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Terminalia chebula

Terminalia chebula Retz., commonly known as black or chebulic myrobalan, is a medium to large deciduous tree belonging to the family Combretaceae, native to South Asia and Southeast Asia (Indo-China), including India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, southwestern China, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.^[1]^[2] It typically grows to a height of 15–30 meters with a round crown and spreading branches, featuring elliptic-oblong leaves, monoecious flowers that are dull white to yellow and borne in terminal spikes during May–June, and ellipsoid drupaceous fruits that turn yellowish-gray when ripe.^[3] The tree thrives in teak and mixed deciduous forests up to an altitude of 1,500–2,000 meters in subtropical and tropical regions.^[1] The plant has been revered in traditional medicine systems, particularly Ayurveda, where its fruits—rich in tannins such as chebulic acid and chebulagic acid—are used as a key ingredient in formulations like Triphala for their laxative, digestive, and rejuvenative properties.^[1] Pharmacological studies have substantiated its diverse bioactivities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective effects, attributed to bioactive compounds like gallic acid, ellagic acid, and flavonoids.^[3] Traditionally, the fruits serve as a stomachic, tonic, and remedy for ailments such as diarrhea, dysentery, asthma, ulcers, and hemorrhoids, with folklore applications extending to gout, sore throat, and heart conditions.^[3] Modern research highlights its potential in wound healing, antiviral activity against pathogens like HIV and herpes simplex virus, and anticancer properties through antiproliferative mechanisms.^[1]

Taxonomy

Classification

Terminalia chebula belongs to the family Combretaceae, subfamily Combretoideae, and the genus Terminalia, which encompasses approximately 250 species of mostly tropical trees and shrubs distributed worldwide.^[2]^[4] The species Terminalia chebula Retz. was first described by the Swedish botanist Anders Jahan Retzius in 1788, published in Observationes Botanicae volume 5, page 31.^[2] Two varieties are recognized: T. chebula var. chebula, characterized by glabrous leaves, and T. chebula var. tomentella (Kurz) C.B. Clarke, distinguished by its persistently hairy leaves with silvery-orange pubescence.^[5]^[6] Within the phylogenetically diverse Terminalia genus, T. chebula shares relations with other medicinally significant species, such as Terminalia bellirica, often co-occurring in traditional formulations like Triphala.^[4]^[7]

Nomenclature

The genus name Terminalia derives from the Latin terminus, referring to the terminal clustering of leaves at the ends of branches.^[8] The specific epithet chebula originates from the Arabic or Persian term halīlaj (or variants like halileh), a historical name for the plant's fruit, which resembles a gallnut in appearance.^[9] Botanical synonyms for Terminalia chebula Retz. include Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertn., Buceras chebula (Retz.) Lyons, Myrobalanus gangetica Kostel., and Terminalia acuta Walp.^[10] Common names vary by region and tradition. In English, it is known as black myrobalan or chebulic myrobalan.^[11] In Ayurvedic medicine, the Sanskrit name Haritaki derives from roots meaning "remover of diseases" (harati, to remove) or alluding to its greenish hue (harita, green).^[12] Other names include Hezi (訶子) in Chinese medicine, Kadukkai in Tamil, and Karakkaya in Telugu.^[13]^[10] In Ayurveda, seven traditional varieties of Haritaki fruits are distinguished based on shape, color, and regional availability: Vijaya (yellowish, from the Vindhya mountains, preferred for its superior medicinal potency), Rohini (round, from the Himalayas), Putana (small and fibrous), Amrita (sweet-tasting), Abhaya (fear-removing, large and soft), Jivanti (life-giving, with visible veins), and Chetaaki (golden, from the plains).^[5]

Description

Morphology

Terminalia chebula is a medium to large deciduous tree that grows up to 30 m in height, with a trunk diameter reaching 1 m, featuring widely spreading branches and an oval to roundish crown. The bark is dark brown to grayish, often exfoliating in irregular patches or scales.^[14]^[15] The leaves are simple, subopposite to opposite or alternate, elliptic to ovate or oblong-ovate in shape, measuring 7–18 cm in length and 4–10 cm in width, with petioles 1–3 cm long. They have an acute to acuminate apex, cordate base, entire margins, and leathery texture; the upper surface is glabrous and bright green, while the lower surface bears yellowish pubescence, and the leaves are deciduous during the cold season. A pair of prominent glands is present at the petiole apex.^[16]^[14] The flowers are small, hermaphroditic (bisexual), monoecious, yellowish-white to dull white or yellow, with a strong unpleasant odor, arranged in axillary or terminal spikes or short panicles measuring 4–10 cm in length. Flowering occurs from May to August.^[15]^[17] The fruits are drupaceous, ellipsoid to obovoid, glabrous, 2–4.5 cm long and 1.2–2.5 cm wide, initially green and turning yellowish-brown to blackish upon ripening, with five longitudinal ridges when dry. They contain a single hard, angled stone and mature from November to March.^[15]^[17]^[14]

