Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Germplasm

Germplasm consists of the living genetic resources, including , tissues, propagules, and other heritable materials from , , and microorganisms, that serve as the foundational source of for , , and . These resources embody the hereditary potential transmitted across generations, enabling the development of new varieties with enhanced traits such as disease resistance and yield. In , germplasm underpins crop improvement by providing alleles for adaptation to changing climates, pests, and soil conditions, thereby safeguarding . efforts, through ex situ collections like seed banks, preserve this diversity against erosion from modern practices and habitat loss, with institutions systematically cataloging and distributing accessions to worldwide. The strategic utilization of germplasm has historically yielded economic returns exceeding investments in banking infrastructure, as novel traits from wild relatives bolster productivity and nutritional profiles in staple crops.

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition

Germplasm denotes the living genetic resources, comprising , , plant parts, or propagules, that harbor the heritable material vital for , , and . These materials encapsulate s, genetic combinations, and gene frequencies that enable the perpetuation of or populations, forming the basis for in . In botanical and agronomic contexts, germplasm specifically includes reproductive or vegetative propagating material of , essential for maintaining varietal integrity and introducing novel traits. The concept extends to the totality of hereditary elements—such as alleles across a species and its wild relatives—that underpin , enhancement, and against environmental stresses. Germplasm collections, often curated in genebanks, preserve this diversity ex situ to safeguard against , with protocols ensuring viability through methods like seed storage or . This resource is indispensable for empirical breeding strategies, where selection from diverse accessions drives causal improvements in agronomic performance without reliance on unverified ideological frameworks.

Types of Germplasm

Germplasm is classified primarily according to its genetic origin, level of , and development, reflecting the spectrum from untamed to highly selected materials used in modern . This categorization aids in , evaluation, and utilization for improvement, as and types often harbor alleles lost in lines due to intensive selection. Key types include progenitors and relatives, weedy or semi- forms, landraces, obsolete cultivars, advanced lines, and modern cultivars. Wild progenitors and relatives encompass undomesticated species closely or distantly related to crops, serving as reservoirs of novel traits such as pest resistance, tolerance, and unique metabolic pathways absent in cultivated gene pools. These materials, often from primary, secondary, or tertiary gene pools under Harlan and de Wet's , enable of beneficial genes via hybridization, though crossing barriers may require techniques like . For instance, wild relatives of () have contributed genes for fruit quality and disease resistance in commercial breeding programs. Weedy or semi-domesticated relatives represent intermediate forms between wild and cultivated types, exhibiting partial domestication traits like shattering seeds or bitterness but retaining adaptability to marginal environments. These are valuable for traits like herbicide tolerance or competitive growth habits, as seen in weedy rice (Oryza spp.) populations that have provided alleles for drought resilience. Their genetic variability supports breeding for robust hybrids, though contamination risks in fields necessitate careful management. Landraces, or primitive cultivars, are farmer-selected populations adapted to specific agroecological niches through natural and human-mediated selection, characterized by heterogeneity and moderate yield but high resilience to local stresses. Originating from centers of diversity like those identified by Vavilov, landraces such as Mexican maize varieties embody accumulated adaptations over centuries, providing sources for quantitative trait loci (QTL) in genomics-assisted breeding. Global genebanks hold over 1.5 million accessions of such materials, underscoring their role in countering from modern monocultures. Obsolete cultivars consist of older released varieties superseded by higher-yielding successors, yet retaining useful alleles fixed during past selection pressures, such as specific resistances now rare in elite germplasm. These bridge and advanced types, with examples like early 20th-century wheat cultivars contributing to resistance in contemporary programs. Their inclusion in collections prevents loss of intermediate genetic combinations. Advanced breeding lines and elite germplasm include pre-release materials from systematic crossing and selection, optimized for traits like yield potential, uniformity, and hybrid vigor, often incorporating pyramided resistances. These are dynamically evaluated in breeding pipelines, with USDA genebanks distributing over 500,000 such accessions annually for research. Modern cultivars are commercially propagated varieties with stabilized genetics, high performance under intensive inputs, but narrowed diversity due to selection bottlenecks. Released through formal registration, they form the backbone of global agriculture, though dependency on few such types heightens vulnerability to epidemics, as evidenced by the 1970 U.S. corn leaf blight affecting uniform T-cytoplasm lines. Beyond genetic categories, germplasm is maintained in physical forms suited to species : orthodox for long-term at low moisture and , recalcitrant requiring short-term or handling, vegetative propagules like tubers or cuttings for clonally propagated crops (e.g., , ), and cultures or cryopreserved tissues for recalcitrant or vegetatively propagated species to minimize and space needs. Over 80% of conserved germplasm worldwide is seed-based, with methods expanding for tropical perennials. ![Germplasm bank at INTA][float-right] The INTA genebank in Argentina exemplifies storage of diverse types, including seeds and clonal materials from South American crops.

Biological Basis

Germplasm encompasses the living genetic material—primarily germ cells, their precursors, seeds, propagules, and cryopreserved tissues—that serves as the bearer of hereditary traits, enabling the transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring. In biological terms, it consists of the diploid genome in diploid germ cells, which undergoes meiosis to produce haploid gametes containing chromosomes with DNA sequences that encode phenotypic traits. This material maintains continuity across generations through precise replication during cell division, with variations arising from mutations, segregation, and recombination, forming the substrate for evolutionary adaptation and breeding. The foundational principle distinguishing germplasm from somatic cells was articulated in August Weismann's germ-plasm theory, published in 1893, which proposed that operates via an immortal "germ plasm" confined to a segregated lineage, immune to somatic modifications. Weismann argued that embryonic development isolates germ cells early, preventing the of acquired traits and ensuring that only germline alterations—such as mutations in idioplasm (later understood as genes)—are passed on, thereby refuting Lamarckian in favor of a particulate, continuous hereditary substance. This theory emphasized the unidirectional flow from germplasm to , with no reverse influence, a view supported by experiments on animals demonstrating that somatic changes, like tail amputation in mice over generations, do not affect germline transmission. Contemporary upholds Weismann's core separation of and , identifying germplasm as the DNA in nuclei, replicated semiconservatively during germline proliferation and shuffled via crossing-over in to yield . In plants, analogous processes occur in floral meristems, where sporogenous tissues produce megaspores and microspores housing the ' allelic repertoire. Genetic fidelity is safeguarded by mechanisms and checkpoints, though transposons and environmental mutagens can introduce variability; epigenetic factors like may modulate expression but do not transmit sequence changes heritably under standard conditions. This molecular framework underpins germplasm's role in maintaining potential, with wild relatives often harboring alleles absent in domesticated lines due to historical bottlenecks.

Historical Development

Early Recognition of Genetic Resources

The practice of conserving plant germplasm traces back to prehistoric human societies, where early farmers inadvertently preserved by selecting and storing seeds, tubers, roots, and other propagules from wild and domesticated populations for replanting, thereby maintaining variability essential for adaptation to local conditions. This rudimentary form of recognition stemmed from empirical observations of crop performance rather than formal scientific understanding, as evidenced by archaeological records of seed storage in ancient agricultural settlements dating to approximately 10,000 years ago in regions like the . In the 19th century, botanists began systematically exploring the geographic origins of cultivated plants, laying groundwork for explicit recognition of genetic resources' value. Alphonse de Candolle's 1882 work Origine des Plantes Cultivées analyzed historical and distributional data to hypothesize centers of crop domestication, implying the need to preserve diverse landraces from these areas to sustain breeding potential against evolving pests and environments. Concurrently, in the United States, the establishment of federal plant exploration programs in the 1890s, such as the Section of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction under the U.S. Department of Agriculture, marked an institutional acknowledgment of importing and evaluating exotic germplasm to enhance domestic agriculture, with initial stations evaluating thousands of accessions by 1900. The early 20th century saw accelerated scientific appreciation of germplasm's role in averting genetic erosion amid intensifying modern breeding. Nikolai Vavilov, a Russian botanist, pioneered global expeditions starting in 1916, collecting over 200,000 accessions from more than 60 countries and formulating the theory of crop centers of origin and diversity in 1924, which underscored that wild relatives and primitive cultivars in these regions harbored irreplaceable genetic traits for resistance to diseases and climatic stresses. Vavilov's Institute of Plant Industry in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) became the world's first major genebank, housing systematic collections that demonstrated causal links between genetic diversity and agricultural resilience, influencing subsequent international efforts despite political disruptions during his lifetime. This era's recognition was driven by observed yield declines in uniform varieties and the rediscovery of Mendel's laws around 1900, prompting breeders to prioritize diverse germplasm as raw material for hybrid development.

Establishment of Modern Genebanks

The replacement of traditional landraces with genetically uniform modern crop varieties during the mid-20th century heightened concerns over the erosion of plant essential for against pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. This realization spurred the creation of dedicated facilities employing standardized techniques such as low-temperature storage to extend seed viability, marking the shift to modern genebanks distinct from earlier collections. A pioneering example was the ' National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL), established in , in 1958 as the world's first facility for long-term orthodox seed preservation under controlled low-humidity and sub-zero conditions, housing over 300,000 accessions by the late . This infrastructure supported systematic acquisition, regeneration, and distribution for agricultural research, influencing global practices amid post-World War II agricultural intensification. The 1950s and 1960s saw proliferation of similar genebanks across continents, driven by FAO initiatives like world catalogues of germplasm and technical meetings on . Notable establishments included Hungary's genebank in 1959 with initial staffing of 81 personnel, expanding rapidly to over 200, and the integration of genebanks into international agricultural centers such as the (IRRI) in the following its founding in 1960, which organized the first dedicated rice germplasm bank to counter variety displacement in . These facilities emphasized duplication, viability monitoring, and accessibility, laying groundwork for conserving millions of accessions amid the Green Revolution's demands.

Evolution of International Frameworks

The foundational international efforts to address plant germplasm conservation emerged in the post-World War II era through the of the , established in 1945, which began emphasizing the collection and preservation of genetic resources amid concerns over erosion due to modern breeding and agricultural intensification. By the , growing awareness of loss—exacerbated by the Green Revolution's reliance on uniform varieties—prompted FAO to convene technical meetings, leading to the 1983 adoption of the voluntary International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources () by FAO Conference Resolution 8/83. This non-binding agreement framed for (PGRFA) as part of the , committing signatories to conserve germplasm, promote free exchange for utilization, and avoid restrictions on availability for breeding. However, eight developed nations, including the and , filed reservations, arguing it conflicted with emerging rights under frameworks like the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV, established 1961 and revised 1991). In parallel, the FAO established the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources (later renamed the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture) in 1983 to monitor implementation and advise on policy, holding its inaugural session in 1985. The 1989 FAO International Technical Conference on PGRFA in Leipzig further highlighted global needs, endorsing ex situ conservation networks like those managed by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Tensions arose with the 1992 entry into force of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which asserted national sovereignty over genetic resources, shifting from the IU's common heritage principle and complicating unrestricted access. To reconcile these, the 1991 FAO Conference resolved to revise the IU for harmony with the CBD and UPOV, incorporating breeders' and farmers' rights; this culminated in the 1993 Agreed Interpretation of the International Undertaking, which recognized PGRFA's sovereign status while affirming farmers' contributions. Negotiations for a binding instrument intensified from 1994, driven by the need to facilitate access amid sovereignty claims and benefit-sharing demands. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) was adopted on November 3, 2001, by the FAO Conference in a vote of 116-0-2, signed in , and entered into force on June 29, 2004, after 40 ratifications. This legally binding framework established the Multilateral System (MLS) for facilitated access to germplasm of 64 crops and forages listed in Annex I—covering crops providing over % of human caloric needs—and mandatory benefit-sharing mechanisms, including an endowment fund for conservation and capacity-building. It integrates with the , using Standard Material Transfer Agreements for exchanges, while respecting national laws and UPOV-compliant protections for derived varieties. Subsequent developments, such as the 2010 under the , further refined access and benefit-sharing protocols, though implementation has varied, with over 150 countries party to the ITPGRFA by 2024 facilitating millions of germplasm transfers.

Importance in Agriculture and Science

Role in Crop Improvement and Breeding

Germplasm collections provide essential genetic diversity for crop breeding programs, allowing the identification and incorporation of traits such as disease resistance, tolerance, and enhanced yield potential into cultivars. Breeders rely on these resources to counteract in modern varieties, which often exhibit narrowed genetic bases due to repeated selection for uniformity and . Access to diverse accessions, including landraces and wild relatives, enables the of novel alleles through conventional hybridization or advanced techniques like . In historical contexts, germplasm exchange has underpinned major agricultural advancements, exemplified by the , where semidwarf genes from Japanese wheat variety Norin 10 were introgressed into Mexican breeding lines, resulting in doubled yields and widespread adoption by the 1960s. Similarly, centers utilized international germplasm flows to develop high-yielding and varieties that increased global production by billions of tons between 1960 and 2000, averting famines in . For , tropical germplasm introductions expanded adaptation and yield in temperate regions, with U.S. collections contributing to hybrid vigor enhancements that boosted average yields from 1.8 tons per hectare in 1930 to over 10 tons by 2020. Contemporary breeding leverages germplasm for targeted improvements, such as deploying adult-plant genes from diverse collections to achieve durable in cereals, reducing reliance and yield losses estimated at 10-20% annually. Pre-breeding efforts enhance wild or underutilized germplasm by crossing it with adapted lines, creating bridging populations that facilitate gene transfer for traits like drought in or nutritional quality in beans. Genomic tools now accelerate this process by associating data and phenotypic evaluations from genebanks with molecular markers, enabling precise predictions of value across over 600,000 accessions in U.S. public collections. These applications underscore germplasm's causal role in sustaining productivity gains amid variability and evolving pathogens.

