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Tertiary hyperparathyroidism

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder defined by the autonomous and excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) from hyperplastic parathyroid glands, resulting in persistent hypercalcemia, typically arising after prolonged secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).^[1]^[2] This condition represents an evolution from compensatory parathyroid hyperplasia—initially driven by factors such as phosphate retention, hypocalcemia, and vitamin D deficiency in CKD—into a state of glandular autonomy where PTH production persists despite normalized calcium levels, often post-kidney transplantation.^[1]^[2] The pathophysiology involves progressive parathyroid gland enlargement, transitioning from diffuse hyperplasia to monoclonal nodular growth, accompanied by reduced expression of calcium-sensing receptors (CaSR) and vitamin D receptors (VDR), which impairs feedback inhibition and promotes unchecked PTH release.^[1] This leads to elevated serum calcium, phosphate, and PTH levels, with an incidence of approximately 20% in renal transplant recipients (representing 1.5–2% of all hyperparathyroidism cases) and surgical intervention required in 1–5% of cases.^[2] Risk factors include long-term dialysis duration, severe pre-transplant secondary hyperparathyroidism, and delayed graft function, with affected patients often being middle-aged (peak at 54 years).^[2] Clinically, tertiary hyperparathyroidism manifests with symptoms of hypercalcemia and PTH excess, including bone and joint pain, fragility fractures, nephrolithiasis, and gastrointestinal issues such as ulcers or pancreatitis; extraskeletal complications like vascular and soft tissue calcification, anemia, and weight loss may also occur, potentially exacerbating graft dysfunction in transplant patients.^[1]^[2] Diagnosis relies on biochemical confirmation of sustained hypercalcemia (>10.5 mg/dL) and elevated intact PTH (>12 months post-transplant), alongside imaging such as neck ultrasonography with color Doppler or Tc-99m sestamibi SPECT-CT to localize enlarged glands, distinguishing it from primary hyperparathyroidism by the history of underlying CKD.^[1]^[2] Treatment prioritizes medical management with calcimimetics (e.g., cinacalcet) to suppress PTH, alongside vitamin D analogs, phosphate binders, and adequate hydration to control hypercalcemia, though these often provide only partial relief and fail to reverse bone mineral density loss (no major advances reported as of 2025).^[1]^[2] For refractory cases, surgical parathyroidectomy—either subtotal (removing 3.5 glands) or total with autotransplantation (removing all glands and reimplanting tissue in the forearm)—offers definitive cure, with comparable long-term outcomes in PTH normalization and low recurrence rates (3–7%), despite risks like transient hypocalcemia or hungry bone syndrome postoperatively.^[2] The choice of procedure depends on surgeon expertise, gland distribution, and patient factors, underscoring the need for multidisciplinary care in CKD populations.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Classification

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism is defined as the autonomous overproduction of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by the parathyroid glands, resulting in hypercalcemia, which typically develops following prolonged secondary hyperparathyroidism where the glands lose normal feedback inhibition by calcium levels.^[3]^[4] This condition arises when chronic stimulation leads to parathyroid hyperplasia, causing the glands to function independently of regulatory mechanisms.^[5] Hyperparathyroidism is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary forms based on the underlying etiology and physiological response. Primary hyperparathyroidism involves intrinsic glandular dysfunction, such as an adenoma or hyperplasia, leading to unregulated PTH secretion without an external stimulus.^[5] In contrast, secondary hyperparathyroidism is a compensatory response to conditions like chronic kidney disease that cause hypocalcemia or hyperphosphatemia, resulting in elevated PTH but typically normal or low calcium levels.^[3] Tertiary hyperparathyroidism represents a progression from unresolved secondary hyperparathyroidism, where the glands become autonomously hyperfunctional, often persisting after correction of the underlying stimulus, such as following kidney transplantation.^[6]^[4] Key diagnostic criteria for tertiary hyperparathyroidism include persistently elevated PTH levels accompanied by hypercalcemia, in the absence of alternative causes such as malignancy-associated hypercalcemia.^[6] This distinction is crucial, as it confirms the loss of feedback regulation post-secondary phase, commonly linked to chronic kidney disease as a precursor.^[5]