Reproduction

Terminalia chebula flowers primarily during the summer months from April to August within its native range in South Asia. The inflorescences consist of hermaphroditic flowers arranged in terminal or axillary spikes, facilitating both self- and cross-pollination mechanisms.^[18]^[10] Pollination in Terminalia chebula is predominantly entomophilous, with bees and other insects acting as primary vectors, though some populations exhibit wind-assisted pollen transfer. Breeding studies indicate the species supports both autogamous self-pollination and xenogamous cross-pollination, promoting genetic diversity among populations.^[10] Fruit development commences post-pollination and spans 6–8 months, with drupes maturing between November and February; these are obovoid structures with five longitudinal ridges, each enclosing a single hard seed. Dispersal occurs mainly via gravity, with secondary zoochory by birds and mammals that consume the fleshy fruits and excrete the viable seeds.^[18]^[10] Freshly harvested seeds of Terminalia chebula demonstrate high viability, achieving germination rates up to 80–93% under suitable conditions such as pre-sowing treatments, but rates decline rapidly with storage duration due to the impermeable seed coat. The seeds exhibit orthodox storage behavior, tolerating desiccation to low moisture levels and maintaining viability for extended periods in cool, dry environments.^[19]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

Terminalia chebula is native to regions of South Asia, including India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, as well as Southeast Asia, where it occurs in countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, China (particularly western Yunnan), and Malaysia.^[2])^[20] Within its native range, the species is found in sub-Himalayan tracts ascending to elevations of up to 1,500 m and on dry slopes reaching up to 900 m.^[21]^[1] It typically inhabits tropical dry forests across these areas.) The plant has been introduced and cultivated in various tropical and subtropical regions outside its native range, including parts of Africa such as Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Tanzania, primarily for medicinal purposes; however, it shows no evidence of widespread naturalization in these locations.) Its historical distribution is documented in ancient texts originating from the Indian subcontinent, with further spread occurring along ancient trade routes that connected South Asia to other parts of Asia and beyond.^[1]^[22]

Habitat preferences

Terminalia chebula thrives in tropical to subtropical climates, typically occurring at elevations up to 1,500 meters, though occasionally reaching 2,000 meters. It prefers annual rainfall between 1,000 and 1,700 mm but can tolerate a broader range of 750 to 3,250 mm, including regions with pronounced dry periods during which it demonstrates notable drought resistance. Temperature tolerances span 5°C to 47°C, with optimal growth between 22°C and 35°C, but the species is sensitive to frost and cannot survive prolonged exposure below -5°C.^[20]^[23] The plant favors well-drained soils such as sandy loams, clayey loams, and lateritic formations, and it can also establish on rocky outcrops. It performs best in moderately fertile substrates with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, though it tolerates acidity down to 5.0 and slight alkalinity up to 7.5. These preferences allow it to adapt to a variety of geological conditions in its native range across South and Southeast Asia.^[20]^[21]^[23] In natural settings, Terminalia chebula is commonly associated with dry deciduous and mixed deciduous forests, including teak-dominated woodlands, where it occupies positions in the top to middle canopy layers. It co-occurs with species such as Tectona grandis (teak), Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii, and Mallotus philippinensis, contributing to the structure of open forest ecosystems on slopes and hilly tracts. While not frequently documented along riverbanks or in savannas, its presence in drier forest types underscores its role in semi-arid woodland communities.^[20]^[1]^[24] Ecologically, Terminalia chebula supports biodiversity by providing habitat and food resources for birds, which consume its fruits, and insects, including bees and butterflies that pollinate its flowers via nectar and pollen. Although it lacks significant nitrogen-fixing associations, the species aids soil stabilization on slopes through its root systems and ability to coppice after disturbances like fire, helping to prevent erosion in fragile forest environments. Its overall contribution enhances nutrient cycling and biomass accumulation in mixed stands.^[10]^[25]^[24]