Contributions to Biodiversity and Food Security

![Germplasm bank at INTA, Argentina]float-right Germplasm repositories preserve essential for maintaining amid threats from agricultural intensification, , and , housing millions of accessions including crop wild relatives and landraces that harbor unique traits lost in commercial cultivars. These collections counteract , where modern has narrowed varietal bases, as evidenced by the global safeguarding of over 1.8 million plant genetic resource accessions that support evolutionary potential and resilience. By conserving this diversity ex situ, genebanks enable the restoration of populations and the integration of adaptive genes into programs, thereby bolstering overall . In enhancing , germplasm provides the foundational genetic material for developing resilient crop varieties capable of withstanding pests, diseases, and environmental stresses, directly contributing to stable yields in vulnerable regions. For example, drought-tolerant cultivars derived from diverse germplasm have been deployed in , improving productivity under water-scarce conditions and supporting food availability for millions. Similarly, in , seeds from genebanks such as indigenous leafy vegetables and Bambara groundnut outperformed local varieties in yield and resilience, aiding farmers in adapting to erratic weather patterns. Disease-resistant genes sourced from have also enabled the creation of immune crop lines, reducing reliance on chemical inputs and mitigating risks in pathogen-prone areas. The strategic utilization of germplasm through international exchange frameworks further amplifies these benefits, facilitating the flow of traits needed for global crop improvement and averting losses projected to reach 20-40% from unaddressed decline. This access has underpinned the development of varieties contributing to 50% or more of increases in major staples like and over recent decades, underscoring germplasm's causal role in sustaining caloric production against and climatic variability.

Applications in Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Germplasm serves as a critical reservoir of genetic variation for biotechnology, providing raw material for identifying and isolating genes associated with desirable traits such as disease resistance, yield enhancement, and environmental stress tolerance. In genetic engineering, sequences from diverse germplasm accessions, including wild relatives and landraces, are cloned and introduced into elite crop varieties via transgenic methods; for instance, the Xa21 gene conferring bacterial blight resistance was transferred from the wild rice species Oryza longistaminata to cultivated rice (Oryza sativa), enabling durable resistance in commercial hybrids. Similarly, genes for grassy stunt virus resistance sourced from Oryza nivara have been incorporated into rice breeding programs to bolster pathogen defense. These applications leverage germplasm banks, which maintain over 400,000 samples in networks like the U.S. Agricultural Research Service system, to supply verified genetic resources for transformation protocols. Advancements in technologies, particularly /, have expanded germplasm utilization by enabling precise modifications without foreign DNA integration, thus creating novel variants directly from existing collections. In , / has been applied to edit germplasm for traits like herbicide tolerance and improved , facilitating rapid innovation in commercial cultivars while preserving genetic integrity. For diploid potato germplasm, which offers a compact for functional studies, editing targets have been identified to enhance tuber yield and disease resistance, positioning it as a foundational resource for improvement. In cereals such as and , systems derived from germplasm-derived promoters and guides have targeted genes for and nutrient efficiency, contributing to climate-resilient varieties amid projections of yield losses from . Biotechnological tools also integrate with germplasm for applications, where engineered constructs combine multiple alleles from disparate sources to design de novo pathways, as seen in efforts to engineer biofortified crops by stacking genes from underutilized germplasm. techniques, often paired with , propagate transformed germplasm at scale, enabling vegetatively propagated species like to incorporate transgenes for fungal resistance from related accessions. These methods underscore germplasm's role in accelerating precision breeding, though challenges persist in regulatory approval and public acceptance of edited products, with over 50 CRISPR-edited varieties approved or in globally by 2023.

Collection and Evaluation

Methods of Germplasm Collection

Germplasm collection entails systematic expeditions to centers of , including wild habitats and cultivated areas, to acquire seeds, vegetative propagules, or other reproductive materials representing in species and their relatives. involves assessing taxonomic, geographic, and ecological data to target gaps in existing collections, often using records, floras, and local expertise for and optimal timing aligned with plant . Collections prioritize landraces from farmers' fields and crop wild relatives (CWR) from natural populations to capture adaptive traits, with limits such as harvesting no more than 20% of a seed or 10% from rare plants. For seed-propagated species with (desiccation-tolerant) seeds, mature fruits or pods are harvested into breathable envelopes or bags, ensuring samples represent variability through random selection across individuals. Populations of CWR typically yield 50-100 or individuals to secure common alleles, with adjustments for selfing versus breeding systems and to maximize without overexploitation. Vegetative materials, such as stem cuttings, tubers, or rootstocks, are excised using sterilized tools like pruners, prioritizing young, healthy tissues for viability during transit. Species with recalcitrant (short-lived) seeds, like or , require specialized handling to prevent ; embryos are excised on-site or in transit, surface-sterilized with agents such as 1-5% or 70% , and initiated on media like Murashige-Skoog (MS) supplemented with 30 g/L and antibiotics (e.g., 100 mg/L gentamycin) to contamination. Nodal cuttings (2-5 cm) from species like or are similarly treated, with fungicides like applied pre-sterilization, achieving recovery rates up to 100% under controlled conditions. Supplementary acquisitions occur via exchanges with genebanks, purchases from seed companies, or sampling from markets and gene sanctuaries, ensuring prior-informed consent and compliance with national access regulations. Each accession includes passport data recording , collector, date (e.g., GPS coordinates, , associated ), and morphological descriptors to enable and .

Characterization and Evaluation Techniques

Characterization of germplasm entails the documentation of stable, highly heritable traits to distinguish individual accessions within collections, typically focusing on morphological, phenological, and data recorded under standardized conditions. These descriptors, often aligned with international standards from organizations like , include measurements such as plant height, leaf shape, flower color, and seed characteristics, enabling efficient management and duplication detection in genebanks. Evaluation extends characterization by assessing agronomic performance and adaptive traits under controlled or field conditions relevant to breeding objectives, such as yield potential, disease resistance, and stress tolerance. This process identifies superior genotypes for utilization, with multi-disciplinary approaches involving breeders, pathologists, and physiologists to quantify traits like maturity date, biomass, and nutritional content through replicated trials. For instance, evaluation trials may screen thousands of accessions for abiotic stress responses, as demonstrated in wheat germplasm studies revealing drought-tolerant sources from diverse collections. Molecular techniques complement phenotypic methods by providing genetic fingerprints via markers like simple sequence repeats (SSRs) or single polymorphisms (SNPs), facilitating diversity analysis and association mapping without environmental confounding. High-throughput , including genotyping-by-sequencing, has accelerated in large collections, as seen in efforts to sequence crop accessions for mining. Biochemical assays, such as protein electrophoresis or , evaluate quality traits like oil content or composition, ensuring pathogen-free status through tests for viruses and pests. Phenomic approaches, integrating and , enable non-destructive, high-resolution evaluation of traits like root architecture or canopy vigor, enhancing throughput in genebank operations. Challenges include genotype-by-environment interactions, addressed via multi-location trials and statistical models for estimation. subsets, derived from comprehensive evaluations, reduce while preserving , as applied in selections from over 500,000 accessions in major genebanks.

Challenges in Maintaining Genetic Integrity

Maintaining genetic integrity in germplasm collections requires minimizing unintended alterations to the original genetic composition during collection, regeneration, and long-term storage. poses a primary , particularly during seed regeneration cycles where small sizes—often limited by labor and space constraints—lead to random changes and potential loss of rare variants. In cross-pollinating , regeneration demands to prevent contamination from external sources, yet field-based multiplication remains vulnerable to inadvertent , complicating efforts to preserve fidelity. Mutation accumulation further erodes integrity, as spontaneous genetic changes arise during repeated regeneration or extended storage, with studies detecting higher burdens of deleterious in accessions held longer in genebanks. For instance, modeling indicates that mildly deleterious build up across regeneration events, potentially reducing adaptive potential unless countered by periodic monitoring and selective culling. Clonal germplasm, propagated vegetatively, faces amplified risks from somaclonal variations induced by , though can mitigate some field-related drifts at the cost of potential cryogenic stress-induced alterations. Nonrandom selection during viability testing or regeneration exacerbates these issues, as differential or among genotypes—driven by conditions or environmental factors—can shift frequencies away from the original profile. Empirical evidence from landraces reveals variability in predicted deleterious mutations across collections, underscoring how inconsistent protocols amplify over decades. Addressing these demands rigorous at intervals, yet resource limitations in many genebanks hinder comprehensive tracking, with genetic shifts observed as an evolutionary norm rather than rarity in long-term holdings.

Preservation and Storage Methods

Ex Situ Conservation Strategies


Ex situ conservation strategies for plant germplasm entail the removal and preservation of genetic material from its natural habitat into controlled facilities, such as genebanks, to safeguard diversity against threats like habitat loss and climate change. These approaches complement in situ methods by enabling long-term storage and facilitating access for breeding programs. Genebanking, particularly seed storage, represents the most cost-effective ex situ technique, supporting global agriculture through the maintenance of millions of accessions. For orthodox seeds, which constitute the majority of crop species and tolerate , standard protocols involve drying seeds to 3-7% content at controlled (around 32 ± 3% relative at 18°C) before storage at low temperatures, typically -18°C for medium-term holding or -20°C to -196°C for base collections to achieve viability spans of decades to centuries. Recalcitrant seeds, comprising 5-10% of angiosperm species including many tropical trees and fruits, cannot withstand drying or freezing due to high initial content (often >50%) and sensitivity to formation, necessitating alternative strategies to prevent deterioration during storage. Cryopreservation emerges as a primary method for recalcitrant and vegetatively propagated germplasm, involving immersion in at -196°C after treatments like or to form a glassy state that minimizes metabolic activity and damage from ice crystals. This technique has proven effective for seeds, embryos, dormant buds, and s, with protocols achieving high recovery rates post-thaw for diverse species. In vitro conservation via supports short- to medium-term maintenance under slow-growth conditions, reducing multiplication needs while preserving clonal fidelity, though it requires periodic subculturing to avoid . Field genebanks serve for species incompatible with seed or cryogenic storage, such as certain perennials, where living are maintained under replicated plots with periodic regeneration to counter and erosion. Major international repositories, including those of the centers, house over 760,000 accessions across mandate crops, adhering to FAO-IPGRI standards for duplication, viability monitoring (targeting >85% ), and regeneration every 5-50 years depending on species longevity. These strategies emphasize secure backups, , and to ensure genetic integrity amid risks like equipment failure or .

In Situ and On-Farm Conservation

In situ conservation preserves plant germplasm by maintaining viable populations of crop wild relatives (CWR) and other genetic resources within their natural ecosystems and habitats, enabling natural , , and adaptation to environmental changes. This strategy, as defined under the (CBD) in 1992, emphasizes the protection of entire ecosystems rather than isolated accessions, often through designated genetic reserves or protected areas where populations are monitored and managed to sustain diversity. Methods include floristic inventories assessing all CWR in a region (e.g., Portugal's national CWR checklist completed in 2005) and monographic approaches targeting specific gene pools globally, such as for Aegilops species documented in 2008. On-farm conservation, a subset of in situ approaches, entails the active of domesticated landraces and traditional varieties by farmers within agricultural landscapes, preserving dynamic populations adapted to local conditions through seed selection, , and cultivation practices. Unlike broader efforts focused on wild taxa, on-farm methods integrate farmer knowledge and customary systems, such as seed banks and participatory to counteract from modern cultivars. Examples include Ethiopian farmers maintaining and landraces since the 1990s via recurrent selection, which sustains resilience. Key implementations of for CWR include genetic reserves like the UNESCO-designated site for in Mexico's Sierra de Manantlán, established to protect perennial teosinte populations as potential progenitors. Similarly, Israel's conservation of Triticum dicoccoides wild populations has yielded traits enhancing modern yields. A 2025 revealed that only 40% of assessed CWR taxa occur in protected areas, highlighting incomplete coverage despite progress in global networks proposed by FAO in 2009. On-farm efforts demonstrate quantifiable diversity retention; a 2024 survey in India's documented 671 landraces across 60 crops at 24 sites, with rice comprising 314 varieties valued for culinary, medicinal, and ecological roles amid threats from youth disinterest and socioeconomic shifts. These practices contribute to by fostering locally adapted germplasm, as evidenced by contributions from CWR-derived genes accounting for up to 30% of yield increases in modern crops. Both strategies offer advantages over ex situ methods by sustaining evolutionary potential and farmer-driven utilization, but face challenges including , climate impacts, and policy gaps; for instance, landrace losses exceeded 75% in parts of and from 1940 to 1993 due to agricultural intensification. Effective integration requires incentives like for diverse varieties and long-term , as limited persists with fewer than 1% of European CWR sites fully assessed as of 2008.