Epidemiology

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism predominantly occurs in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD), where it represents an autonomous progression from secondary hyperparathyroidism due to prolonged parathyroid gland hyperplasia. In CKD stage 5 patients requiring dialysis, elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels exceeding 300 pg/mL—indicative of advanced secondary hyperparathyroidism that may evolve into the tertiary form—affect 30-50% of individuals.^[1] This progression is particularly evident in long-term dialysis populations, where parathyroidectomy for severe, refractory secondary hyperparathyroidism is required in approximately 15% of patients after 10 years and 38% after 20 years of dialysis therapy.^[1] Following kidney transplantation, tertiary hyperparathyroidism is characterized by persistent hypercalcemia and elevated PTH, typically arising from pre-existing parathyroid autonomy. Its prevalence reaches 21.5% among adult kidney transplant recipients within the first year post-transplant, with overall persistent hyperparathyroidism affecting 61.7% during this period.^[7] Incidence rates are higher in those with extended pre-transplant dialysis duration, and studies report up to 30% occurrence by two years post-transplant in susceptible cohorts.^[8] Demographically, tertiary hyperparathyroidism is most common in adults over 50 years, with a mean age of approximately 53 years at kidney transplantation.^[7] Sex distribution varies, with some studies showing equal proportions and others a slight male predominance, particularly in post-transplant cohorts.^[7]^[9] Racial patterns in transplant recipients indicate higher representation among Black individuals (48.5%), followed by White (42.3%), potentially reflecting underlying CKD disparities.^[7] Geographic variations align with CKD prevalence, with elevated rates in regions of limited dialysis access and healthcare infrastructure, such as low-resource settings.^[10] From 2020 to 2025, the incidence of tertiary hyperparathyroidism has remained stable overall but shows an increasing trend in post-transplant cohorts due to improved routine monitoring and longer patient survival on dialysis.^[11] Enhanced detection through standardized PTH and calcium assessments has reduced underdiagnosis in high-income settings, though significant gaps persist in under-resourced populations where CKD management is suboptimal.^[12]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms and Signs

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism often presents with symptoms attributable to persistent hypercalcemia and elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels, though many patients remain asymptomatic in the early stages following resolution of underlying secondary causes, such as after kidney transplantation. Common manifestations include bone pain (osteodynia), muscle weakness, fatigue, depression, confusion or concentration difficulties, increased thirst (polydipsia), frequent urination (polyuria), abdominal pain, itching (pruritus), joint pain, headache, and forgetfulness.^[13]^[14] These symptoms arise from the effects of hypercalcemia on multiple systems, including neuromuscular irritability and skeletal demineralization.^[15] Less common signs may include pathologic fractures, osteoporosis-related deformities such as vertebral collapse, corneal calcifications (e.g., band keratopathy or unusual metastatic deposits), and severe skin changes like calciphylaxis, particularly in longstanding cases with ongoing renal impairment.^[14]^[16]^[17] The severity of symptoms typically progresses from mild or absent in initial phases to pronounced neuromuscular and skeletal involvement as hypercalcemia worsens, often persisting despite correction of the precipitating factor like chronic kidney disease.^[18] A distinctive feature of tertiary hyperparathyroidism is the continuation or emergence of these symptoms post-resolution of secondary causes, such as persistent hypercalcemia and related complaints in 10–30% of kidney transplant recipients, particularly in the first year after surgery.^[19]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of tertiary hyperparathyroidism typically begins with laboratory evaluation to confirm persistent hyperparathyroidism following resolution of secondary causes, such as after kidney transplantation. Key findings include elevated serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels, often exceeding 300 pg/mL (normal range <65 pg/mL), alongside hypercalcemia with serum calcium greater than 10.2 mg/dL. Phosphate levels may be low or normal after correction of chronic kidney disease, contrasting with the hyperphosphatemia seen in secondary hyperparathyroidism. Additionally, low levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol) and elevated alkaline phosphatase are common, reflecting ongoing bone turnover and impaired vitamin D activation.^[19]^[20] Imaging studies are employed to localize enlarged parathyroid glands and assess complications, particularly when surgical intervention is considered. Neck ultrasound and technetium-99m sestamibi scintigraphy are initial modalities to detect parathyroid hyperplasia or adenomas, though their sensitivity is limited in multigland disease common to tertiary cases. Plain X-rays may reveal skeletal changes such as subperiosteal bone resorption in the phalanges or brown tumors, while dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) is used to evaluate bone mineral density and detect osteoporosis at sites like the spine, hip, and distal radius. These imaging tools aid in confirming end-organ effects but are secondary to biochemical confirmation.^[19]^[21]^[22] Differential diagnosis requires distinguishing tertiary hyperparathyroidism from other causes of hypercalcemia and elevated PTH. Unlike primary hyperparathyroidism, which lacks a preceding history of secondary hyperparathyroidism or chronic kidney disease, tertiary cases arise from autonomous parathyroid activity post-resolution of hypocalcemia. Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia is excluded by measuring urinary calcium excretion, as it features low urine calcium relative to serum levels and a family history. Malignancy-associated hypercalcemia typically suppresses PTH due to humoral factors like PTH-related peptide, while lithium-induced hyperparathyroidism is identified through medication history and may mimic primary disease biochemically.^[23]^[24]^[25] Recent advances in diagnosis include the use of four-dimensional computed tomography (4D-CT) for precise preoperative localization of abnormal glands in persistent or recurrent cases, offering superior sensitivity over ultrasound and sestamibi scans, particularly for smaller or ectopic lesions. Genetic testing is recommended for rare familial associations, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes, to guide management in atypical presentations. However, gaps persist in routine post-transplant screening, with studies highlighting delayed diagnosis due to inadequate monitoring of PTH and calcium levels, leading to missed opportunities for early intervention.^[26]^[27]^[28]