Cultivation

Propagation

Terminalia chebula is commonly propagated through seeds, which are collected from mature black fruits harvested between November and February, with optimal collection from mid-January to mid-March for higher viability.^[18]^[26] After mechanical depulping to extract the seeds, they are dried in the shade for 2–3 days to reduce moisture content while preserving viability.^[21] Seeds are then sown in nursery beds, ideally 10 days after collection to achieve germination rates up to 81%, though untreated seeds can achieve up to 63% germination under favorable conditions.^[27] Pretreatments like mechanical scarification of the hard seed coat or soaking in cow dung slurry for 30-45 days improve germination success to around 38-74%, with other studies reporting higher rates up to 85% for shorter soaking periods, compared to lower rates (9-38%) with chemical treatments such as sulfuric acid dips.^[26]^[28]^[27] Vegetative propagation via stem cuttings is less frequently used due to slower and variable rooting, but it allows for clonal multiplication of superior germplasm. Semi-hardwood cuttings, typically 15 cm long from one-year-old leafless branches, are treated with indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) at concentrations of 2000 mg/L to promote rooting, achieving up to 62% rooting success and 52% survival after 60 days under mist chamber conditions.^[29] Lower concentrations (500-1500 mg/L) or indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) yield poorer results, with rooting below 40%.^[29] This method is advantageous for conserving specific genotypes but requires controlled environments to mitigate low natural rooting tendencies. Grafting techniques, such as cleft, epicotyl, and approach grafting, are employed to ensure uniformity and disease resistance, often using rootstocks from related species like Terminalia bellirica or Terminalia arjuna. Cleft grafting on 8-25 cm diameter rootstocks yields the highest sprouting success at 72-73% after 120 days, outperforming patch budding (55%).^[26] Approach grafting onto 45-60 day-old T. bellirica rootstocks achieves 76% success, with vigorous growth including heights up to 13.7 cm and 6-7 leaves per graft.^[30] Epicotyl grafting also shows promise at 67% success, producing 2-5 sprouts per graft.^[28] These methods are preferred over cuttings for commercial cultivation due to higher reliability in producing true-to-type plants. Propagation timing aligns with seasonal conditions in native regions; seed sowing is best in April (pre-monsoon) in nurseries for optimal establishment, while cuttings are collected in December-March and rooted year-round in controlled setups like mist chambers.^[26]^[29] In natural settings, seeds are briefly dispersed by animals before germinating.^[18]

Cultivation practices

Terminalia chebula is typically cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions, requiring full sun exposure for optimal growth and fruit production. Plantations are established with spacing of 6 meters between trees, accommodating 280–300 plants per hectare to allow sufficient canopy development and airflow. Irrigation is essential during dry phases, particularly weekly in summer for the first 3–4 years to support establishment, while mature trees exhibit drought tolerance once rooted. The species prefers well-drained sandy loam or clayey loam soils with a pH range of 6.5–7.5.^[17]^[21] Maintenance involves annual application of 3 kg of farmyard manure (FYM) per plant for the first 3–4 years to promote vigorous growth, with low-nitrogen NPK fertilizers (e.g., 75:30:30 g per pit at planting) used sparingly to avoid excessive vegetative growth at the expense of fruiting. Pruning is conducted in the first 3 years to shape the tree, remove dead or crossing branches, and encourage a strong central leader, typically done during the dormant season post-monsoon. Pest management focuses on common threats such as termites, controlled with Chlorpyriphos 20% EC in affected areas where permitted, and leaf spot or rust diseases (caused by Uredo terminaliae), managed through cultural practices and neem-based sprays for organic control of borers and fungal spots. Weeding is manual or mechanical to minimize competition.^[17]^[21]^[31] Seedling-raised trees typically begin fruiting after 8–10 years, while grafted plants may fruit in 5–7 years under good management, with full production by 8–10 years. Harvesting occurs in the dry season from October to December, when fruits turn yellowish-green; they are hand-picked to avoid damage, dried in shade to below 10% moisture, and stored in ventilated conditions. Yields average 40–50 kg of dry fruits per tree annually once mature, contributing to sustainable yields of about 12.6 quintals per hectare.^[17]^[21] Commercial cultivation is prominent in India, particularly in states like Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Tamil Nadu, where it supports export markets for medicinal and tannin uses, generating significant revenue with trees productive for over 50 years. Sustainable practices include intercropping with legumes or short-duration crops such as pulses in the early years to enhance soil fertility via nitrogen fixation and improve overall farm economics.^[17]^[32]

Traditional uses

Medicinal uses in Ayurveda

In Ayurveda, Terminalia chebula, known as Haritaki, is revered as a foundational herb for its versatile therapeutic applications, particularly derived from its fruits, which serve as the primary medicinal part. It is one of the three key fruits in the classical formulation Triphala churna, alongside Terminalia bellirica (Bibhitaki) and Emblica officinalis (Amalaki), used for holistic gastrointestinal and rejuvenative purposes.^[33] Haritaki is classified as tridoshic, meaning it balances the three fundamental doshas—Vata, Pitta, and Kapha—promoting overall equilibrium in the body.^[34] Haritaki functions primarily as a digestive aid, acting as both a mild laxative to relieve constipation and an anti-diarrheal agent to manage loose stools, thereby supporting healthy bowel function.^[12] As a rasayana, it is employed for rejuvenation and longevity, enhancing vitality, immunity, and tissue repair while addressing conditions such as cough, eye disorders, and anemia through its tonifying effects on respiratory, ocular, and hematinic systems.^[35] These uses stem from its astringent, bitter, and purgative qualities, which help alleviate ama (toxins) and promote metabolic balance.^[36] Preparations of Haritaki include powders (churna) for internal consumption, decoctions (kwatha) for digestive tonics, and oils (taila) for external applications in eye treatments.^[12] Ayurveda recognizes seven varieties of Haritaki fruits, each with distinct indications: for instance, Vijaya is prized for nervous disorders and rejuvenation, while others like Putana aid in purgation and Rohini support emaciation.^[5] This classification, detailed in classical texts like Bhavaprakasha, allows for targeted therapeutic use.^[1] Haritaki's cultural significance is evident in its mention in the Charaka Samhita (circa 300 BCE), where it is described with synonyms like Abhaya and Vijaya, underscoring its role in treating diverse ailments from fever to skin conditions.^[36] Similarly, it holds prominence in Tibetan medicine as the "King of Medicine" for preventive and curative properties, and in Unani systems for digestive and detoxifying remedies.^[3]^[37] In Traditional Chinese Medicine, it is known as He Zi and used for its astringent properties to treat diarrhea and promote digestion.^[38]