Emerging Preservation Technologies

Advanced cryopreservation techniques represent a primary emerging approach for long-term germplasm preservation, particularly for vegetatively propagated and those with recalcitrant seeds that cannot be stored conventionally. Methods such as , where explants are treated with plant vitrification solution 2 (PVS2) and plunged in droplets for ultra-rapid cooling to -196°C, have achieved high rates across diverse taxa, including tropical orchids and trees. Innovations include cryo-plate systems—V-cryoplates using PVS2 and D-cryoplates employing air —which standardize heat exchange and simplify handling, with reported viability exceeding 43% in like bird cherry post-storage. Recent developments incorporate novel cryoprotective agents (CPAs), such as exopolysaccharides and ice-binding proteins, to minimize formation, alongside nanotechnology-enabled nanowarming for uniform thawing and reduced cellular damage. Integration of technologies—, transcriptomics, , and —enables protocol optimization by identifying genetic stability markers, confirming no abnormalities in post-cryopreserved genomes and only minor first-generation variations in sugar content or pH. For instance, Malus wild have maintained over 64% viability for more than 10 years under these refined conditions. DNA banking emerges as a complementary strategy, storing extracted high-molecular-weight DNA or tissues in liquid nitrogen to preserve genetic information indefinitely, bypassing challenges in maintaining viable living material for certain species. This approach supports molecular characterization, diversity assessment, and marker-assisted breeding without the need for regeneration, serving as a cost-effective backup for accessions with lost viability, such as degraded seeds. Institutions like the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, house over 20,000 plant DNA samples, while the Frozen Zoo maintains approximately 7,300 animal tissue samples for similar purposes, facilitating easy, quarantine-free exchange and high-throughput analysis. Advantages include space efficiency and resilience to environmental threats, though challenges persist, such as potential DNA degradation requiring periodic replacement and the current inability to regenerate whole plants directly from stored DNA. Image-based digitalization further augments preservation by enabling high-throughput phenotyping of germplasm stocks through technologies like , , and algorithms, which objectively capture and analyze visual traits to enhance and . This overcomes limitations of manual assessments, such as subjectivity and , by providing rapid, standardized data on large populations, as demonstrated in soybean seed phenotyping studies that accelerate identification of valuable accessions. By mitigating environmental variability via multi-angle imaging and , digital methods support virtual germplasm repositories, reducing physical handling risks and aiding in the prioritization of diverse materials for or .

Utilization and Breeding Applications

Traditional Breeding Programs

Traditional breeding programs rely on germplasm collections as sources of for developing improved crop varieties through controlled crosses and selection. Breeders access seeds, tissues, or other propagules from , landraces, wild relatives, and elite cultivars to identify parents exhibiting traits such as yield potential, disease resistance, or environmental . This process begins with germplasm evaluation to characterize , followed by hybridization to combine desirable alleles, and subsequent generations of phenotypic selection to stabilize traits in progeny. Methods include mass selection, where superior individuals are chosen from a ; breeding, tracking lineage for purity; and to introgress specific traits into adapted backgrounds without linkage drag. Historical advancements in traditional integrated germplasm systematically after the rediscovery of Mendel's laws around , enabling predictable patterns in crosses. Early 20th-century efforts, such as Vavilov's expeditions collecting over 200,000 accessions by the 1940s, supplied breeders with diverse materials to combat crop vulnerabilities exposed by events like the Irish Potato Famine. In the United States, the USDA established plant introduction stations in 1948 to maintain and distribute germplasm for breeding programs across state agricultural experiment stations. These initiatives emphasized recurrent selection to enhance polygenic traits like yield, iteratively improving populations by recombining selected germplasm. Notable successes demonstrate germplasm's role in yield breakthroughs. During the of the 1960s-1970s, at CIMMYT utilized germplasm from wild relatives and landraces to breed semi-dwarf varieties resistant to and , increasing Mexican yields from 0.75 tons per in 1950 to over 3 tons by 1970. Similarly, IRRI's rice breeding programs incorporated diverse Asian and African germplasm, yielding semi-dwarf in 1966, which boosted Southeast Asian production from 100 million tons in 1960 to over 200 million by 1980 through higher fertilizer responsiveness and shorter stature. In , traditional methods like shuttle breeding and wide crosses with exotic germplasm introduced submergence tolerance and grain quality improvements without . centers' open-access germplasm exchange facilitated these gains, contributing to global by averting famines in developing regions. Challenges in traditional breeding include linkage drag from wild germplasm, requiring multiple backcross generations—often 6-8—to recover backgrounds while retaining target traits. Nonetheless, these programs remain foundational, with ongoing use in forage crops via synthetic varieties formed by intercrossing selected clones or populations. Public efforts, sustained across generations, preserve institutional knowledge and germplasm to address evolving threats like climate variability.

Integration with Genetic Modification and Gene Editing

Germplasm collections provide a foundational source of for identifying target genes and alleles that can be precisely edited using technologies like /, enabling the rapid integration of beneficial traits into elite breeding lines without introducing unwanted linked genomic regions. This approach complements traditional breeding by allowing multiplexed edits—simultaneous modifications at multiple loci—to stack traits such as disease resistance, tolerance, and nutritional enhancement, which may be rare or absent in domesticated varieties. For example, in , / has been used to edit genes like OsNramp5 to reduce accumulation, drawing on allelic variants observed in diverse germplasm accessions to develop safer, high-yield cultivars suitable for contaminated soils. In maize and wheat, gene editing leverages germplasm-derived sequences to knock out susceptibility genes or introduce promoter swaps, accelerating the creation of improved germplasm resources. A notable case involves editing the TaGW2 gene in wheat using CRISPR/Cas9, informed by natural variants in landrace collections, which increased grain weight and yield by up to 10-15% in field trials conducted in 2022. Similarly, soybean germplasm screening has identified targets for editing pod shattering and oil content genes, with edited lines showing enhanced harvest index compared to conventional hybrids. These applications, often combined with transient expression systems to avoid foreign DNA integration, produce non-transgenic outcomes that mimic natural mutations, facilitating regulatory approval in jurisdictions distinguishing edited from transgenic crops. Challenges in this integration include off-target effects, though base and variants of have reduced these to below 1% in optimized protocols as of 2023, and the need for efficient regeneration protocols from edited protoplasts or explants sourced from germplasm. Integration with genomic selection and speed pipelines further amplifies efficiency, as demonstrated in where CRISPR-edited dwarfing genes from wild relatives were introgressed into elite backgrounds, shortening cycles from years to months. Overall, this expands the usable genetic pool from germplasm banks, with over 500 CRISPR-edited crop events reported by 2024 targeting traits informed by ex situ collections.

Economic Impacts of Germplasm Utilization

Utilization of germplasm in crop breeding programs has driven significant economic gains by enabling the development of varieties with higher yields, improved pest resistance, and adaptation to environmental stresses, thereby increasing and farm incomes worldwide. For instance, CGIAR-related crop technologies, which rely heavily on germplasm from international genebanks, were adopted on 221 million hectares across , , and by 2016–2020, generating annual economic welfare gains of $47 billion during that period. These benefits stem from productivity enhancements in staple crops like , , , and , which have lowered and reduced in at least 92 developing countries, with major impacts in , , and . Specific case studies illustrate the high returns from germplasm incorporation. At the (IRRI), germplasm from a single accession integrated into modern varieties has been valued at approximately $50 million, while 1,000 such accessions contributed an estimated $325 million in economic value through improvements and reduced losses. In , the use of maize germplasm in programs has yielded annual economic benefits of $1.1–1.6 billion from increases alone, supporting and farmer profitability amid variable climates. Similarly, the adoption of IRRI-derived rice varieties in the , , and generated $1.46 billion annually in benefits, far exceeding the costs of germplasm maintenance and efforts. Publicly financed breeding programs utilizing diverse germplasm have consistently shown rates of return that outweigh costs, with genetic improvements accounting for about half of yield gains in major U.S. crops since . In breeding, the marginal economic benefits from specific germplasm accessions have justified ongoing expenditures, as enhanced traits reduce production risks and input needs. Overall, while commercial exploitation represents only a of total value, the broader societal benefits—including stabilized supplies and export revenues—underscore germplasm's role in sustaining agricultural economies, particularly in developing regions where gains directly translate to alleviation.

Regulatory Frameworks

Key International Treaties and Agreements

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), adopted by the (FAO) Conference on November 3, 2001, and entering into force on June 29, 2004, establishes a multilateral system to facilitate access to and benefit-sharing from for food and agriculture (PGRFA). This treaty recognizes PGRFA as a common heritage for humanity while affirming countries' sovereign rights, covering 64 crops and forages listed in its Annex I, including staples like , , and , held in ex situ collections such as genebanks. It mandates simplified procedures for access under the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA), with benefits—such as 1.1% of sales from commercial use directed to an endowment fund for conservation and capacity-building—shared equitably among contracting parties, which numbered 150 as of 2023. The , opened for signature on June 5, 1992, and entering into force on December 29, 1993, asserts national sovereignty over genetic resources, including germplasm, requiring (PIC) for and mutually agreed terms (MAT) for benefit-sharing under Article 15. Ratified by 196 parties, the promotes and sustainable use of biological but has been critiqued for creating barriers due to bureaucratic PIC requirements, potentially hindering germplasm for programs in developing countries. It applies to all genetic resources, encompassing plant germplasm derived from or ex situ sources, and integrates with other agreements without subordinating them. Complementing the CBD, the , adopted on October 29, 2010, and entering into force on October 12, 2014, operationalizes access and benefit-sharing (ABS) mechanisms with 140 parties as of 2024. It requires PIC and MAT for genetic resources accessed post-ratification, mandates checkpoints to monitor compliance (e.g., in patent applications involving germplasm derivatives), and supports benefit-sharing through monetary and non-monetary means, such as , though implementation varies, with some nations reporting delays in ABS agreements that impede research on plant germplasm. The protocol excludes human genetic resources and applies to associated with germplasm, aiming to prevent biopiracy while balancing provider and user interests.

National and Regional Regulations

In the United States, the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), administered by the USDA's (), coordinates federal, state, and private efforts to acquire, conserve, characterize, evaluate, document, and distribute plant germplasm for agricultural improvement and research, with over 600,000 accessions maintained across 18 genebanks as of 2023. Import and export of germplasm are regulated under the Plant Protection Act and enforced by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), requiring phytosanitary certificates from exporting countries and mandatory processing at APHIS facilities for potentially infested materials to prevent introduction of pests and diseases. Domestic distribution follows strict protocols, including permits for interstate movement of certain propagules, while international shipments adhere to recipient countries' requirements or are withheld if compliance is infeasible. Within the , plant reproductive material, including germplasm, is governed by harmonized marketing directives under Council Directive 2002/90/EC and subsequent regulations, which set standards for , , and of and propagating material for agricultural, vegetable, , and ornamental to ensure varietal purity and disease-free status. Access to genetic resources complies with EU Regulation 511/2014, implementing the through due diligence declarations for users importing or utilizing non-EU origin germplasm, requiring verification of prior and mutually agreed terms from provider countries. Member states maintain national inventories and genebanks, such as Germany's Federal Genebank for Agricultural and Horticultural Plants, integrated into the EU's Strategy, which emphasizes and sustainable use while prohibiting unregulated exchanges that bypass benefit-sharing obligations. China's Seed Law of 2021 mandates state protection of germplasm resources through systematic collection, evaluation, and preservation in national repositories, prohibiting unauthorized collection or export to safeguard and support breeding programs. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs oversees the National Crop Germplasm Resources Platform, established with policies ensuring secure storage and controlled distribution, while amended Regulations on the Protection of New Varieties, effective May 2025, extend protection terms to 25 years for woody and vine to incentivize conservation-linked . In , the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001, establishes the PPV&FR Authority to register varieties, protect breeders' and farmers' rights, and regulate germplasm access, including compulsory disclosure of parental lines in applications to prevent biopiracy. The Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003, under the Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914, enforces phytosanitary inspections and prohibitions on high-risk imports, with the National Bureau of (NBPGR) serving as the nodal agency for germplasm exchange, requiring permits and compliance with biosafety norms for genetically modified materials. Regionally, beyond the , associations like the Association of Agricultural Research Institutions facilitate harmonized standards for germplasm exchange among members, though enforcement varies by national laws; for instance, countries align quarantine protocols under the 2015 Regional Guidelines on Plant for Germplasm Exchange to streamline intra-regional transfers while upholding over resources. These frameworks often reflect implementations of international agreements but incorporate local priorities, such as India's emphasis on farmers' rights or China's focus on in resource control.

Access and Benefit-Sharing Mechanisms

Access and benefit-sharing (ABS) mechanisms for germplasm derive primarily from the (CBD), adopted in 1992 and entered into force in 1993, which affirms states' sovereign rights over their genetic resources and mandates (PIC) from providers, along with mutually agreed terms (MAT) for equitable benefit-sharing from utilization. These benefits include monetary payments, such as royalties from , and non-monetary contributions like technology transfer and capacity-building support for conservation. In the context of plant germplasm, ABS applies to ex situ collections in genebanks and resources, aiming to prevent biopiracy while enabling and , though implementation varies by national legislation. The , adopted in 2010 under the and entering into force on October 12, 2014, operationalizes these principles by requiring parties—now 140 as of 2024—to enact domestic laws ensuring , , and measures for user compliance, including checkpoints to verify adherence. For germplasm, it covers genetic material accessed after its 2014 entry into force, excluding genetic resources but applying to plant materials used in research or commercial development, with benefits tracked through material transfer agreements (MTAs). Bilateral negotiations predominate, potentially increasing transaction costs for users like breeders accessing diverse germplasm from multiple countries. Complementing Nagoya, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), adopted in 2001 and entering into force in 2004, establishes a Multilateral System (MLS) for facilitated access to germplasm of 64 key crops and forages listed in I, held in public genebanks, bypassing individual and bilateral via a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA). Under the MLS, users agree not to claim rights restricting further use and to share benefits, including a mandatory payment of 1.1% of sales for products incorporating MLS material or 0.5% for derived varieties marketed in developed countries, funneled into the Treaty's Benefit-Sharing Fund for distribution to providers and conservation efforts. As of 2023, the MLS covers over 600,000 accessions in participating genebanks, with the SMTA used in millions of transfers, though it excludes non- I species and private-held resources. In practice, germplasm banks affiliated with the ITPGRFA, such as those under the consortium, implement by distributing MLS materials under SMTAs, which enforce benefit-sharing obligations and traceability, while non-MLS exchanges fall under national Nagoya-compliant regimes requiring custom MTAs. The ITPGRFA's multilateral approach contrasts with Nagoya's bilateral model by reducing administrative barriers for crops, though remains incomplete, with some countries applying both frameworks selectively to germplasm flows. Benefit realization has yielded over $18 million in fund contributions by 2022, primarily supporting farmers in developing countries for sustainable use projects.