Etiology and Pathophysiology

Causes and Risk Factors

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism primarily arises as a complication of prolonged secondary hyperparathyroidism, most commonly in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD) who have undergone dialysis for more than 5 years.^[1] This chronic stimulation leads to parathyroid gland autonomy, resulting in persistent hypercalcemia even after kidney transplantation or resolution of the underlying secondary cause, such as improved renal function.^[1] The condition develops when the parathyroid glands, initially responding adaptively to hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia in CKD, undergo irreversible hyperplasia and lose regulatory control.^[29] Other causes include incomplete parathyroidectomy in patients with preexisting secondary hyperparathyroidism, where residual nodular parathyroid tissue continues to overproduce hormone.^[29] Rare instances occur in X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets due to long-term therapy with oral phosphate supplements and active vitamin D analogs, which exacerbate parathyroid stimulation through fluctuating calcium and phosphate levels.^[30] Genetic predispositions, such as mutations in genes involved in X-linked dominant phosphate transport disorders like PHEX, heighten susceptibility in affected individuals receiving chronic phosphate therapy.^[30] Key risk factors encompass late-stage CKD (stages 4-5), where progressive renal impairment drives secondary hyperparathyroidism.^[1] Hyperphosphatemia, vitamin D deficiency, and prolonged exposure to hypocalcemia further promote parathyroid hyperplasia by disrupting calcium homeostasis.^[31] Recent studies from 2020 to 2025 have highlighted reduced expression of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) in hyperplastic glands, contributing to parathyroid autonomy in CKD cohorts with longstanding secondary hyperparathyroidism.^[32]

Pathophysiological Mechanisms

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism arises as a progression from longstanding secondary hyperparathyroidism, typically in the context of chronic kidney disease (CKD), where chronic stimuli such as hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, reduced calcitriol levels, and elevated fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) drive persistent parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion and glandular enlargement.^[20]^[33] These stimuli initially induce polyclonal diffuse hyperplasia of the parathyroid chief cells to compensate for the mineral imbalance, but prolonged exposure leads to autonomous function even after resolution of the underlying cause, such as following successful kidney transplantation.^[34] Post-transplantation, the hypertrophied glands fail to regress due to diminished sensitivity to regulatory signals, resulting in unregulated PTH overproduction and the emergence of hypercalcemia.^[6] At the glandular level, the hyperplasia evolves from a diffuse, polyclonal pattern to nodular, monoclonal proliferation, with affected glands often enlarging 10- to 40-fold compared to normal size.^[35] Nodular regions resemble adenomas, featuring clusters of chief cells with reduced apoptotic activity and increased cellular turnover, as evidenced by elevated Ki67 proliferation indices.^[34] This monoclonal expansion is driven by somatic mutations and clonal selection within the hyperplastic tissue, contributing to the glands' resistance to involution.^[20] Molecular alterations underpin this autonomy, including downregulation of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) and vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression on parathyroid cells, which impairs negative feedback from elevated calcium and calcitriol levels.^[34] Additionally, upregulation of proto-oncogenes such as transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-α) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) promotes cell proliferation, while silencing of tumor suppressors like p53 further favors nodular growth and PTH oversecretion.^[34] Systemically, the autonomous PTH release mobilizes calcium from bone through enhanced osteoclast activity, leading to hypercalcemia and increased bone resorption.^[20] Initially, renal phosphate handling remains impaired due to residual CKD effects, exacerbating the mineral disorder, though hypercalcemia may eventually suppress PTH enough to normalize phosphate levels in some cases.^[6] Recent advances from 2020 to 2025, including single-cell RNA sequencing of parathyroid tissue in uremic secondary hyperparathyroidism, have revealed cellular heterogeneity, with transdifferentiation of chief cells into oxyphil cells characterized by mitochondrial enrichment and heightened proliferative potential, potentially contributing to the progression toward tertiary autonomy.^[36]

