archaeobatrachian Paraphyly and Pangaean Diversification of ...
In contrast to the large radiation of Neobatrachia, archaeobatrachians represent only a fraction (∼4%) of the present-day anuran species diversity, but they ...
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Jun 25, 2012 · Based on this model, exotrophic larvae represent the ancestral state for anurans (proportional likelihood = 99.92%; Fig. S3).
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The oldest tadpole reveals evolutionary stability of the anuran life cycle
Oct 30, 2024 · Here we report a late-stage tadpole of the stem-anuran Notobatrachus degiustoi from the Middle Jurassic of Patagonia (around 168–161 Ma).Missing: record | Show results with:record
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Gigantism in tadpoles of the Neogene frog Palaeobatrachus
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Ontogeny of the anuran urostyle and the developmental context of ...
Jan 27, 2020 · The anuran urostyle, which evolved nearly 200 MYA, is one such structure. It forms as the tail regresses during metamorphosis, when locomotion changes.
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Abstract - CSIRO PUBLISHING | Marine and Freshwater Research
Tadpoles can be found occupying several types of habitats and microhabitats, such as temporary or permanent ponds, streams and phytotelmata (Inger et al.
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Pool choice in a vertical landscape: Tadpole‐rearing site flexibility in ...
Jun 15, 2021 · Many species of Neotropical frogs have evolved to deposit their tadpoles in small water bodies inside plant structures called phytotelmata.Missing: temporary | Show results with:temporary
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Tadpoles in lotic waters, habitat specialization, and human ...
We found strong support for increased likelihood of threatened status as habitat diversity decreases and human population density increases.
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Tadpoles Inhabiting Natural and Anthropogenic Temporary Water ...
Scientific literature has suggested that abiotic factors such as environmental temperature, photoperiod, water level, and quality, directly influence tadpoles ...
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Discovering the diversity of tadpoles in the mid-north Brazil
Dec 14, 2023 · We assess the species diversity of tadpoles from eastern Maranhão state, mid-northern region of Brazil based on morphological and molecular identification.
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[PDF] how are tadpoles distributed within tropical ponds and streams?
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Shifts in amphibian ranges are predicted. Changes in climate may affect survival, growth, reproduction and dispersal capabilities. Moreover, climate change can ...
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Impacts Of Climate Change On Amphibians - AmphibiaWeb
Oct 11, 2021 · Climate change can impact the demographics of wild amphibians by causing changes to their distributional range, to population connectivity, and ...
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[PDF] the untamed world of Missouri ponds, forests and prairies
However, that fish had barely swallowed the tadpole when it was grabbed up and gulped down by the great blue heron. The great blue heron was the predator, and ...
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[PDF] TPWD Aquatic Food Web Cards sun and arrows
Predators: Fish, dragonfly larvae, beetles. Habitat: Free swimming among ... Predators: Fish, frogs, birds. Habitat: Hangs from water's surface, on or ...
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[PDF] Acoustic underwater signals with a probable function during ...
Dec 15, 2010 · These tadpoles emit a brief, clear, and very audible series of metallic-like notes when a conspecific tadpole attempts to prey upon it, or when.
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[PDF] Predation and Competition Differentially Affect the Interactions and ...
Mar 23, 2018 · Larger body size of surviving tadpoles could result from a combination of reduced competition via thinning and/or size selective predation if ...
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Do Bufonids Employ Different Anti-Predator ... - BioOne Complete
cryptic coloration seem to be efficient ways to minimize the ... has also been observed in another bufonid ... tadpole aggregation behaviour: evidence for a ...
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Life's Work - jstor
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Morphological Changes in Skin Glands During Development in <i ...
Oct 19, 2015 · tadpole school. An apical layer of alcianophilic mucus covers the epidermis, which could produce the unpleasant taste of bufonid tadpoles.
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[PDF] Can Aggregation Behaviour of <i>Phrynomantis microps</i ...
Further replicate trials might have detected benefits to the individual tadpole from aggregating. Keywords: anti-predation behaviour, anurans, dilution effect, ...
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Predation Risk Experienced by Tadpoles Shapes Personalities ...
Sep 30, 2024 · From the coor- dinates we calculated the time the tadpole remained motion- less and the tadpole's movement speeds. ... diel vertical migration) ...