Intellectual Property and Economic Aspects

Patents and Plant Variety Protection

The protection of plant varieties derived from germplasm occurs primarily through specialized patents and plant variety protection certificates, which grant breeders exclusive rights to commercialize novel cultivars while encouraging investment in breeding programs utilizing genetic resources. In the United States, the Plant Patent Act of 1930 established patents for asexually reproduced plants, requiring the variety to be distinct, new, and either invented or discovered, with the inventor demonstrating asexual reproduction. These patents provide 20 years of exclusivity from the filing date, without annual maintenance fees, and apply to varieties like ornamentals or fruit trees developed from germplasm selections. By fiscal year 2022, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office had issued over 1,138 such plant patents annually, reflecting their role in safeguarding horticultural innovations. Utility patents, available for plant-related inventions since the U.S. Supreme Court's 1980 ruling in that man-made organisms qualify as patentable subject matter under 35 U.S.C. § 101, extend to sexually reproduced plants, genetically modified varieties, and traits or processes derived from germplasm. These require demonstration of novelty, non-obviousness, utility, and enablement, often covering specific genes, methods, or hybrid technologies rather than the whole plant, and prohibit unauthorized reproduction, sale, or use in further . Utility patents thus provide broader scope for germplasm-derived biotechnological advancements, such as trait introgressions from wild relatives, but impose stricter barriers to downstream innovation compared to other protections. The Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 offers an alternative for sexually reproduced or tuber-propagated varieties, issuing certificates through the USDA's Plant Variety Protection Office for those that are new, distinct, uniform, and stable. Protection lasts 20 years from issuance (25 years for trees and vines), with mandatory viability testing and deposit of seed samples, but includes a breeder's exemption permitting use of the protected variety in research or new variety development, alongside limited farmer-saved seed rights for non-commercial replanting. Unlike utility patents, PVP certificates do not extend to isolated genes or methods, focusing instead on the variety as propagated, which facilitates ongoing breeding with germplasm-enhanced lines while still enabling enforcement against unauthorized commercial sales. Internationally, the UPOV Convention of 1961, revised in 1991 and ratified by over 70 countries including the U.S., harmonizes by requiring protection for qualifying varieties derived from , including those incorporating germplasm, under criteria of novelty, distinctness, uniformity, and . The 1991 revision strengthens enforcement and extends terms to 20-25 years but retains a breeder's exemption for experimental or purposes, though it narrows farmer privileges in some implementations. These systems generally exclude raw germplasm—such as landraces or wild accessions—as unpatentable natural products, but enable claims on improved varieties or traits bred from them, balancing conservation incentives with proprietary development. Dual protection via utility patents and PVP is possible in the U.S., though cumulative claims may face enablement challenges.

Private Sector Involvement vs. Public Initiatives

Public initiatives in germplasm management primarily involve government-funded genebanks and organizations like the consortium, which conserve millions of accessions of crop genetic resources for long-term storage and distribution to breeders without proprietary restrictions. These efforts emphasize preservation, including wild relatives and landraces that lack immediate commercial value, with programs handling initial collection, characterization, and pre-breeding due to the public-goods nature of raw germplasm, where private appropriation of benefits is difficult. For example, the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System maintains diverse collections but has struggled with funding adequacy, relying on public budgets that prioritize equity over profit-driven selection. In contrast, private sector involvement centers on proprietary breeding pipelines for elite lines in high-value crops, supported by intellectual property mechanisms such as plant variety protection under UPOV conventions and utility patents for genetically modified traits, enabling companies to recoup substantial R&D investments. Major firms like Bayer (formerly Monsanto), Syngenta, Corteva Agriscience, BASF, and DuPont dominated global seed and agrochemical markets as of 2015, with private expenditures surpassing public ones in varietal improvement for commodities like corn, where companies accounted for over 70% of U.S. investments by 1989. This model incentivizes rapid trait integration and commercialization, but private programs source foundational diversity from public genebanks, as their own elite materials derive ultimately from such collections. Economically, private initiatives accelerate yield gains and technological advancements in marketable crops through market-disciplined R&D, fostering less variable funding streams compared to public programs, which often face bureaucratic constraints and underinvestment in non-profitable species. Public efforts, however, promote unrestricted germplasm exchange—95% of U.S. public breeders regularly share materials—ensuring broader access and mitigating risks, though this openness can limit incentives for public innovation relative to private IP-enforced exclusivity. Collaborations via material transfer agreements have emerged to leverage public conservation with private breeding efficiency, as private firms contribute minimally (5.6%) to upstream germplasm deposits but utilize public resources for downstream value creation. This dynamic highlights causal trade-offs: private dominance enhances productivity in industrialized but risks over-reliance on few firms for diversity-dependent , while public initiatives safeguard foundational resources amid funding shortfalls.

Incentives for Innovation and Conservation

Plant variety protection (PVP) certificates grant breeders exclusive marketing rights for new varieties, typically for 20 years (25 years for trees and vines), fostering investment in germplasm-based innovation by enabling recovery of research and development costs through market exclusivity. Similarly, utility patents on plant innovations, increasingly utilized in the United States, provide stronger protection against unauthorized use, further incentivizing private sector breeding programs that draw on diverse germplasm collections. These intellectual property mechanisms have driven a shift toward greater private investment in plant breeding, with U.S. private expenditures surpassing public funding since the 1990s, as economic returns from enhanced crop traits—such as yield improvements and pest resistance—justify the utilization of genetic resources. For conservation, public funding programs like the U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service's Conservation Innovation Grants (CIG) allocate competitive funds—totaling millions annually—to test and adopt technologies that preserve , including on-farm germplasm management practices. The Environmental Quality Incentives Program () complements this by offering financial cost-sharing to farmers implementing conservation measures, such as maintaining diverse crop varieties, which indirectly supports germplasm viability. Internationally, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) establishes a multilateral benefit-sharing fund that redistributes monetary benefits from commercialized products derived from treaty-accessed germplasm, with over $20 million disbursed by 2023 to projects enhancing and farmer livelihoods in developing nations. In situ conservation incentives, such as Payments for Agrobiodiversity Conservation Services (PACS), provide direct payments to farmers for maintaining crop diversity on working lands, addressing while enabling sustainable use of germplasm for local and . These mechanisms align economic rewards with preservation, though their effectiveness depends on adequate funding and enforcement, as evidenced by FAO analyses showing that benefit-sharing under ITPGRFA has catalyzed partnerships but requires scaled-up contributions to fully incentivize long-term . Overall, combining IP-driven innovation incentives with grant-based supports creates a framework where germplasm serves as a foundation for both technological advancement and resource sustainability.

Controversies and Debates

Criticisms of Access Restrictions and Bureaucracy

Access to germplasm has become increasingly restricted and bureaucratic following the implementation of national laws under the () and its , which mandate prior and mutually agreed terms for access and benefit-sharing (). These requirements, varying across countries, impose significant administrative burdens on users such as plant breeders and researchers, often requiring negotiations, permits, and compliance with diverse regulatory frameworks that deter germplasm exchange. For instance, differing national regulations create entry barriers for seed companies and public institutions seeking to acquire genetic resources, leading to a documented decline in international germplasm flows since the 1990s. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) established a Multilateral System (MLS) in 2004 to facilitate access to germplasm from 64 key crops and forages held in public genebanks, using standard material transfer agreements (SMTA) to streamline processes. However, critics argue the MLS remains inefficient due to its limited scope—covering only I crops and excluding many and minor species—and persistent bureaucratic hurdles, such as tracking benefit-sharing obligations and resolving disputes over derived varieties. The system has generated minimal monetary benefits, with the Benefit-Sharing Fund distributing just $7.2 million in grants by despite billions in commercial crop values, while administrative compliance costs for users remain high. Loopholes in the MLS, including ambiguities in what constitutes a "commercial use" triggering payments, further exacerbate uncertainty and discourage participation from both providers and users. These restrictions disproportionately affect small-scale breeders, public research institutions, and farmers in developing countries, who lack resources to navigate complex procedures, resulting in reduced innovation and utilization. Empirical evidence indicates that ABS policies have created a on germplasm exchange, with surveys of stakeholders reporting barriers like costly certifications and lengthy approvals that hinder crop improvement efforts essential for and adaptation to challenges such as . Proponents of , including private and perspectives, advocate for simplified, predictable rules to restore freer , arguing that current bureaucracies prioritize sovereignty over practical utility, ultimately impeding global agricultural progress.

Intellectual Property Disputes and Monopoly Concerns

In the realm of germplasm, intellectual property disputes frequently arise from patents on genetically engineered seeds, where seed companies enforce restrictions against farmers saving, replanting, or crossbreeding patented varieties, viewing such actions as unauthorized replication of protected traits. A landmark case, Monsanto Co. v. Bowman (2013), saw the U.S. unanimously rule that farmer Vernon Bowman infringed 's patents on soybean traits by purchasing commodity grain from elevators—intended for feed or —and replanting it, thereby creating new copies of the patented technology without a license. The decision reinforced that patent exhaustion does not extend to subsequent generations of self-replicating technologies like seeds, prioritizing innovators' rights over traditional farming practices. Monsanto (now part of ) has initiated over 140 lawsuits against U.S. farmers for alleged violations between 1997 and 2010, securing judgments totaling more than $23 million in some instances, though the company maintains suits target only intentional contract breaches rather than inadvertent contamination. Similar enforcement actions have occurred globally, including against Canadian farmer in 2004, where the upheld 's on glyphosate-resistant canola despite claims of accidental pollen drift, fining Schmeiser for cultivating the patented gene. These cases highlight tensions between exclusivity—intended to recoup R&D costs—and farmers' historical reliance on , with critics arguing that aggressive litigation discourages germplasm exchange and burdens smallholders. More recent disputes involve access to proprietary germplasm collections. In 2023, Agriscience accused Agriculture of using a third-party entity to obtain restricted seeds from a public repository, alleging circumvention of material transfer agreements to bypass barriers on elite germplasm lines. Such conflicts underscore how patents and contracts can "lock up" diverse genetic resources, limiting breeders' to operate, as inconsistent policies across institutions hinder in non-proprietary programs. Monopoly concerns stem from the concentration of germplasm-related patents among a few agribusiness giants—Bayer, , , and —which by 2023 controlled over 60% of the global commercial market and the majority of patents for major crops like corn and soybeans. This consolidation, accelerated by mergers and expanded patent protections post-1980 (via the U.S. Supreme Court's decision allowing patents on genetically altered life forms), enables firms to bundle with proprietary chemicals and , fostering among farmers who face barriers to switching varieties due to sunk costs and licensing terms. While empirical analyses indicate that stronger IP has boosted private-sector R&D investment—evidenced by a tripling of U.S. patents since 2000—critics contend it reduces overall by discouraging and open-access , potentially exacerbating vulnerability to pests and shifts. Proponents, however, emphasize that without such protections, underinvestment in germplasm would prevail, as public funding alone cannot match private incentives for high-risk trait development.

Privatization vs. Commons Approaches

The debate between privatization and commons approaches to germplasm management revolves around incentivizing innovation through proprietary rights versus ensuring broad access for conservation and equitable use. Proponents of the commons model argue that plant genetic resources, as a global public good derived from millennia of collective human selection, should remain openly accessible to prevent enclosure and promote sustainable agriculture, particularly in developing countries. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), effective since 2004, establishes a Multilateral System (MLS) for facilitated access to germplasm of 64 key crops and forages, covering over 80% of global food production, with benefit-sharing mechanisms to support conservation. CGIAR genebanks, holding approximately 700,000 accessions, distribute tens of thousands of samples annually under Standard Material Transfer Agreements (SMTAs), enabling public and private breeders to utilize diverse genetic material without upfront fees, which has contributed to variety development in regions like sub-Saharan Africa. Critics of commons approaches highlight the , where lack of exclusive rights discourages substantial private investment in and maintenance, potentially leading to underutilization and . Empirical analyses indicate that stronger protections, such as plant variety protection (PVP) under the UPOV Convention and utility patents, have spurred private sector R&D, with multinational firms assuming a larger role in agricultural since the . For instance, private companies invest heavily in germplasm improvement for high-value , relying initially on collections but generating proprietary varieties that drive yield increases in commercial crops like and soybeans. However, studies from U.S. and European contexts show correlations between and reduced research focus on crops, alongside farmer dependency on annual purchases due to hybrid traits that prevent reseeding. Privatization advocates contend that market incentives are essential for recouping the high costs of modern , which integrate and trait development, outpacing public funding capacities. Data from USDA assessments reveal that R&D in agricultural inputs, including , has grown significantly, fueling technological advances amid stagnant public expenditures. Yet, opponents, including analyses of privatization's sustainability impacts, warn of risks, restricted germplasm flow, and , as proprietary systems prioritize profitable traits over resilience in marginal environments. Initiatives like open-source seed licensing emerge as hybrids, aiming to viralize non-proprietary germplasm while allowing improvements, though their remains unproven against dominant models. Overall, while has demonstrably boosted innovation in industrialized , frameworks underpin long-term diversity preservation, with ongoing tensions evident in disputes and calls for balanced policies.