Management

Medical Treatment

Medical treatment for tertiary hyperparathyroidism primarily involves conservative strategies and pharmacological interventions aimed at controlling hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels, particularly in mild cases or when surgery is contraindicated.^[37] These approaches are often used as initial management or as adjuncts in post-transplant patients, though they may have limited long-term success in severe, nodular disease due to autonomous parathyroid function.^[38] Conservative measures focus on lifestyle modifications to mitigate biochemical imbalances. Adequate hydration is recommended to promote renal calcium excretion and reduce the risk of nephrolithiasis, with patients encouraged to maintain fluid intake to avoid dehydration-induced hypercalcemia.^[38] Dietary phosphate restriction, typically limited to 800–1000 mg per day, helps manage hyperphosphatemia by reducing parathyroid gland stimulation.^[37] Additionally, avoidance of calcium supplements is advised to prevent exacerbation of hypercalcemia, as excessive calcium intake can further suppress PTH regulation.^[4] Pharmacological options target specific aspects of mineral metabolism. In mild cases, vitamin D analogs such as calcitriol are used to suppress PTH secretion and improve bone health, administered at doses of 0.25–1 mcg daily and titrated based on response, though they risk inducing hypercalcemia or hyperphosphatemia.^[37]^[39] Calcimimetics like cinacalcet, dosed at 30–180 mg daily, enhance calcium-sensing receptor sensitivity in parathyroid cells, leading to reduced PTH (mean decrease of 22 pmol/L), serum calcium (0.7 mmol/L), and phosphate (0.4 mmol/L) levels; efficacy in achieving PTH control post-transplant reaches 50–70% in responsive patients, but hypocalcemia risk increases eightfold.^[40] Phosphate binders, such as sevelamer, are employed to bind dietary phosphate in the gut, lowering serum phosphate and indirectly reducing PTH, particularly in patients with concurrent hyperphosphatemia.^[41] Ongoing monitoring is essential to assess treatment response and guide adjustments. Serial measurements of PTH, calcium, and phosphate levels, typically every 3–6 months, allow for evaluation of biochemical control and detection of complications like persistent hypercalcemia.^[42] In severe nodular disease, medical therapies often show limited long-term efficacy, necessitating consideration of escalation to other interventions if targets are not met.^[38] Recent advances from 2020–2025 include expanded use of the intravenous calcimimetic etelcalcetide in dialysis patients at risk of transitioning to tertiary hyperparathyroidism. Administered post-dialysis at doses of 2.5–15 mg three times weekly, it achieves PTH reductions of 20–30% in many cases by lowering fibroblast growth factor 23 and slowing parathyroid hyperplasia progression, though high recurrence rates persist without surgical intervention.^[43] Studies indicate it increases the proportion of patients achieving target PTH levels from 28% to 58%, but monitoring for hypocalcemia remains critical.