Other traditional applications

In traditional culinary practices across South Asia, the unripe fruits of Terminalia chebula are harvested and pickled by boiling with sugar or salt to extend their shelf life and enhance flavor, serving as a preserved condiment. These fruits are also incorporated into salads, various preserves, and occasionally fried for direct consumption, adding a tangy, astringent note to dishes.^[39] The bark and fruits of T. chebula, valued for their high tannin content, have long been employed in traditional leather tanning processes in India and other regions, producing soft, light-colored hides suitable for garments and accessories. The wood of the tree is strong, heavy, and durable, with natural resistance to termites and decay, rendering it ideal for crafting furniture, agricultural tools, carts, implements, and construction elements like plywood and matchboxes.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[23] Extracts from the fruits yield a black-brown dye traditionally used for coloring textiles, cotton fabrics, and hair, often serving as a natural mordant to fix other dyes in sustainable dyeing methods. In Hindu traditions, the fruits, known as Haritaki, are offered in temple rituals, daily puja ceremonies, and as ceremonial gifts, symbolizing purity and positivity; they are also burned in havan and yajna fires for sanctification and spiritual protection.^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47]

Chemical composition

Major phytochemical classes

Terminalia chebula is particularly renowned for its high content of hydrolyzable tannins, which constitute the predominant phytochemical class in its fruits, accounting for 30–45% of the dry weight. These tannins primarily include gallotannins and ellagitannins, contributing significantly to the plant's astringent properties and therapeutic potential.^[9]^[48] In addition to tannins, the plant contains substantial levels of phenolic compounds, encompassing flavonoids such as quercetin derivatives and various phenolic acids, which are distributed across fruits, leaves, and bark. These phenolics exhibit antioxidant characteristics and are more concentrated in the fruit pericarp.^[49]^[50] Other notable phytochemical classes include terpenoids, particularly triterpenes like arjungenin, found mainly in the fruits and stem bark; anthraquinones, present in the fruit pericarp; and fixed oils, comprising approximately 40% of the seed kernel content. The concentrations of these compounds are highest in unripe fruits, with overall levels varying by plant variety, geographical origin, and seasonal factors.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[3]^[53] The tannins from Terminalia chebula have also been traditionally utilized in dyeing processes due to their binding affinity with fibers.^[9]

Key bioactive compounds

The fruits of Terminalia chebula contain a high concentration of tannins, accounting for 20–40% of their dry weight.^[54] These tannins include several key hydrolyzable types that define the plant's chemical signature. Chebulic acid is a prominent ellagitannin isolated from the fruits, serving as a core building block for complex tannin structures such as chebuloyl esters with glucose or polyols.^[38] It is structurally characterized by a hexahydroxydiphenoyl (HHDP) group linked to gallic acid derivatives. Ellagic acid, a dilactone formed from the hydrolysis of ellagitannins, is abundantly present in the fruit pericarp.^[55] This phenolic compound arises naturally during the breakdown of larger tannin molecules like chebulagic acid. Chebulinic acid represents another major hydrolyzable tannin in T. chebula fruits, consisting of a chebuloyl-glucose ester framework.^[56] It contributes significantly to the overall tannin profile, often comprising up to 30% of the extractable polyphenols in some analyses.^[48] Arjunglucoside I is a triterpenoid glycoside extracted from the fruits and bark, featuring an arjunolic acid aglycone glycosylated at the C-28 position with glucose.^[3] This compound belongs to the oleanane-type triterpenoids characteristic of the Combretaceae family. In addition to tannins, the fruits harbor flavonoids, including rutin and quercetin glycosides.^[57] Tannins from T. chebula have long been employed in traditional leather tanning processes.^[54]