Current Challenges and Future Directions

Genetic Erosion and Climate Adaptation

refers to the progressive loss of within species and their wild relatives, driven primarily by the replacement of heterogeneous landraces with uniform modern varieties suited to intensive . This phenomenon has been documented since the mid-20th century, coinciding with the widespread adoption of hybrid and high-yielding cultivars during the , which prioritized traits like yield and uniformity over adaptability. The (FAO) estimates that about 75% of agricultural has been degraded over the last century due to these shifts. However, empirical assessments reveal variability; while farm-level has declined in many regions, some studies report stable or context-specific patterns, challenging blanket narratives of uniform erosion and underscoring the need for nuanced metrics beyond simple variety counts. The consequences of genetic erosion include heightened susceptibility to biotic stresses like pests and , as well as abiotic challenges, reducing the evolutionary potential of crops to respond to changing conditions. On farms, this manifests as fewer alleles available for , with surveys indicating losses in traits such as resistance and nutritional quality. Ex situ collections in genebanks mitigate this by preserving accessions, but ongoing erosion —estimated to affect landraces in centers of origin like in —threatens uncollected diversity. Intensive and land-use changes exacerbate the issue, with genetic uniformity amplifying risks during outbreaks, as seen in historical events like the 1970 U.S. corn blight, which affected nearly 15% of the crop due to reliance on a single trait. Climate change accelerates genetic erosion by shifting temperature and precipitation regimes, rendering many landraces maladapted and prompting their abandonment in favor of short-term resilient hybrids, further narrowing the genetic base. Projections indicate that altered climatic suitability could drive additional losses of at low latitudes, where centers of are concentrated, potentially reducing adaptive variation by altering species distributions and favoring elite cultivars. Concurrently, conserved germplasm banks provide essential reservoirs for adaptation , enabling the introgression of polygenic traits for tolerance to extremes like and heat. For example, initiatives have mined bean and maize collections to identify alleles for heat stress resistance, facilitating the of varieties that maintain yields under projected 2–4°C warming scenarios. In rice, genomic tools applied to International Rice Research Institute genebank accessions have accelerated the release of - and salinity-tolerant cultivars, demonstrating how pre-climate change diversity underpins proactive . Such efforts highlight that while erosion poses immediate risks, strategic utilization of existing germplasm—supplemented by —can enhance resilience, with economic analyses suggesting that investing in these resources yields returns through averted yield losses exceeding conservation costs.

Technological and Policy Gaps

Despite extensive collections exceeding 7 million plant germplasm accessions conserved ex situ across approximately 1,750 genebanks worldwide as of 2017, actual utilization rates remain low, with significant discrepancies between available resources and their incorporation into breeding programs for crop improvement. This underutilization stems from technological limitations, including incomplete phenotypic, genotypic, and -omics data associated with accessions, which hinders efficient identification of valuable traits for traits like drought resistance or yield enhancement. Moreover, gaps in non-destructive evaluation technologies persist, as traditional methods often require seed sacrifice for viability testing or characterization, reducing long-term conservation efficacy and complicating regeneration efforts under resource constraints. Advancements in offer potential for addressing these issues through and trait mining, yet widespread adoption is impeded by insufficient integration of high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics tools in many genebanks, particularly in developing regions lacking . and techniques represent underexplored biotechnological solutions for recalcitrant-seeded , but scalability challenges and technical bottlenecks, such as optimizing protocols for diverse germplasm, limit their routine application beyond select crops. further exacerbates gaps, with fragmented databases and inadequate long-term storage of associated genomic evaluations undermining accessibility for global researchers. On the policy front, the Nagoya Protocol's access and benefit-sharing (ABS) frameworks, implemented in over 100 countries by 2023, introduce bureaucratic hurdles that disproportionately affect non-commercial research, including requirements for prior and mutually agreed terms that delay or deter germplasm exchange. These regulations, aimed at equitable benefit distribution under the , often result in inequitable outcomes due to implementation inconsistencies, such as varying national interpretations that favor restrictive provider-country controls over user-country innovations. Emerging issues with digital sequence information (DSI) from germplasm sequencing amplify these gaps, as current policies inadequately address benefit-sharing for non-physical materials, potentially stifling agricultural R&D amid evolving genomic data flows. Institutional and legal challenges compound policy shortcomings, including limited capacity in provider countries for monitoring compliance and enforcing benefit-sharing, leading to underfunded conservation efforts and stalled international collaborations. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture provides a multilateral system for facilitated , yet its effectiveness is undermined by opt-outs from key nations and unresolved tensions between sovereignty assertions and the need for open exchange to counter . Bridging these divides requires recalibration to prioritize empirical incentives for , such as streamlined for public-good research, while ensuring verifiable monetary and non-monetary benefits flow back to origin communities without encumbering innovation.

Strategies for Enhanced Global Cooperation

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), administered by the (FAO), facilitates global cooperation through its Multilateral System (MLS) of access and benefit-sharing, covering 64 key crops and forages listed in Annex I and enabling facilitated access via the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) since 2004. Ongoing efforts to enhance the MLS, including negotiations concluded in July 2025 by the Open-ended Working Group, focus on expanding the scope to additional crops, integrating digital sequence information (DSI) for benefit-sharing, and streamlining administrative processes to boost participation from both providers and users of germplasm. These improvements aim to address gaps in coverage, where only about 10% of global for (PGRFA) fall under the MLS, by proposing mandatory benefit-sharing payments on commercial products derived from MLS materials, potentially generating funds for estimated at USD 100-300 million annually. Collaborative genebank networks, such as those operated by the centers under FAO oversight, emphasize standardized data exchange and joint evaluation protocols to enhance utilization; for instance, the 's 11 genebanks hold over 600,000 accessions, with initiatives like the Seeds for Needs program promoting rapid breeder feedback loops across countries. Strategies include digitizing passport and characterization data for open-access platforms like the Genesys database, which as of cataloged over 3.5 million records, enabling breeders in low-resource settings to identify traits without physical transfers. Capacity-building measures, such as FAO's technical assistance programs, target developing nations by training on and techniques, with partnerships like the Global Crop Diversity Trust funding perpetual conservation for 21 major crops through endowment models. Proposed reforms advocate for harmonized phytosanitary standards and reduced bureaucratic hurdles in germplasm , as international movements underpin crop improvement—historical show that 75% of U.S. varieties derive from foreign germplasm introduced via cooperative agreements. Multilateral forums, including the FAO on Genetic Resources for and Agriculture's 2025 sessions, recommend integrating PGRFA into strategies through shared pipelines, such as CGIAR's Accelerated Varietal Improvement and Replacement Initiative (AVIRI), which disseminated drought-tolerant to 13 million African farmers by 2023 via regional consortia. Benefit-sharing innovations, like voluntary contributions from industry exceeding USD 20 million since 2011, underscore incentives for involvement in public MLS activities, though enforcement remains voluntary outside Annex I .
  • Policy alignment and incentives: Align national laws with ITPGRFA to minimize bilateral access restrictions, incorporating pay-for-access models for non-MLS materials while scaling up the Benefit-Sharing Fund for equitable distribution to custodians in biodiversity hotspots.
  • Technological integration: Leverage AI-driven phenotyping and genomic tools for virtual germplasm evaluation, reducing physical shipment needs and costs, as piloted in CGIAR's germplasm sharing with AfricaRice since 2023.
  • Monitoring and compliance: Establish independent audits of SMTA usage, with 2025 proposals for traceability via to ensure 1.5% mandatory payments on commercial benefits, addressing underreporting estimated at 20-30% in user surveys.
These strategies prioritize empirical tracking of conservation outcomes, such as regeneration rates exceeding 80% in funded genebanks, over ideological benefit-sharing mandates, fostering causal links between access, innovation, and .