Surgical Treatment

Surgical intervention serves as the definitive treatment for tertiary hyperparathyroidism when medical management fails to control the condition. Indications for surgery include persistent hypercalcemia greater than 11 mg/dL lasting more than 12 months post-kidney transplantation, severe symptoms such as bone pain, fractures, or calciphylaxis, markedly elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels exceeding 800 pg/mL, or lack of response to pharmacological therapies like calcimimetics and vitamin D analogs.^[44]^[45]^[46] Preoperative optimization with medical therapy to stabilize calcium levels is recommended prior to surgery.^[47] The choice of procedure depends on the extent of glandular involvement, often requiring exploration of all four parathyroid glands due to diffuse hyperplasia in tertiary disease. Subtotal parathyroidectomy, which entails removal of three and a half glands while preserving a small portion of vascularized tissue from the fourth, is a common approach to maintain some parathyroid function.^[48] Alternatively, total parathyroidectomy with autotransplantation involves excising all identifiable parathyroid tissue and implanting 30-50 mg fragments into the forearm skeletal muscle to prevent permanent hypoparathyroidism.^[44] For patients with preoperative imaging demonstrating a single dominant nodule, minimally invasive focused parathyroidectomy may be suitable, utilizing sestamibi scintigraphy or 4D-computed tomography (4D-CT) for guidance to limit the incision and operative extent.^[29] Intraoperative PTH monitoring is routinely employed, with successful excision confirmed by a greater than 50% reduction from baseline levels within 10-15 minutes post-resection.^[44] Outcomes of parathyroidectomy in tertiary hyperparathyroidism are generally favorable, achieving normalization of serum calcium and PTH in 80-90% of cases, thereby alleviating symptoms and protecting renal allograft function.^[49] Recurrence rates are low at 3-7%, though higher with subtotal procedures compared to autotransplantation in some series.^[44] Complications include transient hypocalcemia requiring supplementation in up to 21% of patients and permanent hypoparathyroidism in 10-20%, particularly after total parathyroidectomy.^[48] Recurrent laryngeal nerve injury occurs in less than 5% of cases, with most being temporary.^[46] Recent advances from 2020 to 2025 have enhanced surgical precision and efficiency. Robotic-assisted parathyroidectomy provides magnified visualization and tremor filtration, facilitating minimally invasive access in select cases with localized disease.^[50] Additionally, AI-enhanced imaging techniques, such as deep learning models applied to 4D-CT and intraoperative fluorescence, improve parathyroid localization accuracy and reduce operative time by aiding real-time gland identification.^[51]^[52]

Prognosis and Complications

Long-term Outcomes

Surgical cure rates for tertiary hyperparathyroidism following parathyroidectomy range from 94% to 100%, with normalization of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and serum calcium levels achieved in the majority of cases.^[53]^[54] In contrast, medical management with agents such as cinacalcet achieves normocalcemia in approximately 81% of patients initially, though long-term symptom control is less reliable due to persistent autonomous parathyroid activity.^[53] Recurrence after surgery is lower, occurring in 4-8% of cases, often linked to incomplete resection.^[53]^[44] Correction of hyperparathyroidism through treatment significantly reduces associated cardiovascular risks and fracture incidence, contributing to improved overall prognosis.^[37] In kidney transplant recipients, successful intervention for tertiary hyperparathyroidism is associated with graft and patient survival comparable to general transplant outcomes (typically exceeding 80% at 5 years), while untreated persistent hyperparathyroidism is linked to poorer prognosis.^[46] Persistent hyperparathyroidism is associated with increased mortality risk (approximately 1.3-fold) in CKD populations, primarily through cardiovascular events and bone fragility.^[55] Key factors influencing long-term outcomes include the timing of intervention, with early parathyroidectomy promoting higher cure rates and reduced complications; completeness of parathyroid resection, where subtotal or total procedures minimize recurrence; and the underlying CKD status, as advanced renal impairment correlates with poorer recovery.^[29]^[44] Recent studies from 2020 to 2025 demonstrate substantial improvements in quality of life post-parathyroidectomy, with significant reductions in bone pain reported in up to 70% of patients alongside enhancements in physical and mental health scores.^[56]^[57] However, data on emerging approaches like genetic therapies remain limited, with long-term outcomes unestablished due to their investigational status; as of 2024, research has identified potential genetic targets like PIK3C3 and SLC40A1 for drug development.^[43]^[58]