Pharmacology

Pharmacological activities

Terminalia chebula extracts demonstrate robust antioxidant activity, scavenging free radicals such as DPPH and superoxide anions in vitro, with potency often exceeding that of standard antioxidants like alpha-tocopherol. In vivo studies in rats have shown that aqueous fruit extracts reduce oxidative stress by protecting hepatocytes from tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced damage and inhibiting lipid peroxidation. This effect is partly mediated by phenolic compounds, including ellagic acid, which enhances endogenous antioxidant defenses like superoxide dismutase.^[58]^[59]^[60] The plant exhibits anti-inflammatory properties through inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) enzymes, as well as suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). In arthritis models, ethanolic extracts administered to rats at doses of 200–400 mg/kg reduced paw edema and joint inflammation, comparable to indomethacin. Key compounds like chebulagic acid contribute to these dual-inhibitory effects on inflammatory pathways.^[61]^[62]^[63] Antimicrobial activity of Terminalia chebula is evident against Gram-negative bacteria like Escherichia coli and Gram-positive bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, with minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.5–2 mg/mL in vitro. Ethanolic fruit extracts also show efficacy against methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains via gallic acid-mediated membrane disruption. Additionally, the extracts possess antifungal properties, inhibiting growth of Candida albicans and dermatophytes at similar concentrations.^[64]^[65] Beyond these, Terminalia chebula displays antidiabetic effects by lowering blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, with significant reductions observed at oral doses of 100–500 mg/kg over 4–6 weeks. Hepatoprotective actions involve mitigation of drug-induced liver toxicity, such as from anti-tuberculosis agents, through upregulation of antioxidant enzymes and reduction of serum transaminases like AST and ALT in rat models at 250–500 mg/kg. Gastroprotective benefits include decreased ulcer index and enhanced gastric mucus production in ethanol- and aspirin-induced ulcer models in rats, with hydroalcoholic extracts at 200–400 mg/kg inhibiting H⁺-K⁺ ATPase activity.^[66]^[67]^[68]

Recent research findings

A 2022 review of in vitro and in vivo studies confirmed the anti-diabetic effects of Terminalia chebula fruit extracts in animal models, including reduced blood glucose levels and improved insulin sensitivity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.^[69] The same review highlighted neuroprotective properties, such as protection against oxidative stress in rodent models.^[69] Additionally, anti-arthritic activity was demonstrated in collagen-induced arthritis models, where extracts alleviated joint inflammation and cartilage degradation via inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines.^[69] A 2024 metabolome profiling study of T. chebula fruit identified key flavonoids, including quercetin and rutin, which were linked to potent anti-inflammatory effects through suppression of NF-κB signaling and anticancer activities via induction of apoptosis in tumor cell lines.^[50] In 2025 research, hydroalcoholic extracts of T. chebula fruits demonstrated significant cytotoxic effects against oral squamous cell carcinoma cells (SCC9 line), promoting apoptosis via caspase-3 dependent pathway.^[70] Concurrent 2025 studies showed that T. chebula extracts alleviate mild cognitive impairment in aging models through antioxidant mechanisms, including enhanced superoxide dismutase activity and reduced malondialdehyde levels in brain tissue, thereby supporting synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection.^[71] A 2025 study on gout arthritis revealed that T. chebula extracts inhibit xanthine oxidase activity, reducing uric acid production, while also suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation to mitigate inflammation in monosodium urate crystal-induced models.^[72] Toxicity assessments indicate low acute oral toxicity for T. chebula extracts, with an LD50 exceeding 2,000 mg/kg in rodents, and no significant histopathological changes at therapeutic doses.^[48] Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrate rapid absorption of bioactive phenolics like chebulagic acid, achieving peak plasma concentrations within hours post-administration, with moderate bioavailability supporting systemic effects.^[73] Recent investigations also reaffirm general antimicrobial activity against pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus, though further clinical validation is needed.^[69] A November 2025 comprehensive review further compiles recent advancements in the pharmacology of T. chebula, emphasizing its active constituents and potential therapeutic applications based on studies up to late 2025.^[74]

Conservation

IUCN status

Terminalia chebula is native to South Asia, extending from the Indian subcontinent through Indo-China to southern China. It is currently assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.^[75] This status was determined in 2021 by assessor M. Barstow, based on the species' extensive range and absence of significant population decline.^[75] The assessment applied IUCN criteria, noting an extent of occurrence exceeding 20,000 km², with a stable population that is not severely fragmented.^[75] Projections indicate possible habitat loss from climate change impacts, but these do not yet qualify the species for a threatened category.^[75]

