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Sevelamer

Sevelamer is a non-calcium, non-metal phosphate binder approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the management of hyperphosphatemia in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).^[1] It is administered orally and functions by binding dietary phosphates in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent their absorption, thereby reducing serum phosphorus levels in individuals on dialysis or with advanced CKD stages. Available in two main formulations—sevelamer hydrochloride (originally marketed as Renagel, approved in 1998; the branded product was withdrawn from the US market in 2009, though generics remain available) and sevelamer carbonate (marketed as Renvela, approved in 2007)—the latter was developed to mitigate the risk of metabolic acidosis associated with the hydrochloride form.^[2]^[3]^[1]^[4] As a key therapeutic agent in nephrology, sevelamer is FDA-approved for adults and children aged 6 years and older with CKD on hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. It is also used in non-dialysis-dependent CKD patients with hyperphosphatemia (serum phosphate >1.45 mmol/L) per KDIGO guidelines.^[1]^[5] Unlike calcium-based phosphate binders, sevelamer does not contribute to hypercalcemia or vascular calcification, offering a cardiovascular benefit in long-term use, and it also binds bile acids to modestly lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 15-30%.^[6]^[1] Dosing is typically initiated based on baseline serum phosphate (e.g., 800-1600 mg three times daily with meals for levels >5.5 mg/dL) and titrated to achieve target phosphorus control, with a maximum studied dose of 14 g/day.^[1] Common adverse effects include gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation, while rare but serious risks involve intestinal obstruction or perforation, particularly in patients with predisposing conditions.^[7]^[1] Sevelamer's development addressed the limitations of earlier phosphate binders by providing a non-absorbable, polymer-based alternative that avoids systemic absorption and metal ion exposure, making it a cornerstone in the multimodal management of mineral bone disorder in CKD.^[1] Off-label applications include pretreatment of infant nutrition formulas to reduce phosphate content and adjunctive use for hypercholesterolemia in dialysis patients.^[1] Ongoing research continues to evaluate its role in preventing cardiovascular events and improving outcomes in end-stage renal disease.^[8]

History and development

Discovery and synthesis

In the mid-20th century, the management of hyperphosphatemia in patients with chronic kidney disease relied primarily on aluminum-based phosphate binders, such as aluminum hydroxide, which were introduced in the 1960s and became standard by the 1970s due to their efficacy in reducing serum phosphate levels.^[9] However, long-term use of aluminum binders led to concerns over toxicity, including aluminum accumulation causing osteomalacia, encephalopathy, and anemia, prompting a shift toward calcium-based alternatives like calcium carbonate and calcium acetate in the 1980s and 1990s.^[10] These calcium salts, while avoiding aluminum's risks, raised issues with hypercalcemia, vascular calcification, and increased cardiovascular events, driving the search for non-calcium, non-aluminum phosphate binders.^[11] Sevelamer was developed in the early 1990s by GelTex Pharmaceuticals, a biotechnology company founded in 1991, as a novel synthetic polymer intended to bind dietary phosphates in the gastrointestinal tract without systemic absorption or metal-related toxicities.^[12] The compound, chemically known as a crosslinked poly(allylamine hydrochloride), was designed to address the limitations of prior binders by leveraging organic polymer chemistry for selective ion-exchange binding of phosphates.^[12] The synthesis of sevelamer begins with the polymerization of allylamine hydrochloride using an initiator such as 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride to form poly(allylamine hydrochloride), a linear polymer with primary amine groups along its backbone.^[12] This polymer is then crosslinked in aqueous solution at alkaline pH (typically 10-11) with epichlorohydrin, a bifunctional alkylating agent, at concentrations of 0.5-75% by weight (preferably 2-20%), resulting in a three-dimensional network where approximately 40% of the amine groups are protonated as hydrochloride salts.^[12] The crosslinking reaction involves nucleophilic substitution where the epichlorohydrin's epoxide and chloromethyl groups react with the amine nitrogens, forming aziridinium intermediates that enhance the polymer's stability and capacity for electrostatic binding to negatively charged phosphate ions; this structure prevents degradation in the gut while allowing swelling for optimal contact with dietary phosphates.^[12] Early preclinical studies conducted during development demonstrated sevelamer's efficacy in animal models of hyperphosphatemia. In normal rats fed a high-phosphate diet, oral administration of 11.7% crosslinked poly(allylamine/epichlorohydrin) significantly reduced phosphate absorption compared to controls, as measured by lower serum and urinary phosphate levels.^[12] In nephrectomized rat models simulating chronic kidney disease, dosing with 10% of the polymer showed a trend toward decreased urinary phosphate excretion, indicating effective gastrointestinal binding without evidence of systemic toxicity at therapeutic levels.^[12] These findings supported progression to clinical evaluation.