References

  1. [1]
    Germplasm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
    Germplasm is defined as live genetic material that serves as the primary source of diversity for breeding programs and genetic research, ...
  2. [2]
    Concepts, History, Principles, and Application of Germplasm ...
    Oct 8, 2020 · Germplasm are living genetic resources that can serve as bearers of heredity, and include germ cells and their precursors, plant seeds and ...
  3. [3]
    GERMPLASM | definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary
    seeds, or plant or animal tissues, that are kept for the genetic material they contain and used in breeding programs and for research.
  4. [4]
    Gene Banks Pay Big Dividends to Agriculture, the Environment ... - NIH
    Jun 10, 2008 · Gene Banks Pay Big Dividends to Agriculture, the Environment, and Human Welfare · Abstract · Reducing Genetic Vulnerability with Germplasm · Mining ...
  5. [5]
    Celebrating the Importance of Plant Germplasm - Science Societies
    Oct 8, 2024 · Plant germplasm collections are a primary source of novel nutrition and quality characteristics—research conducted by the members of C‐9, Crops ...
  6. [6]
    Cereal Germplasm Resources - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
    The role of cereal germplasm banks is to collect, maintain, preserve, and distribute seeds representing the genetic diversity of crop species.
  7. [7]
    USDA-ARS Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)
    The mission of the NPGS is to support agricultural production by acquiring, conserving, evaluating, documenting, and distributing crop germplasm. Alt text ...Crop Germplasm Committees · Collections · Rhizobium Collection · Ngrac
  8. [8]
    The importance of germplasm in protecting nature - CIMMYT
    Dec 15, 2022 · Prioritizing the protection of biodiversity is an essential part of mitigating and adapting to the effects of climate change and global ...
  9. [9]
    Managing Crop Genetic Resources - NCBI - NIH
    Germplasm is the term used to describe the seeds, plants, or plant parts useful in crop breeding, research, and conservation efforts. Plants, seed, or cultures ...
  10. [10]
    NLGRP FAQ : USDA ARS
    Jul 3, 2019 · Germplasm is a set of propagules that carries the desired genetic resource (i.e. genes, genetic combinations or gene frequencies). What is an ...
  11. [11]
    [PDF] INTERNATIONAL CODE OF CONDUCT FOR PLANT GERMPLASM ...
    2.9 "Plant germplasm" or "genetic material" means the reproductive or vegetative propagating material of plants.
  12. [12]
    Plant Genetic Resources - TNAU Agritech Portal :: Crop Improvement
    The sum total of hereditary material i.e. all the alleles of various genes, present in a crop species and its wild relatives is referred to as germplasm.<|separator|>
  13. [13]
    [PDF] providing farmers' rights through in situ conservation of crop genetic ...
    11 nov 1994 · There are four distinct categories of crop germplasm: (1) wild crop progenitors and relatives, (2) semi-domesticated (weedy) crop relatives, (3) ...
  14. [14]
    Germplasm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
    Germplasm refers to regions of cytoplasm in eggs and early embryos that are inherited by specific cells, guiding them into the germline; ...
  15. [15]
    [PDF] Chapter 3.2 Crop Genetic Resources - ERS.USDA.gov
    Collections lacking specific types of germplasm: • Wild and weedy relatives: almost 50%, including corn and soybeans. • Landraces: 12 out of 40 collections.
  16. [16]
    Plant Genetic Resources: New Rules for International Exchange
    Jun 1, 2003 · To make crops more resistant to pests and diseases and to improve food supply quality, quantity, and variety, modern plant breeders ...
  17. [17]
    In vitro methods of germ-plasm conservation
    In vitro conservation offers a means of maintaining valuable gene combinations in a small space, protected against pest and disease attack, soil problems, and ...
  18. [18]
    Crop Germplasm Research - USDA ARS
    Included are integrated studies of introduction, classification, and maintenance of germplasm, elucidation of cellular and molecular DNA characteristics.
  19. [19]
    The Germ-Plasm: a Theory of Heredity (1893), by August Weismann
    Jan 26, 2015 · In The Germ Plasm, Weismann rejects the theory and argues that acquired characteristics are traits of the soma cells, and the hereditary ...
  20. [20]
    Environmentally Induced Epigenetic Transgenerational Inheritance ...
    Dec 4, 2020 · August Weismann's germ plasm theory of heredity was correct in proposing that sperm and eggs are the cells that carry the material of heritable ...
  21. [21]
    An Overview of Genetic Resources Management
    Germplasm, genetic material for reproduction, is a resource for food, feed, and more. It includes landrace, obsolete, commercial varieties, breeders' lines, ...The Usefulness Of Germplasm · Emergence Of Global Concerns · Dissenting Views
  22. [22]
    Germplasm Conservation: Instrumental in Agricultural Biodiversity ...
    Germplasm is a valuable natural resource that provides knowledge about the genetic composition of a species and is crucial for conserving plant diversity.
  23. [23]
    History of NLGRP - USDA ARS
    Dec 13, 2024 · Genebanking in the US officially began in the 1890s with the establishment of Plant Introduction Stations around the country to evaluate plants ...
  24. [24]
    Vavilov's Collection of Worldwide Crop Genetic Resources in the ...
    Oct 12, 2018 · N.I. Vavilov was among the first scientists who recognized the high potential value of plant genetic resources (PGR) for humankind.
  25. [25]
    Nikolai Vavilov: The Father of Genebanks - Crop Trust
    Jan 10, 2024 · Vavilov was the first to address strategic tasks of establishing, conserving and studying genetic collections scientifically.” Searching the ...
  26. [26]
    (PDF) History of Global Germplasm Conservation System
    Nov 3, 2021 · The paper describes the history of the current global conservation system with a specific focus on long-term conservation of germplasm in genebanks.
  27. [27]
    Seed Collection and Plant Genetic Diversity, 1900-1979
    Nov 1, 2013 · Farmers have long relied on genetic diversity to breed new crops, but in the early 1900s scientists began to study the importance of plant ...
  28. [28]
    Plant Genebanks: Present Situation and Proposals for Their ... - NIH
    Dec 4, 2018 · Genebanks were created by the middle of the twentieth century to preserve cultivated biodiversity when landraces began to be substituted by ...
  29. [29]
    History of Global Germplasm Conservation System - Encyclopedia.pub
    Oct 19, 2021 · This traditional crop development process underwent significant changes through rediscovery, around the turn of the 20th century, of the laws of ...
  30. [30]
    The National Seed Storage Laboratory opens in Fort Collins, Colorado
    In 1958, the National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL), the first long-term seed storage facility in the world, opened in Fort Collins, Colorado.
  31. [31]
    At the Root of Civilization: Crop Plants - AgResearch Magazine
    Established in 1958, the lab is the backup repository for 327,236 germplasm accessions and home to the latest technologies for preserving them.
  32. [32]
    History and current status of plant genetic resources conserved and ...
    The Hungarian genebank started its operation with 81 permanent workers in 1959. The number of employees exceeded 200 within ten years. Our first director, Dr ...
  33. [33]
    gene bank Archives - The Global Plant Council
    The first gene bank for the conservation of rice germplasm was organized after IRRI was established in the Philippines in 1960. Other rice growing countries ...<|separator|>
  34. [34]
    The history of seed banking and the hazards of backup - PMC
    In the 1970s, the USDA's vision for how the National Seed Storage Laboratory would ensure the long-term availability of diverse plant genetic materials shifted.
  35. [35]
    About the Treaty
    In 1983, the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture was established, and the voluntary International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources ...Global Information System · Governing Body · The Bureau · Inventory
  36. [36]
    International undertaking and FAO Commission on Plant Genetic ...
    The Commission on Plant Genetic Resources was established by the FAO Council at its 85th Session in November 1983 and held its first session in Rome 11–15 March ...
  37. [37]
    The International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources - 1993
    1 The Undertaking was adopted as Resolution 8/83 by the FAO Conference in November 1983 with reservations by eight countries, all developed countries.
  38. [38]
    Are the old International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR ...
    Nov 13, 2018 · In 1975, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources created the first internationally linked system of genebanks, known as the ...
  39. [39]
    International agreements and the plant genetics research community
    Mar 27, 2023 · This article provides a brief history and overview of three key international agreements, namely the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Nagoya Protocol,
  40. [40]
    [PDF] Lesson 3: History of the international treaty
    This lesson looks at the sequence of events that led to the adoption of the International. Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (hereafter ...
  41. [41]
    Natural and artificial sources of genetic variation used in crop breeding
    ... crop species. The EU-Sage database (https://www.eu-sage.eu/) contains over 500 peer-reviewed research articles where genome editing has been used to target ...
  42. [42]
    Genetic Variability and Its Benefits in Crop Improvement
    ... plant breeding and plays a pivotal role in germplasms usage in breeding programs. ... Peer Reviewed Journals. Make the best use of Scientific Research and ...
  43. [43]
    Plant genetic resources: What can they contribute toward increased ...
    The introgression of genes that reduced plant height and increased disease and viral resistance in wheat provided the foundation for the “Green Revolution”
  44. [44]
    Crop improvement in the CGIAR as a global success story of open ...
    Dec 2, 2009 · Substantial successes have also been recorded for maize, sorghum, millet, cassava, potatoes, beans and several other legumes (CGIAR 2008).
  45. [45]
    Germplasm exchange is critical to conservation of biodiversity and ...
    Jun 5, 2021 · Plant germplasm movement across borders is critical to improving global agricultural production. All major food crops have a historical reliance ...
  46. [46]
    Harnessing adult-plant resistance genes to deploy durable disease ...
    This approach necessitates holistic and efficient genetic control, as well as the discovery of more broad-spectrum resistance factors. Germplasm collections ...
  47. [47]
    W6: Management and Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources and ...
    For pre-breeding for germplasm enhancement, this project has recently ... peer-reviewed journals, as will discovery of new diseases or new disease ...
  48. [48]
    Specialty Crop Germplasm and Public Breeding Efforts in the United ...
    Jan 18, 2022 · ... germplasm collections contain more than 600000 different accessions ... yield increase may be attributed to crop breeding [5,6]). Table.
  49. [49]
    Crop germplasm: Current challenges, physiological-molecular ...
    ... crop breeding programs to stabilize crop productivity by reducing yield loss [1]. ... Duplication within and between germplasm collections. III. A ...
  50. [50]
    Genetic Diversity, Conservation, and Utilization of Plant ... - NIH
    Jan 9, 2023 · The conservation and sustainable utilization of these valuable resources is crucial to ensure food security for future generations. Genetic ...
  51. [51]
    Our shared global responsibility: Safeguarding crop diversity ... - PNAS
    Mar 27, 2023 · National gene banks play a pivotal role in the global system in facilitating the sharing of crop diversity across borders and in scaling up the ...
  52. [52]
    Germplasm Conservation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
    Germplasm conservation is defined as the preservation of natural and existing crop diversity to ensure future food security, which can occur ex situ in ...
  53. [53]
    Advances in crop germplasm conservation: a review of non ...
    Oct 10, 2025 · Germplasm helps diversify crop varieties to suit nutritional needs, especially in food-insecure regions. Drought-tolerant maize (DTM) cultivars, ...
  54. [54]
    Farmers Build Resilience with Genebank Seeds - Crop Trust
    Sep 19, 2025 · Ghana – Genebank-supplied seeds of crops such as indigenous leafy vegetables and Bambara groundnut generally outperformed farmers' existing ...
  55. [55]
    [PDF] Germplasm exchange is critical to conservation of biodiversity and ...
    24 may 2021 · on over half a century of global germplasm exchange. (This article is a preprint and has not been peer-reviewed.) Cold Spring Harbor, New.
  56. [56]
    [PDF] Using Crop Genetic Resources To Help Agriculture Adapt to Climate ...
    Advanced germplasm. Recently developed varieties, obsolete varieties,* and other advanced breeding materials that are created with modern breeding techniques.
  57. [57]
    1.3: Genetic Variation and Germplasm Usage - Biology LibreTexts
    Jul 15, 2023 · The presence of genetic variation is a key prerequisite for genetic improvement in plant breeding and plays a pivotal role in germplasm usage in ...
  58. [58]
    [PDF] Plant Genetic Resources: Effective Utilization for Sustainability
    Apr 26, 2017 · Some other successful examples of germplasm utilization include, the only source of resistance to grassy stunt virus in rice, Oryza nivara[10], ...
  59. [59]
    [PDF] PLANT GERMPLASM Improving Data for Management Decisions
    Effective management of plant genetic resources (germplasm) is critical to maintaining an effective base for world agriculture and food supplies, developing and ...
  60. [60]
    Application of CRISPR/Cas9 Technology in Rice Germplasm ... - NIH
    This article reviews recent research on CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technology in rice, especially germplasm innovation and genetic improvement of commercially ...
  61. [61]
    [PDF] Evaluation of diploid potato germplasm for applications of genome ...
    Diploid inbred lines in potato will serve as an invaluable source of material for breeding and functional genetics. Most of the available diploid germplasm in ...
  62. [62]
    CRISPR enables sustainable cereal production for a greener future
    Jul 26, 2023 · Here, we review advanced uses of CRISPR/Cas9 and derived systems in genome editing of cereal crops to enhance a variety of agronomically important features.Review · Major Achievements In... · Next Steps In Cereal Genome...<|separator|>
  63. [63]
    CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing in crop breeding for climate change ...
    The aim of this review is to explore the use of CRISPR-Cas9 technology in developing climate resilient crops for mitigation of food insecurity and hunger
  64. [64]
    Genetic Engineering for Disease Resistance in Plants - NIH
    Third, plant transformation during genetic engineering allows the introduction of new genes into vegetatively propagated crops such as banana (Musa sp.), ...
  65. [65]
    CRISPR in Agriculture: 2024 in Review - Innovative Genomics Institute
    Dec 10, 2024 · The use of CRISPR in agriculture is becoming more common around the world. A review of the progress in 2022 and what is coming next.
  66. [66]
    Recent advances of CRISPR-based genome editing for enhancing ...
    Sep 22, 2024 · CRISPR/Cas systems have emerged as revolutionary tools for precise genetic modifications in crops, offering significant advancements in resilience, yield, and ...
  67. [67]
    Planning an Exploration for Plant Genetic Resources to be ...
    Germplasm could be collected as seed or vegetative material, including cuttings and storage organs. Seeds are the easiest propagule to collect and transport if ...
  68. [68]
    [PDF] collecting techniques - CGIAR Genebanks
    The Technical Bulletin series is targeted at scientists and technicians managing genetic resources collections. Each title will aim to provide.
  69. [69]
    [PDF] Introduction to Germplasm Characterization and Evaluation
    Germplasm characterization is the recording of distinctly identifiable characteristics, which are highly heritable. • Germplasm evaluation refers to the ...
  70. [70]
    [PDF] Characterization and evaluation - USDA ARS
    Plants and seeds are tested with physical, visual, biochemical, and molecular methods to ensure that they are free from disease pathogens and insect pests.
  71. [71]
    [PDF] Tools and methods for the evaluation of Plant Genetic Resources
    Evaluation of germplasm is a multi-disciplinary approach and it should be done in collaborative mode involving germplasm curator, plant breeder, physiologist, ...
  72. [72]
    Characterization and Evaluation of PGR : Principles and Techniques
    Aug 5, 2023 · The characterization and evaluation of germplasm are essential to assess the nature and magnitude of prevalent genetic diversity in stored collections.