Threats and conservation measures

Terminalia chebula faces significant threats from overharvesting driven by high demand in the medicinal trade, particularly as a key ingredient in the Ayurvedic formulation Triphala, which has led to depletion of wild populations due to unsustainable collection practices.^[76] This pressure is exacerbated by the species' slow growth rate and limited natural regeneration in heavily exploited areas.^[76] Habitat loss through deforestation and agricultural expansion further endangers Terminalia chebula, as conversion of dry deciduous forests for farming and other land uses fragments its natural range across South Asia.^[77] Climate change poses an additional long-term risk, with projections indicating a substantial reduction in suitable habitat areas by 2070 under various representative concentration pathways (RCPs), primarily due to shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns.^[78] Recent modeling as of 2025 suggests potential shifts in distribution in regions like China under future scenarios.^[79] To counter these threats, wild certification initiatives have been implemented to promote sustainable harvesting, such as the FairWild program in India's Western Ghats, which certified Terminalia chebula collection from 2015 to 2020 and continued into subsequent years, safeguarding thousands of trees while supporting community livelihoods.^[80] Ex situ conservation efforts include cultivation in botanical gardens, with accessions maintained in institutions like the Lead Botanic Garden of Shivaji University in India to preserve genetic diversity.^[81] Recent studies have standardized vegetative propagation techniques to enhance germplasm conservation.^[82] Research on natural regeneration in areas like Garhwal Himalaya highlights edaphic factors influencing recruitment.^[83] The species is integrated into national medicinal plant programs in India, such as those under the National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), which prioritize research, cultivation, and sustainable use to bolster supply and reduce wild harvest pressure.^[84] Monitoring by the IUCN Species Survival Commission's Medicinal Plant Specialist Group includes assessments of Terminalia chebula populations and support for certification schemes.^[85] Community-based harvesting practices in Nepal and India, through initiatives like those in the Annapurna region and Western Ghats, emphasize regulated collection quotas and benefit-sharing to minimize ecological impact while enhancing local incomes.^[86]