Regulatory approvals and formulations

Sevelamer hydrochloride, marketed as Renagel, received initial approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on October 30, 1998, for the control of serum phosphorus levels in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) on hemodialysis.^[13] This approval marked the introduction of sevelamer as a non-calcium phosphate binder for managing hyperphosphatemia in dialysis patients. In Europe, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) granted marketing authorization for sevelamer hydrochloride (Renagel) on January 28, 2000, also for hyperphosphatemia treatment in adult CKD patients on dialysis.^[14] To address potential risks of metabolic acidosis associated with the hydrochloride salt, sevelamer carbonate (Renvela) was developed and approved by the FDA on October 19, 2007, offering equivalent phosphate-binding efficacy with a more neutral pH profile to mitigate gastrointestinal acidosis.^[3]^[15] The EMA followed with approval for sevelamer carbonate on June 10, 2009.^[16] Pediatric indications were extended in the 2010s; the FDA approved sevelamer carbonate for children aged 6 years and older with CKD on dialysis in December 2016, based on studies demonstrating efficacy in serum phosphorus control.^[17] The EMA similarly extended authorization for pediatric use (ages 6 and above) for sevelamer carbonate in 2012, following pediatric investigation plans.^[18] Generic versions of sevelamer began entering the market following patent expirations around 2014, with the FDA approving the first abbreviated new drug application (ANDA) for sevelamer carbonate tablets by companies such as Aurobindo Pharma in 2017 and Glenmark Pharmaceuticals in 2019, enhancing accessibility and reducing costs for hyperphosphatemia treatment.^[19]^[20] Sevelamer is available in multiple formulations to accommodate patient needs. Sevelamer hydrochloride is primarily offered as film-coated tablets in 400 mg and 800 mg strengths. Sevelamer carbonate, which is therapeutically equivalent to the hydrochloride form on a milligram-for-milligram basis (e.g., 800 mg carbonate equivalent to 800 mg hydrochloride for phosphate binding), includes 800 mg tablets, powder for oral suspension in 800 mg and 2.4 g packets, and a ready-to-use oral suspension.^[21]^[1] These powder and suspension options provide flexibility for patients with swallowing difficulties, with dosing typically divided across meals.^[22] Developed by GelTex Pharmaceuticals and subsequently acquired by Genzyme Corporation in December 2000 for approximately $1 billion, sevelamer's global availability expanded significantly after Sanofi's $20.1 billion acquisition of Genzyme in 2011, which integrated the drug into a broader portfolio and boosted market penetration in over 100 countries, contributing to annual sales exceeding €400 million by the mid-2010s and establishing it as a cornerstone therapy for CKD-related hyperphosphatemia.^[23]^[24]^[25]