Associated Complications

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism (THPT), arising from prolonged secondary hyperparathyroidism often in end-stage renal disease, leads to autonomous parathyroid hormone (PTH) overproduction and persistent hypercalcemia, resulting in multisystem complications if untreated or poorly managed. These arise primarily from excessive bone resorption, ectopic calcifications, and metabolic derangements, exacerbating morbidity in affected patients, particularly post-kidney transplant.^[59] Skeletal complications are prominent due to chronic PTH excess driving high-turnover bone disease. Osteoporosis manifests as generalized bone loss and reduced density, increasing fragility in long-term cases. Osteitis fibrosa cystica, a hallmark of advanced hyperparathyroidism in renal disease, involves cystic bone resorption, fibrosis, and pathologic fractures from weakened trabecular structure. Brown tumors, rare focal lesions (prevalence ~0.1-4.5% in hyperparathyroidism), present as expansile osteolytic masses with giant cell histology, often in the maxilla or mandible, as seen in documented tertiary cases. These can cause severe deformities like uremic leontiasis ossea, with diffuse facial bone thickening impairing function.^[60]^[61]^[62] Cardiovascular and soft tissue complications stem from ectopic calcium deposition. Calciphylaxis, or calcific uremic arteriolopathy, causes painful skin necrosis and ulceration through microvascular calcification and thrombosis, with high mortality in end-stage renal disease patients. Vascular calcifications, including in coronary arteries and valves, elevate cardiovascular disease risk, contributing to atherosclerosis and heart failure.^[63]^[64]^[59] Renal and other systemic issues include nephrolithiasis from hypercalciuria, promoting recurrent kidney stones that may worsen graft function post-transplant. Pancreatitis can occur due to hypercalcemia-induced acinar damage. Corneal calcifications lead to visual impairment via band keratopathy. While direct links to malignancy are limited, chronic kidney disease with THPT associates with elevated risks of urinary tract cancers through shared risk factors like long-term dialysis.^[65]^[66]^[67] Unique to THPT, particularly post-kidney transplant, persistent hypercalcemia risks allograft dysfunction via calcium-phosphate deposition in renal tubules, accelerating graft loss. Chronicity often results in irreversible bone loss and deformities, such as persistent osteolytic lesions requiring reconstructive intervention despite treatment.^[68]^[59]^[61] Early diagnosis through monitoring PTH and calcium levels, followed by timely parathyroidectomy or medical therapy per KDIGO guidelines, significantly reduces complication incidence by addressing PTH excess before irreversible damage. Recent efforts (2020-2025) emphasize sodium thiosulfate for calciphylaxis management, with intravenous regimens showing lesion improvement in approximately 70-85% of cases over 3-12 months, though optimal duration remains under study.^[69]^[70]

History

Discovery

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism emerged as a recognized clinical entity in the context of advancing renal replacement therapies following World War II, when long-term hemodialysis programs began to sustain patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD) beyond short-term acute treatments.^[71] Early observations in the 1950s and 1960s linked persistent parathyroid hyperactivity to CKD and the initiation of dialysis, where hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia from renal failure stimulated secondary hyperparathyroidism; however, some cases presented with unexpected hypercalcemia post-improvement in renal function, leading to initial confusion with primary hyperparathyroidism due to overlapping biochemical profiles.^[72] Key reports throughout the 1960s highlighted instances of hypercalcemia that continued despite correction of underlying secondary triggers, such as improved renal function or phosphate control via dialysis, thereby establishing the concept of parathyroid autonomy as a progression from prolonged secondary stimulation.^[72] The condition was first formally described in 1963 by Dr. Walter T. St. Goar during a discussion of a case at the Massachusetts General Hospital involving a patient with chronic renal disease who exhibited persistent hypercalcemia and elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion independent of calcium regulation, marking the inaugural use of the term "tertiary hyperparathyroidism" to denote this autonomous state in post-renal failure patients.