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[23]
(PDF) A Review on Terminalia chebula Retz. (Harar) - ResearchGate
Oct 5, 2020 · as 'Harar' belongs to the family Combretaceae. It is found in deciduous forests throughout the greater part of India, China, Myanmar, ...
[24]
(PDF) Ecological Variation among Natural Populations of Terminalia ...
Aug 7, 2025 · In Makar, Terminalia chebula dominated among trees species with IVI value of 119.72 followed by Acacia catechu as co- (Mishra et al., 1997).Missing: habitat | Show results with:habitat
[25]
Terminalia chebula - Forrest-ecology
Terminalia chebula ; Habit. Deciduous Tree; Medium to Large; Slow growing ; Ecology. Birds feed on the fruit; Nectar and pollen for birds, bees and butterflies.<|separator|>
[26]
Effect of seed collection time and pre-treatment on germination ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The cleft grafting resulted in significantly higher final sprouting success and growth of the seedlings. The thickness (collar diameter size) of ...
[27]
enhancing seed germination and seedling growth of chebulic ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The study was conducted to determine how different pre-sowing seed treatments affected the germination behavior of Terminalia chebula Retz. ( ...Missing: viability | Show results with:viability
[28]
Propagation of Terminalia chebula Retz. – An important medicinal tree
Among four types of grafting techniques tried namely, epicotyl grafting, whip grafting, cleft grafting, whip and tongue grafting, the success per cent (66.67%), ...
[29]
(PDF) To evaluate the effect of Auxin concentrations (IBA and IAA ...
May 16, 2019 · The effect of IBA and IAA concentrations were examined to determine the Survival percentage of Terminalia chebula (Retz.) by vegetative ...
[30]
Conservation of Terminalia chebula through vegetative propagation ...
As in vivo grafting method was not efficient to obtain sufficient number of chimeras, approach-grafted seedling culture (AGSC) method was finally adopted in ...
[31]
Forestry :: Pest Management - TNAU Agritech Portal
Uredo terminaliae causes leaf rust disease on clonal plants of Terminalia chebula in the research nursery of State Forest Department, Coimbatore (Mohan and ...
[32]
Terminalia Chebula Exports from India - Volza.com
Rating 4.7 (1,428) Major products related to Terminalia Chebula exported by India are ORGANIC SHATAVARI, Mint, Herbs, Lavender, Dried Eucalyptus, and Organic Senna. Which ...Missing: commercial cultivation
[33]
Therapeutic Uses of Triphala in Ayurvedic Medicine - PMC - NIH
... Terminalia bellerica (Bibhitaki), and Terminalia chebula (Haritaki), is a cornerstone of gastrointestinal and rejuvenative treatment. Methods: A search of ...
[34]
Triphala's characteristics and potential therapeutic uses in modern ...
chebula (Haritaki) in a 1:1:1 ratio. Triphala is known for its tridoshic rasayana in Ayurveda, and it delays aging and rejuvenation in different age groups [8].
[35]
[PDF] Terminalia Chebula: Pharmacognostic and Phytochemical Studies
Nov 28, 2017 · In ayurveda Terminalia chebula is known to cure all dosas, stimulates digestive capacity, rasayana and vriseya and shows immunomodulatory ...
[36]
[PDF] A Critical Review of Pharmacological Actions of Haritaki (Terminalia ...
Aug 25, 2019 · Putana- Cleanses the body by purgation. Amrita- It has a rasayana property and rejuvenates the body and removes the diseases. Hemvati- Grows ( ...
[37]
[PDF] A mini review on medicinal value of Halela zard (Terminalia chebula ...
In Tibet, T. chebula is called the. “King of Medicine” [2]. In addition to being used commercially in numerous Unani medications to treat digestive ...
[38]
Haritaki Fruit Information and Facts - Specialty Produce
Haritaki is also traditionally boiled with sugar and pickled for extended use. The fruits are tossed into salads, used in various preserves, or fried and ...Missing: chutney | Show results with:chutney
[39]
Myrobalan extracts | Leather - Silvateam
Myrobalan extracts, from the fruits of the tree, are used in tanning to provide a light color and soft touch, and are available in liquid and powder form.
[40]
Terminalia chebula (PROTA) - Pl@ntUse - PlantNet
Sep 16, 2015 · Terminalia chebula occurs naturally from the sub-Himalayan region of Nepal and northern India to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China and ...Missing: native range
[41]
https://plantuse.plantnet.org/en/Terminalia_chebula_%28PROTA%29
[42]
https://www.khosango.com/terminalia-chebula-hardwood-flooring
[43]
An eco-friendly dyeing of woolen yarn by Terminalia chebula extract ...
Abstract. In the present study Terminalia chebula was used as an eco-friendly natural colorant for sustainable textile coloration of woolen yarn with primary ...Missing: culinary | Show results with:culinary
[44]
Hartaki – Puja Samagri - Hinduportal
Uses of Hartaki in Puja & Rituals: Burned in havan & yajna for purification and positivity. Offered in temple rituals and daily puja ceremonies. Believed to ...
[45]
Haritaki, Harītakī: 26 definitions - Wisdom Library
Oct 18, 2025 · Harītakī (हरीतकी) refers to an herbal ingredient which is included in a (snake) poison antidote recipe , according to the Kāśyapa Saṃhitā: an ...
[46]
https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/haritaki
[47]
Phytochemical profile and pro-healthy properties of Terminalia ...
The fruits are collected from January to April, fruit formation started from November to January. According to Basri Terminalia chebula is of four types; halela ...Missing: maturation | Show results with:maturation
[48]
A comprehensive review on the diverse pharmacological ...
6. Ethnomedicinal uses. Fruits of T. chebula are stomachic, tonic, carminative, expectorant and antidysenteric. Its common uses include: rejuvenating, laxative ...
[49]
A comprehensive metabolome profiling of Terminalia chebula ...
Dec 30, 2024 · This food supplement combines dried and powdered fruits of the plants Terminalia chebula (TC), Terminalia bellerica (TB) and Phyllanthus emblica ...Missing: seven varieties
[50]
A Review on Potential Mechanisms of Terminalia chebula in ...
In addition, the percentage of AChE inhibition in the extract of T. chebula was 13% (IC50 not detected) [14]. Furthermore, in another research, T. chebula could ...
[51]
Extraction of oil from Terminalia chebula kernel by using ultrasound ...
Nov 1, 2021 · The importance of this study was to extract a phytochemical rich therapeutic oil from the low cost raw material such as Terminalia chebula kernel using ...
[52]
(PDF) Study of Various Factors impacting the Quality of Terminalia ...
Oct 13, 2020 · ... unripe fruit, different species which impacting the quality of Terminalia chebula fruit rind. ... tannins. chebulagic acid and chebulinic ...
[53]
Profiling of phytochemical constituents of terminalia chebula fruit ...
The ethanolic extract has highest phenolic content at 104 µg/g, followed by the aqueous extract at 87 µg/g, the chloroform extract at 48 µg/g, and the petroleum ...Missing: unripe variation
[54]
Comprehensive Review on Fruit of Terminalia chebula