Chemistry and pharmacology

Chemical structure and properties

Sevelamer is available in two principal forms: sevelamer hydrochloride and sevelamer carbonate, both derived from a cross-linked polymeric structure based on poly(allylamine). The hydrochloride form consists of poly(allylamine hydrochloride) cross-linked with epichlorohydrin, featuring repeating units with protonated amine groups that enable ionic interactions.^[26] In contrast, the carbonate form, chemically known as poly(allylamine-co-N,N'-diallyl-1,3-diamino-2-hydroxypropane) carbonate salt, replaces the chloride counterions with bicarbonate, maintaining the same polymeric backbone with approximately nine primary amine groups per crosslinking unit.^[27] This structure results in a non-crystalline, amorphous polymer without a defined molecular formula due to its polydisperse nature, though the average molecular weight is estimated in the range of 1,600 to 2,400 kDa depending on manufacturing variations.^[28] Physically, sevelamer appears as a white to off-white, free-flowing powder.^[29] It is hydrophilic yet insoluble in water and common organic solvents, exhibiting hygroscopic behavior that requires protection from moisture during storage.^[27] This insolubility ensures it remains in the gastrointestinal tract without systemic absorption, while its hydrophilic nature allows for swelling in aqueous environments. The hydrochloride form imparts an acidic character, whereas the carbonate form is more neutral, influencing handling and formulation properties.^[26] Sevelamer demonstrates chemical stability in the acidic conditions of the gastrointestinal environment, resisting enzymatic and hydrolytic degradation.^[30] Its binding efficiency is pH-dependent, with the carbonate form showing enhanced phosphate binding at lower pH values (around 3) compared to the hydrochloride form, which performs better at neutral to slightly alkaline pH (6-7); this is attributed to swelling and protonation dynamics of the amine groups.^[31] Differences between the forms arise from their counterions, affecting overall stability and ion exchange capacity without altering the core polymer resilience.^[32] Characterization of sevelamer relies on spectroscopic techniques to confirm cross-linking and composition. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy identifies amine and carbonyl vibrations, distinguishing between hydrochloride and carbonate forms through shifts in peak positions. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, including solid-state 13C-NMR, verifies the polymeric structure and degree of substitution, while Raman spectroscopy complements these for non-destructive analysis of batch variability.^[29] These methods ensure quality control by detecting impurities or inconsistencies in cross-linking density.^[33]

Mechanism of action

Sevelamer is a non-absorbable, cross-linked polymeric phosphate binder that acts primarily in the gastrointestinal tract by binding dietary phosphates through ionic and hydrogen bonding interactions between its positively charged amine groups and negatively charged phosphate ions. This binding forms insoluble complexes that are subsequently excreted in the feces, thereby preventing phosphate absorption into the bloodstream and reducing serum phosphorus levels by approximately 25-40%.^[1]^[34]^[35] In addition to phosphate binding, sevelamer exhibits secondary effects by interacting with bile acids in the intestinal lumen, which promotes their fecal excretion and leads to a reduction in serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels by 15-30%. This bile acid sequestration mechanism may also interfere with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E, and K, potentially necessitating supplementation in long-term use.^[1]^[36]^[1] The two available forms of sevelamer—hydrochloride and carbonate—share the same core polymeric structure for phosphate and bile acid binding, but differ in their counter-ions. Sevelamer carbonate releases bicarbonate upon ionization in the gut, which can help mitigate metabolic acidosis in patients with chronic kidney disease, whereas sevelamer hydrochloride releases chloride ions, potentially exacerbating acidosis.^[1]^[35] By effectively controlling serum phosphorus without introducing calcium, sevelamer indirectly lowers parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels, addressing secondary hyperparathyroidism in hyperphosphatemic conditions while avoiding the risk of calcium loading and associated hypercalcemia seen with calcium-based binders.^[34]^[1]