Key Developments

In 1968, the concept of tertiary hyperparathyroidism was formally reclassified and distinguished from primary hyperparathyroidism through a seminal study by Davies, Dent, and Watson, who analyzed 200 cases of surgically confirmed hyperparathyroidism and identified 12 instances where autonomous parathyroid adenomas developed in patients with prior chronic renal failure or malabsorption syndromes, following an initial phase of secondary hyperparathyroidism due to disrupted calcium-phosphate feedback loops.^[73] This reclassification emphasized the progression from compensatory hyperplasia to independent PTH secretion, refining diagnostic criteria for post-dialysis patients and highlighting the need for surgical intervention in autonomous cases.^[73] During the 1970s to 1990s, histopathological studies increasingly recognized nodular hyperplasia as a dominant feature in tertiary hyperparathyroidism, evolving from diffuse polyclonal growth to monoclonal nodular expansions driven by somatic alterations, as demonstrated in Arnold et al.'s 1995 analysis of uremic parathyroid tumors showing monoclonality in over 60% of refractory cases. This shift underscored the preneoplastic potential of prolonged secondary hyperparathyroidism, informing targeted subtotal parathyroidectomy techniques to address multifocal nodules while preserving gland function. The introduction of cinacalcet in 2004 marked a major advancement in medical management, receiving FDA approval for secondary hyperparathyroidism in dialysis patients and subsequently applied to tertiary cases to sensitize the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), reducing PTH and serum calcium levels without surgery. From the 2000s onward, surgical innovations such as parathyroid autotransplantation gained prominence after total parathyroidectomy, minimizing permanent hypoparathyroidism in tertiary cases; techniques refined in the early 2000s, including cryopreservation and intramuscular implantation, improved long-term graft viability and PTH normalization rates. In the 2010s, genetic studies provided deeper insights into parathyroid hyperplasia, including reduced CaSR expression contributing to autonomous PTH secretion. A key milestone was the 2009 review by Pitt et al., which synthesized pathophysiological mechanisms, emphasizing the transition from secondary to tertiary disease via vitamin D resistance and phosphate retention, guiding integrated medical-surgical strategies.^[74] Recent developments from 2020 to 2022 have addressed diagnostic challenges through AI-enhanced imaging, with machine learning models improving parathyroid localization accuracy in complex hyperplasia cases by analyzing multimodal scans like sestamibi SPECT/CT, achieving up to 95% sensitivity in retrospective cohorts.^[75] Studies on calcimimetics in post-transplant settings, such as cinacalcet monotherapy, have demonstrated partial PTH reduction, though levels often remain elevated compared to surgical options.^[76] Updated 2022 guidelines from the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons emphasize surgical parathyroidectomy for definitive management of persistent hypercalcemia in tertiary hyperparathyroidism.^[77] The 2019 retrospective analysis by van der Plas et al. highlighted superior PTH normalization with surgery over cinacalcet, influencing current approaches to treatment selection.^[78]