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UC Davis - eScholarship.org
As in other animals, predator defense is ... burrowing may also allow some species to 'get out ahead' in ... specific tadpole predators and from one another in.
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[PDF] Maternal Provisioning of Alkaloid Defenses are Present in Obligate ...
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[PDF] Chemical defense of toad tadpoles under risk by four predator species
Apr 8, 2019 · freshly laid common frog (Rana temporaria) eggs from a small pond ... A recent study showed that increased conspecific density can induce elevated ...
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Alarm cues experienced by cane toad tadpoles affect postâ
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[PDF] adaptive plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis: response of ...
as chemical cues, physical interactions among conspe- cifics, and increased ... to accelerated metamorphosis. The developmental re- sponse could result ...
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The History of Animals by Aristotle - The Internet Classics Archive
And these creatures have an organ in which the ducts converge, and with which they perform the act of copulation, as is also observed in the toad, the frog, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Northern leopard frog tadpole (Rana pipiens) viewed from below (ventral; stage 25). Note the coiled intestine visible through the belly skin. (From Witschi 1956 ...
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Iconography and Symbolism of Frogs and Toads in the Aztec World ...
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Tiddalik the frog - Museums Victoria
Tiddalik is a small mischievous and very thirsty frog who appears in one of Australia's best known Creation Stories.
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Researchers also observed that den masters consumed eggs and larvae that ... The well-known Japanese mythological creature known as the kappa may be inspired by ...
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Origin of Species — Ch 14
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Xenopus laevis tadpoles exposed to metamifop: Changes in growth ...
Sep 1, 2021 · Metamifop significantly inhibited the body weight and neurotransmitter synthesis of tadpoles, caused abnormal behavior and interfered with fat metabolism.
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[PDF] Alternatives to Raising and Releasing Wildlife for Education
Adult frogs may live 4-15 years with proper care, so consider the long term commitment before purchasing tadpoles. Never release crayfishes purchased from pet ...
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[PDF] THE ROLE OF TRADE IN THE AMPHIBIAN CRISIS
The Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies has been spearheading an effort to compile laws and regulations regarding the use of amphibians and reptiles ...
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[PDF] 2025 Michigan Fishing Regulations
Mar 5, 2025 · to spear frogs (see p. 22). Bait: Baitfish may only be used in the waters where collected. Any fish and frogs may be used as bait when ...
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[PDF] Small-scale rural aquaculture in Lao PDR.
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The Amphibian Extinction Crisis - what will it take to put the action ...
Amphibians face habitat loss, water/soil quality changes, climate change, and a chytrid fungus epidemic, with 40% of species in danger of extinction.Habitat Change (destruction... · The Iucn Ssc Amphibian... · Acknowledgements
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Effects of Herbicides and the Chytrid Fungus Batrachochytrium ...
Jul 1, 2023 · Exposure to Bd increased the survival of all tadpoles and increased growth among tadpoles previously exposed to atrazine.
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Effects of Herbicides and the Chytrid Fungus Batrachochytrium ...
May 20, 2023 · Wild-caught tadpoles were exposed to four concentrations of atrazine ... fungal panzootic causes catastrophic and ongoing loss of biodiversity.<|separator|>
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Captive breeding frogs - Conservation Evidence
Thirty-one tadpoles were obtained from the wild in 1993. Tadpoles were housed in a 400 L tank (20 cm water) and metamorphs in a 50 x 50 x 25 cm tank. From eight ...Missing: measures Leptodactylus<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] AMPHIBIANS AS WETLAND RESTORATION INDICATORS ON ...
... WETLAND RESTORATION INDICATORS ON WETLANDS. RESERVE PROGRAM SITES IN LOWER GRAND RIVER BASIN, MISSOURI. A Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate ...Missing: captive Leptodactylus
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[PDF] Captive breeding - CITES
International trade in. CITES-listed species reported as captive bred or artificially propagated has increased, accounting for over half of all trade in.
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[PDF] IUCN Guidelines for amphibian reintroductions and other ...
These IUCN guidelines cover amphibian reintroductions and conservation translocations, including reasons, mitigation, suitability, and future directions.