Nov 24, 2024 · tomentella Kurt refers to the dried mature fruits of the plant. They are characterized by bitter and sour flavors, neutral properties, and ...Missing: hairy | Show results with:hairy
[55]
Plants of the Genus Terminalia: An Insight on Its Biological ...
Oct 8, 2020 · Terminalia sp., family Combretaceae, is distributed worldwide, with around 250 species, especially in South Asia, Australia, and South Africa.
[56]
Identification of bioactive molecules from Triphala (Ayurvedic herbal ...
Jan 10, 2022 · The main bioactive active constituents present in T. chebula are chebulic, chebulinic acid, 2,4-chebulyl-D-glucopyranose, terflavin A, terchebin ...
[57]
A Review on the Pharmacological Aspects of Terminalia chebula
A number of chemical constituents have been isolated from the plant extract that include chebulin, ellagic acid, 2,4-chebulyl-D-glucopyranose, arjunglucoside ...
[58]
Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of Terminalia ...
The results showed that all tested extracts and pure compounds of T. chebula exhibited antioxidant activity at different magnitudes of potency. The antioxidant ...Missing: Saleem 2001
[59]
Total phenolics concentration and antioxidant potential of extracts of ...
Delile beans, Terminalia belerica Roxb. fruits, and Terminalia chebula Retz. (fruits, brown) were stronger antioxidants than alpha-tocopherol, while Terminalia ...
[60]
Antioxidant effects of aqueous extract of Terminalia chebula in vivo ...
The objective of this study was to evaluate the protective effects of an aqueous extract of fruit of T. chebula on the tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced ...Missing: Saleem 2001
[61]
Kinetics and docking studies of a COX-2 inhibitor isolated ... - PubMed
We recently reported that chebulagic acid (CA) isolated from Terminalia chebula is a potent COX-2/5-LOX dual inhibitor. In this study, compounds isolated ...
[62]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21054408/
[63]
Chebulagic acid, a COX-LOX dual inhibitor isolated from the fruits of ...
Jul 30, 2009 · Chebulagic acid, a COX-2 and 5-LOX dual inhibitor isolated from the fruits of Terminalia chebula, induces apoptosis in COLO-205 cells.
[64]
In Vitro Antibacterial Evaluation of Terminalia chebula as ... - PubMed
Mar 28, 2018 · In vitro antibacterial activity of ethyl acetate extract of plant Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae) was checked by agar well diffusion method ...
[65]
The development of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae) in ...
The plant has been demonstrated to possess multiple pharmacological and medicinal activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective ...
[66]
Antidiabetic and renoprotective effects of the chloroform extract of ...
May 7, 2006 · The chloroform extract of T. chebula seed powder was investigated for its antidiabetic activity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats using short term and ...
[67]
Terminalia chebula (fruit) prevents liver toxicity caused by sub ...
The hepatoprotective effect of TC extract could be attributed to its prominent anti-oxidative and membrane stabilizing activities. The changes in biochemical ...
[68]
Antiulcerogenic activity of Terminalia chebula fruit in experimentally ...
Traditionally T. chebula is used to cure chronic ulcer, gastritis, and stomach cancers. Objective: The present study is to evaluate the antiulcer effect of ...Missing: gastroprotective | Show results with:gastroprotective
[69]
Terminalia chebula Medicinal Uses: A Review of in vitro and in vivo ...
Oct 26, 2022 · Terminalia chebula has anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, ...
[70]
Investigating the impact of Terminalia chebula, an underutilized ...
Mar 26, 2025 · In this study, we have demonstrated the significant anticancer activity of hydroalcoholic extract of T. chebula and fractions derived from ...
[71]
The potential of Terminalia chebula in alleviating mild cognitive ...
It has a few common names such as dark myrobalan, ink tree, or chebulic ... Chebula Terminalia chebula Retz. TCM traditional Chinese medicine. MCI mild ...
[72]
Terminalia chebula Retz. extract relieves gout arthritis by inhibiting ...
May 28, 2025 · This study demonstrated that Terminalia chebula Retz. extract alleviated gout symptoms through the dual effects of lowering UA and relieving inflammation.
[73]
Comprehensive Review on Fruit of Terminalia chebula - MDPI
According to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 Edition), T. chebula Retz. or T. chebula Retz. var. tomentella Kurt refers to the dried mature fruits of the plant.Missing: varieties | Show results with:varieties
[74]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Insufficient relevant content. The provided URL (https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61990218/61990220) does not display specific species information such as IUCN conservation status, assessment year, assessor, reasons for status, distribution, extent of occurrence, population trends, or predictions about future threats like climate change. The page content is limited to a feedback form for the IUCN Red List website and does not provide the requested factual data.
[75]
Developing the medicinal plants sector in northern India: challenges ...
Aug 8, 2006 · The projected escalating demand of medicinal plants has led to the over-harvesting of many plants from wild, which subsequently results in the ...
[76]
Conservation of Terminalia genetic resources
Valuable genetic resources of Terminalia species are being rapidly depleted in India, and some populations are on the verge of extinction due to increasing ...
[77]
Identifying the potential global distribution and conservation areas ...
Identifying the potential global distribution and conservation areas for Terminalia chebula, an important medicinal tree species under changing climate scenario.
[78]
Five years of FairWild in India's Western Ghats: Nature Connect ...
Jul 22, 2020 · The FairWild project is safeguarding around 4000 T. chebula trees and 1000 T. bellirica trees, ensuring good livelihoods of the communities who ...
[79]
[PDF] A CASE STUDY OF LEAD BOTANIC GARDEN OF SHIVAJI ...
Botanic gardens play a key role in ex-situ conservation of endangered plants ... Terminalia chebula Retz. 51. Terminalia bialata (Roxb.) Steud ...
[80]
Harar (Terminalia chebula) - National Medicinal Plants Board
The National Medicinal Plants Board has been established by Government of India to coordinate with all matters relating to Medicinal Plants and Support ...Missing: programs | Show results with:programs
[81]
[PDF] IUCN SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group
Wild certification of two species – Terminalia bellirica and Terminalia chebula – for the fifth successive year in 2019 at two different loca- tions in the ...
[82]
Poverty and Livelihood Impacts of a Medicinal and Aromatic Plants ...
May 1, 2012 · One of these projects focused on the community-based management and sustainable use of MAPs and was implemented at 3 project sites in Nepal and ...