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Sep 1, 2004 · Patients with THPT commonly have significant symptoms and metabolic complications that improve after parathyroidectomy. In THPT, the autonomous ...
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Successful management of tertiary hyperparathyroidism associated ...
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism (THP) is a rare complication in patients with hypophosphataemic rickets (HR), usually related to long-term management with active ...Missing: definition symptoms
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Acute Pancreatitis in a patient with hypercalcemia due to tertiary ...
Sep 1, 2011 · Hypercalcemia represents an independent risk factor of acute pancreatitis and can result from hyperfunctioning parathyroid glands.
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Aug 31, 2025 · Tertiary hyperparathyroidism (THPT) is a severe and uncommon complication of secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with advanced chronic ...
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Hyperparathyroidism - AAFP
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Mar 14, 2025 · We aim to study the relationship between genetic variants of CASR and CKD and their relation with mineral bone disease (MBD).Missing: tertiary hyperparathyroidism 2020-2025
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Secondary and Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism in Chronic Kidney
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism refers to the hypercalcemic state in which, after longstanding SHP, the stimulated parathyroid glands assume a quasiautonomous role ...
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Jul 31, 2019 · Related symptoms include pruritus and osteodynia, concentration difficulties, and feelings of depression may be present. In the long-term, end- ...
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Apr 8, 2004 · Once-daily doses were increased from 30 mg to 180 mg to achieve intact parathyroid hormone levels of 250 pg per milliliter or less. The primary ...
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[PDF] Recent advancements in the treatment of tertiary hyperparathyroidism
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Dec 5, 2022 · Etelcalcetide may slow the progression of SHPT by reducing levels of fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), a hormone that regulates phosphate ...
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Nov 1, 2023 · The only curative therapy is parathyroidectomy (PTX). It remains unclear whether total parathyroidectomy with autotransplantation (TPTX-AT) or ...
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Refractory hyperparathyroidism and indications for ...
Mar 20, 2024 · Some clinicians define refractory hyperparathyroidism as a PTH level persistently >800 pg/mL, which is the level at which parathyroidectomy ...
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Outcome of surgical parathyroidectomy for tertiary ... - NIH
Apr 4, 2024 · PTH levels reportedly remain persistently high after surgery in 21–46% of cases, even after calcium levels normalize following subtotal or ...
[47]
roadmap to parathyroidectomy for kidney transplant candidates
Persistent HPT post-KT often requires parathyroidectomy with a prevalence range from 0.6 to 5.6% [76]. However, there are no clear guidelines on how to treat ...
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All studies found that parathyroidectomy was an effective treatment for 3HPT. Three studies discussed alternative conservative approaches.
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Intraoperative applications of artificial intelligence for augmented ...
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Systematic review of surgical and medical treatment for tertiary ...
Parathyroidectomy was commonly performed to treat tertiary HPT until the introduction of the calcimimetic drug, cinacalcet. It is not known whether surgery or ...
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Back to my future: life after surgery for tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Nov 18, 2024 · Parathyroidectomy for THPT brings to a concrete amelioration of all the disease-related and nonspecific symptoms with significative improvement of QoL.
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86.06 Quality of Life After Parathyroidectomy in Patients with End ...
May 12, 2025 · Conclusion: This systematic review found significant improvement in quality of life after parathyroidectomy for patients with secondary ...
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Nov 12, 2023 · Osteitis fibrosa cystica (OFC), a disorder of skeletal bone, is a pathognomonic yet infrequent finding of late-stage hyperparathyroidism.
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Three Rare Concurrent Complications of Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism
Our patient's risk factors for developing this condition included failed renal transplant and ongoing hemodialysis. While tertiary HPT is classically caused ...
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Apr 15, 2025 · Osteoporosis, osteitis fibrosa cystica, and brown tumors all weaken the bone, placing patients at risk for pathological fractures. Though rare, ...
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Dec 22, 2018 · CUA is life-threatening disease characterised by widespread vascular calcification. Risk factors include ESRD, female sex, obesity, diabetes ...
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Sep 1, 2016 · Renal hyperparathyroidism (rHPT) is a common complication of CKD characterized by derangements in the homeostasis of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D.
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Exploring the Risk Factors and Possible Role of Calcium in Infective ...
Jul 17, 2023 · Untreated hyperparathyroidism can result in hypercalcemia and nephrolithiasis, which can increase the risk of obstructive pyelonephritis and ...
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Acute Pancreatitis: Genetic Risk and Clinical Implications - PMC
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[PDF] Parathyroid Disorders | FMhub
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The main hypotheses that explain the association of hyperparathyroidism with renal graft loss are: deposition of calcium phosphate crystals in the kidneys, ...
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The history of dialysis - Fresenius Medical Care
The first scientific descriptions of these procedures dates back to the 19th century and came from the Scottish chemist Thomas Graham, who became known as the ...
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Virchow described the human parathyroids in 1963, but credit for the first complete description goes to the Swedish doctor Sandstroem, in 1980. He identified ...
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Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism - The BMJ
Abstract. In our first 200 cases of primary hyperparathyroidism confirmed by operation 12 were also shown to have a long history either of a malabsorption ...
[72]
Analyzing Genetic Differences Between Sporadic Primary and ...
Jul 3, 2021 · Our results suggest that molecular genetic abnormalities in SHPT/THPT are distinct from those in PHPT. These findings may help in analyzing the molecular ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Secondary and tertiary hyperparathyroidism, state of the art surgical ...
This article reviews the current surgical management of patients with secondary and tertiary hyperparathyroidism. The focus is on innovative surgical ...Missing: pathophysiology | Show results with:pathophysiology
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Artificial Intelligence Methods for Identifying and Localizing ... - MDPI
The study explores and reports the use of AI methods for identifying and localizing PGs, Primary Hyperparathyroidism (PHPT), Parathyroid Adenoma (PTA), and ...
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Parathyroidectomy versus cinacalcet in the treatment of tertiary ... - NIH
Surgical treatment of tertiary hyperparathyroidism was more effective than the administration of cinacalcet in correcting hypercalcemia and lowering PTH levels.
[76]
The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons Guidelines for the ...
Sep 1, 2022 · Evidence-based guidelines were created to assist clinicians in the optimal management of secondary and tertiary renal hyperparathyroidism.Missing: early 2020-2025
[77]
Parathyroidectomy versus cinacalcet for tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Feb 7, 2019 · Introduction: Tertiary hyperparathyroidism (tHPT), i.e., persistent HPT after kidney transplantation, affects 17-50% of transplant recipients.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-