  73. [73]
    Recent Progress in Germplasm Evaluation and Gene Mapping to ...
    Aug 4, 2020 · The results of this review show that larger germplasm collections have been sources of useful genes for drought tolerance in wheat.
  74. [74]
    Genomics strategies for germplasm characterization and the ... - NIH
    This makes the development of crop genotypes with resilience to climate change an important strategy for food security. Innovations in crop improvement based ...
  75. [75]
    Plant Germplasm Introduction and Testing Research - USDA ARS
    Use laboratory equipment to characterize major nutritional components of food crop germplasm such as using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to quantify the ...
  76. [76]
    Genebank Phenomics: A Strategic Approach to Enhance Value and ...
    Genetically diverse plant germplasm stored in ex-situ genebanks are excellent resources for breeding new high yielding and sustainable crop varieties.
  77. [77]
    Characterization and comprehensive evaluation of phenotypic ...
    Mar 20, 2023 · This study provides a thorough evaluation of the phenotypic variability of a cluster of 143 wild C. oleifera germplasm resources.
  78. [78]
    Development of a Core Set from Large Germplasm Collections in ...
    Jul 19, 2024 · Genebanks are collections of large germplasm, which are genetic resources providing the base foundation for plant breeding and crop improvement.<|control11|><|separator|>
  79. [79]
    Conservation of Wild Plant Species in Seed Banks | BioScience
    Nov 1, 2001 · Loss of variation by genetic drift​​ Because collecting and regenerating seed samples are costly in terms of labor and materials, the population ...
  80. [80]
    The Vulnerability of Plant Genetic Resources Conserved Ex Situ
    Jul 27, 2017 · The detailed history of germplasm conservation has been well documented by Pistorius (1997), Loskutov (1999), and others (Frankel, 1987 ...
  81. [81]
    Deleterious and Adaptive Mutations in Plant Germplasm Conserved ...
    Dec 1, 2023 · ... storage in several collections carried more deleterious and fewer adaptive mutations. ... mutation; mutation burden; plant germplasm conservation.Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
  82. [82]
    Deleterious and Adaptive Mutations in Plant Germplasm Conserved ...
    The germplasm with more years of storage in many collections showed higher mutation burdens and lower alpha-dfe values for adaptive mutations. Thus, there is a ...Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
  83. [83]
    [EPUB] Will a plant germplasm accession conserved in a genebank change ...
    Oct 3, 2024 · Schoen et al. (1998) modeled the accumulation of mildly deleterious mutations accompanying recurrent regeneration of plant germplasm under ...
  84. [84]
    [PDF] Genetic Considerations for Germplasm Preservation of Clonal ...
    Expression of mutations depends on ploidy and the nature of the mutation ... These problems are usually not elaborated, but need to be considered in developing ...
  85. [85]
    Variability in predicted deleterious mutations among barley ...
    Aug 20, 2024 · Our recent study revealed a wide range of mutations predicted to be deleterious to gene function and averaged sample-wise mutation burden per ...Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
  86. [86]
    Will a plant germplasm accession conserved in a genebank change ...
    Oct 3, 2024 · It is expected that genetic changes of long-term conserved germplasm under genebank conditions will occur commonly as an evolutionary rule, not as an exception.
  87. [87]
    The science and economics of ex situ plant conservation - PubMed
    Ex situ seed storage underpins global agriculture and food supplies and enables the conservation of thousands of wild species of plants within national and ...
  88. [88]
    Choosing the Right Path for the Successful Storage of Seeds - PMC
    Dec 23, 2022 · Cryogenic storage of orthodox seeds is relatively easy and commonly used in gene banks for ensuring the secure long-term backup of especially ...
  89. [89]
    Orthodox vs. Recalcitrant? Germination and Early Growth of Phoenix ...
    By contrast, 5 to 10% of angiosperm species produce recalcitrant seeds that do not survive desiccation and are killed by freezing when ice crystals form [13].
  90. [90]
    6.2 – Dormancy, Orthodox and Recalcitrant Seeds
    Recalcitrant seeds have a much higher moisture content than do orthodox seeds at physiological maturity. They do not tolerate cold temperatures or loss of ...
  91. [91]
    Plant Cryopreservation: A Look at the Present and the Future - PMC
    Dec 13, 2021 · The application of advanced biotechnology, such as cryopreservation, represents an efficient alternative method for ex situ conservation of ...
  92. [92]
    Cryopreservation of Seeds and Seed Embryos in Orthodox ...
    When seeds tolerate desiccation (ie, orthodox seeds), they can be dried at about 32 ± 3% relative humidity at 18 °C and stored in the vapor phase of liquid ...
  93. [93]
    Cryobiotechnologies: Tools for expanding long-term ex situ ...
    Cryopreservation has been demonstrated as a safe and effective method for conserving desiccation tolerant short-lived seeds, zygotic embryos, dormant buds, ...
  94. [94]
    A Critical Review of the Current Global Ex Situ Conservation System ...
    The international germplasm collections hosted by 11 CGIAR centers include over 760,000 accessions of crops, forages, and trees [47] and constitute a major ...
  95. [95]
    [PDF] The state of ex situ conservation
    The genebanks of the CGIAR centres generally represent the major repositories for germplasm of their mandate crops. For example: the world's major wheat. (13 ...
  96. [96]
    [PDF] ON-FARM MANAGEMENT AND IN SITU CONSER
    Options include on-farm management of traditional crops, in situ conservation of crop wild relatives, and conservation of wild populations in natural habitats.Missing: advantages | Show results with:advantages
  97. [97]
    PGRFA Management of Outcrossing Plants Propagated by Seed
    Activities that support on-farm conservation include community seed banks, local germplasm collections, reintroduction of traditional and locally adapted ...
  98. [98]
    In situ and ex situ conservation gap analyses of crop wild relatives ...
    Jan 20, 2025 · The study found significant in situ conservation gaps, with only 40% of taxa in PAs, and 54% conserved ex situ, but only 8% with more than 50 ...
  99. [99]
    [PDF] Establishment of a Global Network for the In Situ Conservation of ...
    Oct 9, 2009 · This document discusses the establishment of a global network for in situ conservation of crop wild relatives, their importance, threats, and  ...
  100. [100]
    On-farm crop diversity, conservation, importance and value - Nature
    May 10, 2024 · A total of 671 landraces belonging to 60 crops were recorded from 24 sites. The custodian farmers were found to conserve a variety of crops.
  101. [101]
    Improvement and Innovation of Cryopreservation and In Vitro ... - NIH
    Sep 21, 2024 · They found that cryopreservation induced no abnormalities in plant and fruit characteristics or genomes. However, some variability in sugar ...
  102. [102]
    Cryopreservation Techniques for Plant Germplasm Conservation - Plant Cell Technology
    ### Summary of Emerging Cryopreservation Techniques for Plant Germplasm
  103. [103]
    [PDF] DNA banks - providing novel options for genebanks? - CGSpace
    In the present chapter we look at the role that DNA storage can play in the overall conservation strategy of target species, and discuss the concept of ...
  104. [104]
    Image-Based Digitalization of Germplasm Stock: Overcoming Its ...
    Sep 1, 2024 · The advent of image-based digitalization in agriculture represents a substantial advancement in germplasm resource management (Laraswati et al.
  105. [105]
    Germplasm Diversity and Plant Breeding Programs
    Available germplasm resources can include cultivated varieties and landraces (traditional varieties), wild species or relatives, commercial cultivars and other ...
  106. [106]
    Traditional Breeding Techniques | Forage Information System
    Collect germplasm, the living genetic resources such as seeds or tissues that are maintained for the purpose of plant breeding, preservation, and other research ...
  107. [107]
    Traditional and Modern Plant Breeding Methods with Examples in ...
    Several methods have been devised for introducing exotic variation into elite germplasm without undesirable effects. Cases in rice are given.
  108. [108]
    germplasm : USDA ARS
    Oct 19, 2023 · The plant introduction station system created in 1948 by USDA and the SAES to maintain the collections of different crops is celebrating its ...
  109. [109]
    Optimized breeding strategies to harness genetic resources ... - NIH
    Results of this study provide guidelines on how to harness polygenic variation present in genetic resources to broaden elite germplasm.Missing: traditional | Show results with:traditional
  110. [110]
    Plant Breeding: A Success Story to be Continued Thanks to ... - NIH
    The adoption of the new cultivars combined with higher levels of fertilization resulted in dramatic yield increases in Southeast Asia (rice) and Mexico (wheat).
  111. [111]
    Sustaining public plant breeding programs across generations
    Jun 11, 2025 · Plant breeding is multigenerational, and program transition presents risk of loss of germplasm and knowledge.
  112. [112]
    Analysis of the Utilization and Prospects of CRISPR-Cas ...
    Nov 2, 2022 · CRISPR-Cas technology has been used widely in the analysis of key genes and the creation of new germplasm in rice, maize, soybean, and wheat, ...
  113. [113]
    Plant breeding advancements with “CRISPR-Cas” genome editing ...
    Genome editing techniques are being used to modify plant breeding, which might increase food production sustainably by 2050.
  114. [114]
    CRISPR/Cas9-gene editing approaches in plant breeding - PMC - NIH
    Sep 19, 2023 · CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing is a fundamental breakthrough technique to accelerate plant breeding and crop improvement program of various crops.
  115. [115]
    Applying gene editing to tailor precise genetic modifications in plants
    Gene editing in plants would not be possible without established methodologies for DNA delivery into cells and the subsequent recovery of modified plants, which ...
  116. [116]
    Advances in genomic tools for plant breeding: harnessing DNA ...
    Nov 7, 2024 · This paper explores new genomic technologies like molecular markers, genomic selection, and genome editing for plant breeding showcasing their impact on ...
  117. [117]
    Genetic resources and precise gene editing for targeted ...
    Gene editing in barley is performed mainly by delivering the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing complex through particle bombardment or Agrobacterium-mediated ...
  118. [118]
    The economic impact of CGIAR-related crop technologies on ...
    By 2016–2020, the adoption of improved crop varieties in developing countries was generating economic benefits of about $105 billion/year, with CGIAR-related ...
  119. [119]
    [PDF] the economic value of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture
    The commercial value of the use of PGR for food and agriculture has in general been shown to be only a relatively small component of its total economic value to ...
  120. [120]
    Impact of CGIAR maize germplasm in Sub-Saharan Africa
    Jan 1, 2023 · The aggregate annual economic benefit of using new CGIAR-related maize germplasm for yield increase in SSA was estimated at US$1.1–1.6 billion ...
  121. [121]
    [PDF] Crop Genetic Resources: An Economic Appraisal - ERS.USDA.gov
    Half the yield gains in major U.S. cereal crops since the 1930s are attributed to genetic improve- ments. Demand for crops continues to grow, ...
  122. [122]
    Home | ITPGRFA | Food and Agriculture Organization
    The objectives of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture are the conservation and sustainable use of all plant genetic ...About the Treaty · Contracting Parties · Training Resources · Treaty Headlines
  123. [123]
    Article 15. Access to Genetic Resources - Convention Text
    Access to genetic resources shall be subject to prior informed consent of the Contracting Party providing such resources, unless otherwise determined by that ...
  124. [124]
    [PDF] Introduction to access and benefit-sharing
    The access and benefit-sharing provisions of the Convention on Biological. Diversity (CBD) are designed to ensure that the physical access to genetic.
  125. [125]
    [PDF] Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and ...
    By promoting the use of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, and by strengthening the opportunities for fair and equitable sharing of ...
  126. [126]
    The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing
    An international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.About the Nagoya Protocol · Parties to the Nagoya Protocol · Factsheets and Briefs
  127. [127]
    Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair - UNTC
    The above Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 at Nagoya, Japan, during the tenth meeting of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
  128. [128]
    NPGS Plan - USDA ARS
    Nov 17, 2023 · A comprehensive 10 year-long National Strategic Germplasm and Cultivar Collection Assessment and Utilization Plan in collaboration with the National Genetic ...
  129. [129]
    U.S. Plant Quarantine Programs | Animal and Plant Health ...
    Plants for propagation requiring quarantine, but that can not be processed elsewhere, are imported on behalf of the requestor by the USDA-APHIS Plant Germplasm ...
  130. [130]
    Germplasm Requests : USDA ARS
    Jul 28, 2021 · NPGS sites will not distribute germplasm internationally when they cannot comply with the importation or quarantine requirements of the ...
  131. [131]
    Plant reproductive material - European Commission's Food Safety
    The EU regulates the marketing of plant reproductive material of agricultural, vegetable, forest, fruit and ornamental species and vines.
  132. [132]
    Genetic Resources - Euroseeds
    In the European Union, the compliance pillar of the Nagoya Protocol has been implemented via EU Regulation 511/2014, providing for a due diligence obligation ...
  133. [133]
    [PDF] GENETIC RESOURCES STRATEGY FOR EUROPE - GenRes Bridge
    1 Based on harmonized standards, further expand, develop and maintain the national inventories of plant, animal and forest genetic resources, which feed into ...
  134. [134]
    Seed Law of the People's Republic of China
    Nov 24, 2021 · Chapter I General Provisions Chapter II Protection of Germplasm Resources Chapter III Selective Breeding, Review and Decision, and Registration of Varieties<|separator|>
  135. [135]
    Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China
    Policy and Regulation System Established for Chinese Plant Germplasm Resource Platform. The national plant germplasm platform is an important component of ...
  136. [136]
    China Releases Regulations on the Protection of New Plant Varieties
    May 3, 2025 · Major changes in the Regulations include extending the term of variety rights for woody and vine plants from 20 years to 25 years and for other ...
  137. [137]
    Official website of Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights ...
    An effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants.
  138. [138]
    [PDF] Plant Quarantine Order - Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare
    (1). This order may be called the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, ... plant” means a living plants and parts thereof including seed and ...
  139. [139]
    [PDF] Procedure of Import and Export of GM Plant and Planting Material
    No consignment of germplasm/transgenics/Genetically Modified. Organisms (GMOs) shall be imported into India for research/ experimental purpose without valid ...
  140. [140]
    [PDF] The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing
    Nov 1, 2021 · The Nagoya Protocol is based on the fundamental principles of access and benefit-sharing enshrined in the CBD. These principles are based on ...
  141. [141]
    Access and Benefit Sharing Under the Nagoya Protocol—Quo Vadis ...
    The principle behind the ABS provisions of the CBD and NP is that one country grants access to its genetic resources for utilization by another country; and in ...
  142. [142]
    The Nagoya Protocol at Its 10th Anniversary: Lessons Learned and ...
    Oct 16, 2024 · It does so by empowering countries to impose prior authorization (Access) and payment requirements (Benefit-Sharing) on companies that ...
  143. [143]
    What is the Multilateral System
    Global efforts to conserve and sustainably use plant genetic resources for food and agriculture to ensure food security and promote sustainable agriculture ...
  144. [144]
    ABS in the International Treaty on plant genetic resources: GENRES
    The International Treaty, in force since 2004, regulates ABS for the crop sector in a multilateral system. It is excluded from the scope of the Nagoya Protocol.
  145. [145]
    Genebank Operation in the Arena of Access and Benefit-Sharing ...
    Jan 21, 2020 · This article describes the main international ABS agreements concerning PGR (International Access and Benefit-Sharing Agreements Relevant for ...
  146. [146]
    [PDF] Mutually supportive implementation of the Nagoya Protocol and the ...
    Nov 8, 2017 · However, the access and benefit sharing (ABS) systems that these agreements require member states to implement are very different in orientation ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  147. [147]
    General Information About 35 U.S.C. 161 Plant Patents - USPTO
    Sep 22, 2017 · The inventor named for a plant patent application must be the person (or persons) who has (or have) invented or discovered and asexually ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
  148. [148]
    The evolving landscape of plant varietal rights in the United States ...
    Unlike the utility patents that cover most inventions in the US, plant patents require no yearly maintenance fee to remain in effect. In a 1998 update to ...
  149. [149]
    2022 U.S. Patent Filings Statistics « - Filewrapper
    A total of 382,559 patents were granted in fiscal 2022, including 325,445 utility patents, 34,370 design patents, and 1138 plant patents. The Patent Office ...
  150. [150]
    Diamond v. Chakrabarty | 447 U.S. 303 (1980)
    Diamond v. Chakrabarty: Patent protection is available for a micro-organism that is artificially constructed rather than naturally occurring.
  151. [151]
    2105-Patent Eligible Subject Matter — Living Subject Matter - USPTO
    The Supreme Court held that patentable subject matter under 35 USC 101 includes newly developed plant breeds, even though plant protection is also available ...<|separator|>
  152. [152]
    Plant and plant variety protection | USPTO
    May 13, 2025 · The UPOV Convention provides the basis for member countries to encourage plant breeding by granting IP rights to breeders of new plant varieties ...
  153. [153]
    A Guide to Seed Intellectual Property Rights
    Jun 30, 2023 · Initially, the Plant Patent Act was only designed to cover plants that reproduce asexually (like roses, some berries, and some stone fruit trees ...
  154. [154]
    Plant Variety Protection | Agricultural Marketing Service - USDA
    Implementing the Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA), we examine new applications and grant certificates that protect varieties for 20 years (25 years for vines ...PVPO Application Status · Issued Certificates · PVPO Forms · How to Apply for PVP
  155. [155]
    Plant Variety Protection Act | Agricultural Marketing Service - USDA
    The Plant Variety Protection Act provides legal intellectual property rights protection to breeders of new varieties of plants which are sexually reproduced.Missing: details | Show results with:details
  156. [156]
    UPOV
    Explore the official UPOV site to learn how we protect plant varieties with unique legal tools, serving as the international standard for breeders' rights.Convention · UPOV Lex · Introduction to UPOV · UPOV PrismaMissing: germplasm | Show results with:germplasm
  157. [157]
    Breeders Section | Plant Variety Protection - UPOV
    Access a wealth of resources for breeders, offering insights into plant variety protection and the benefits of utilizing the UPOV system.
  158. [158]
    Collaboration between Private and Public Genebanks in Conserving ...
    Public genebanks played and continue to play a conducive role in providing genetic resources to users, including private-sector plant breeders.
  159. [159]
    https://ers.usda.gov/sites/default/files/_laserfiche/publications/44121/17448_eib2c_1_.pdf
  160. [160]
    (PDF) Demand for Genetic Resources and the U.S. National Plant ...
    Aug 7, 2025 · Although genetic resources have strong public-goods characteristics, public genebanks often have struggled for adequate funding. A review of ...Missing: comparison | Show results with:comparison
  161. [161]
    https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2023/august/expanded-intellectual-property-protections-for-crop-seeds-increase-innovation-and-market-power-for-companies
  162. [162]
    https://ers.usda.gov/sites/default/files/_laserfiche/publications/40695/17419_aer735s5_1_.pdf
  163. [163]
    [PDF] Private Investment in Agricultural Research and International..
    The major source of germplasm for the private-sector breeding programs is the companies' own elite lines. The multinational seed companies are continuously.
  164. [164]
    [PDF] Privatization of Plant Breeding 10 in Industrialized Countries
    Private sector investment in plant breeding may become larger and less variable than public sector investment (Knudson, 1990). 5. With private sector breeding, ...
  165. [165]
    [PDF] Establishing Best Practices for Germplasm Exchange, Intellectual ...
    Feb 8, 2018 · Only 5.6% came from private industry. Almost all public plant breeders (95%) regularly share germplasm with others in the public sector.Missing: involvement | Show results with:involvement
  166. [166]
    Public and Private Breeding: How do we Create a Path Forward?
    Aug 17, 2023 · “We're witnessing a situation where the private sector's influence is rapidly growing, while on the other hand, the number of effective breeding ...
  167. [167]
    (PDF) Economic Incentives and Resource Allocation in U.S. Public ...
    Aug 6, 2025 · Private investment in plant breeding has been increasing while public plant breeding has stagnated or declined.
  168. [168]
    Conservation Innovation Grants (CIG) | Natural Resources ...
    On-Farm Trials Awardees provide technical assistance and incentive payments to producers to help compensate for risks associated with implementation of new ...
  169. [169]
    Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP)
    EQIP offers grant opportunities through Conservation Innovation Grants, which awards competitive grants that stimulate the development and adoption of ...
  170. [170]
    [PDF] The Benefit-sharing Fund: 2022-2023 Report
    Nov 24, 2023 · The BSF is a funding mechanism that supports projects in developing countries for small-scale farmers to improve livelihoods, food security and ...
  171. [171]
    Payments for Agrobiodiversity Conservation Services (PACS)
    PACS provides incentives to farmers for in situ/on-farm agrobiodiversity conservation. It also covers a wide range of conservation and use management topics, ...Missing: innovation | Show results with:innovation
  172. [172]
    The Funding Strategy
    The target of the Funding Strategy is approximately USD 1 billion per year, aimed at ensuring that adequate financing is available at a range of levels, ...
  173. [173]
    Critical Review of the Increasing Complexity of Access and Benefit ...
    Fair and non-bureaucratic rules to access and use germplasm in breeding is therefore a predisposition for food and nutrition security. Providers and users ...
  174. [174]
    https://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/overview/en/
  175. [175]
    [PDF] Outstanding Issues on ABS under the Multilateral System of the ...
    The MLS has a lot of loopholes, creates a lot of bureaucracy, is neither efficient nor effective and leads to zero additional Benefit Sharing. It's hopeless ...Missing: criticisms | Show results with:criticisms
  176. [176]
    Bottlenecks in the PGRFA use system: stakeholders' perspectives
    Jul 11, 2017 · Many respondents commented that standards and procedures for crop variety certification: (a) are complicated, bureaucratic and too costly for ...
  177. [177]
    Bowman v. Monsanto Co. | 569 U.S. 278 (2013)
    May 13, 2013 · After discovering this practice, Monsanto sued Bowman for patent infringement. Bowman raised the defense of patent exhaustion, which gives the ...
  178. [178]
    Bowman v. Monsanto | Oyez
    Feb 19, 2013 · Bowman v. Monsanto involved a farmer sued for using Monsanto's patented seeds. The court ruled that using seeds to grow crops creates copies of ...Missing: IP | Show results with:IP
  179. [179]
    [PDF] Monsanto vs. U.S. Farmers - Center for Food Safety
    Monsanto uses heavy-handed tactics, controls patents, and sues farmers for issues like contamination, even if they didn't sign agreements, impacting their ...
  180. [180]
    In the Courts: Monsanto v. Bowman: Supreme Court upholds patent ...
    The Court's unanimous ruling expressed strong support for the protection of the intellectual property (IP) involved in agricultural biotechnology. At issue in ...
  181. [181]
    Does Monsanto sue farmers who save patented seeds or mistakenly ...
    There is no documented instance of Monsanto or any other biotech seed company suing a farmer for unknowingly reusing patented seeds.Missing: IP | Show results with:IP
  182. [182]
    The Murky World of IP Protection for Gene-Edited Plants
    Oct 26, 2023 · Plant patent protection is a useful IP tool for gene-edited varieties, where the edited plant has a newly distinguishable trait from the ...
  183. [183]
    Intellectual Property Rights And Public Plant Breeding
    Current germplasm exchange policies are inconsistent across public-sector institutions, and in many cases restrict plant breeders' freedom to operate.<|separator|>
  184. [184]
    USDA Report Highlights Harms of Seed Consolidation and ...
    Mar 23, 2023 · A USDA report reveals that a handful of monopolies control most the patents on top U.S. commodity crops, inhibiting critical seed research, ...<|separator|>
  185. [185]
    Expanded Intellectual Property Protections for Crop Seeds Increase ...
    Aug 28, 2023 · In 2015, six firms dominated global markets for seeds and agricultural chemicals: BASF, Bayer, Dow Chemical, DuPont, Monsanto, and Syngenta.
  186. [186]
    Prima facie reasons to question enclosed intellectual property ...
    Mar 17, 2017 · Prima facie reasons to question enclosed intellectual property regimes and favor open-source regimes for germplasm · Abstract · Introduction.
  187. [187]
    Keeping germplasm flowing - National Agricultural Law Center
    intellectual property in relation to the germplasm management by genebanks and breeding programmes. The concluding section synthesizes the main results and ...
  188. [188]
    CGIAR Genebank Platform
    Impacts by 2022 · 90% of accessions are healthy and available for immediate distribution. · 90% of accessions are safety duplicated · 90% of accessions are ...Use Module: Cgiar Must... · Where We Work · Impacts By 2022
  189. [189]
    Germplasm Acquisition and Distribution by CGIAR Genebanks - MDPI
    One reason for focusing on genebanks is that data concerning the genebanks acquisitions and distributions are easier to assemble as a result of the historical, ...
  190. [190]
    [PDF] NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES AGRICULTURAL INNOVATION ...
    Recent intellectual property reforms motivated increased private investment, yet the private sector still relies upon basic research produced by the public ...<|separator|>
  191. [191]
    [PDF] Public-Private Collaboration in Agricultural Research - USDA ERS
    By 1989, private seed companies accounted for more than 70 percent of total expenditures on varietal improve- ment for corn (fig. 13). Public sector programs ...
  192. [192]
    [PDF] Public plant breeding in an era of privatisation - ODI
    Public breeding programmes should explore opportunities to recover some costs, but not at the expense of generating broad social benefits, their basic mandate.
  193. [193]
    USDA Study: Private-sector R&D Investments Fuel Input Sector
    The ERS study provides comprehensive estimates and analyses of private sector R&D for agricultural input industries, including global companies with foreign R&D ...<|separator|>
  194. [194]
    Uncovering the Hidden Costs of Seed Privatization on Sustainability ...
    The project offers policy recommendations of reforming plant patents to instead allow an open commons of plant genetic profiles (germplasm), of global ...
  195. [195]
    Open Source Seed, a Revolution in Breeding or Yet Another Attack ...
    ” Inspired by the debate on the anti-commons and the open source software movement, the initiative wants to create a viral system to “free” genetic ...
  196. [196]
    Plant Genetic Resources: Why Privatize a Public Good? - jstor
    ancestors selected and developed the germplasm into crop plants. Several arguments are used in the. Kloppenburg and Kleinman paper to support the concept of ...
  197. [197]
    Genetic Erosion - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
    The FAO (2010) estimates that about 75% of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops has been degraded during the last century. A US survey carried out by the ...<|separator|>
  198. [198]
    Crop genetic erosion: understanding and responding to loss of crop ...
    Sep 13, 2021 · Among the most common genetic erosion narratives, often repeated since the 1990s, is that three-quarters of crop diversity disappeared in the 20 ...Summary · II. Defining and measuring... · IV. Steps needed to advance...
  199. [199]
    Genetic erosion in maize's center of origin - PNAS
    Unlike germplasm banks, in situ conservation allows crops to evolve in response to changing pests and diseases, such as those occurring with climate change (9, ...
  200. [200]
    Climate change threatens crop diversity at low latitudes - PMC
    Climate change alters the climatic suitability of croplands, likely shifting the spatial distribution and diversity of global food crop production.
  201. [201]
    Fast Tracking Climate Solutions from CGIAR Germplasm Banks
    This project aims to identify common bean accessions in genebanks that contain alleles, or gene variations, responsible for characteristics such as heat, ...
  202. [202]
    Tools for using the International Rice Genebank to breed for climate ...
    Jul 6, 2023 · Genebank accessions have been critical in developing improved stress-tolerant rice varieties. This Community Page highlights new tools and ...
  203. [203]
    [PDF] Using Crop Genetic Resources To Help Agriculture Adapt to Climate ...
    Climate change may increase the benefits of genetic resource use; scientific advances may reduce the expense of identifying and incorporating helpful traits.
  204. [204]
    Special Issue : Opportunities and Challenges in Plant Germplasm
    Challenges arising are often due to incomplete, incorrect, or not accessible, phenotypes, genotypes and -omics data, which limit the progress of crop ...
  205. [205]
    Application of Genomics in Supporting Efficient Conservation and ...
    Genomic tools are supporting germplasm acquisition efforts through conservation gap analysis and enabling the identification of rare, threatened, and novel ...<|separator|>
  206. [206]
    (PDF) Biotechnological Strategies for Seed Germplasm ...
    May 30, 2025 · This chapter will emphasize on the expanding significance of tissue culture and biotechnology in conserving germplasm and assisting breeders, ...
  207. [207]
    Maximizing Conservation and Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources ...
    Plant genetic resources drive innovations and are used to develop new crops, to find new uses for existing crops or to develop improved varieties that produce ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  208. [208]
    Engaging with the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-Sharing
    Jun 6, 2023 · We outline how current implementation of the Convention of Biological Diversity and the Nagoya Protocol affect noncommercial research.
  209. [209]
    Digital Sequence Information (DSI) Is Changing the Way Genetic ...
    Dec 7, 2022 · DSI is changing the way genetic resources are used in agricultural research and development, and has implications for new benefit-sharing norms.
  210. [210]
    [PDF] Addressing the bottlenecks and challenges to the implementation of ...
    Oct 3, 2024 · The Benefit-sharing Fund (BSF) supports the implementation of Articles 5 and 6, addressing bottlenecks and needs identified in a background ...
  211. [211]
    A need for recalibrating access and benefit sharing - NIH
    Dec 20, 2021 · We call for a recalibration of ABS to maximize the value delivered by biodiversity for all of society, including indigenous peoples and local communities.
  212. [212]
    [PDF] Access and benefit-sharing in practice: non-commercial research ...
    Non-commercial scientists face obstacles due to ABS agreements, lack of knowledge of international requirements, and limited legal support, impeding access to ...
  213. [213]
    Summary report 7–11 July 2025 - Earth Negotiations Bulletin
    The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and its Multilateral System (MLS) were conceived with two pillars: to ...
  214. [214]
    The Enhancement Process
    In 2022, the Governing Body decided to re-establish the Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group to Enhance the Functioning of the Multilateral System, with a view to ...
  215. [215]
    https://www.genesys-pgr.org/
  216. [216]
    [PDF] Enhancing the Multilateral System of the Treaty, a commercial user's ...
    Early on the Treaty and its MLS were developed to be a better alternative to the CBD and its. 51 bilateral processes for plant breeders5.
  217. [217]
    How Can We Strengthen the Global Genetic Resources ...
    Mar 1, 2024 · Genetic resources serve as the foundation of our food supply and are building blocks for the development of new crop varieties that support ...