Pharmacokinetics

Sevelamer, available as either the hydrochloride or carbonate salt, is not systemically absorbed following oral administration and exerts its phosphate-binding effects locally within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. A mass balance study using radiolabeled sevelamer hydrochloride in healthy volunteers demonstrated that less than 0.1% of the administered dose is absorbed into the systemic circulation, resulting in negligible bioavailability.^[37] Due to this lack of absorption, sevelamer remains confined to the GI lumen, where it binds dietary phosphates without entering the bloodstream.^[1] As a non-absorbable cross-linked polymeric anion exchanger, sevelamer undergoes no hepatic metabolism and remains chemically intact throughout its transit through the GI tract. There is no evidence of biotransformation, as the polymer's structure is designed for stability in the intestinal environment. Distribution beyond the GI tract does not occur, and thus no volume of distribution or plasma protein binding data are applicable or relevant.^[37]^[1] Excretion of sevelamer occurs primarily via the fecal route, with the majority of the dose recovered unchanged in feces as complexes bound to phosphates and other anions from the diet. Systemic half-life is not applicable due to the absence of absorption; however, the polymer's phosphate-binding capacity persists for several hours during GI transit, aligning with typical meal digestion times.^[37]^[1] The efficacy of sevelamer's phosphate binding is influenced by several factors, including co-administration with food and the pH of the GI environment. Administration with meals enhances binding by providing dietary phosphates for sequestration, thereby optimizing phosphorus control. Phosphate binding is pH-dependent, with optimal activity occurring at neutral pH levels (approximately 5.5–7) in the small intestine; at lower pH (e.g., gastric conditions around 4), binding affinity decreases significantly, to about 10% of maximum. The polymer also swells in aqueous media, a process modulated by pH, which affects its overall binding surface area and capacity.51866-8/pdf)^[38]

Medical uses

Indications

Sevelamer is indicated for the management of hyperphosphatemia in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves sevelamer carbonate for controlling serum phosphorus levels in adults and in children aged 6 years and older with CKD who are on hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, and approves sevelamer hydrochloride for adults with CKD on hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis.^[39]^[37] The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) guidelines recommend the use of non-calcium phosphate binders like sevelamer in adults with CKD stages 3-5 not on dialysis when serum phosphorus exceeds 4.5 mg/dL and remains elevated despite dietary phosphate restriction, typically in combination with ongoing dietary measures to limit intake to approximately 800-1000 mg per day.^[5] Off-label applications of sevelamer include pretreating enteral nutrition formulas, such as dairy-based or breast milk products, in pediatric patients to reduce phosphate absorption and prevent hyperphosphatemia during tube feeding. Additionally, sevelamer serves as an adjunct in CKD patients to lower serum lipid levels, leveraging its bile acid-binding properties to decrease total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.^[1]^[40] Evidence from randomized controlled trials supports sevelamer's efficacy in lowering serum phosphorus by 1.5 to 2 mg/dL from baseline in dialysis patients, reducing intact parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels through phosphate control, and potentially decreasing cardiovascular events, such as hospitalization and mortality, compared to calcium-based binders.^[41]^[42]

Administration and dosing

Sevelamer is administered orally and must be taken with meals to enhance its phosphate-binding efficacy in the gastrointestinal tract. It is available as sevelamer hydrochloride tablets (400 mg and 800 mg) or sevelamer carbonate tablets (800 mg), as well as sevelamer carbonate powder packets (800 mg and 2.4 g). Tablets should be swallowed whole and not crushed, chewed, or broken, while the powder form is mixed with at least 2 tablespoons (for 800 mg) or 4 tablespoons (for 2.4 g) of water or a cool beverage, stirred vigorously, and consumed within 30 minutes; it should not be mixed with hot liquids or foods.^[43]^[1] Initial dosing for adults who are phosphate binder-naïve is determined by baseline serum phosphorus levels. For sevelamer carbonate, patients with phosphorus greater than 5.5 mg/dL but less than 7.5 mg/dL start at 800 mg (0.8 g) three times daily, while those with 7.5 mg/dL or higher begin at 1,600 mg (1.6 g) three times daily. Similar guidelines apply to sevelamer hydrochloride, with 800 mg or 1,600 mg three times daily based on the same phosphorus thresholds. Dosing equivalence between the hydrochloride and carbonate forms is maintained on a gram-for-gram basis when switching.^[43]^[1] Titration involves increasing or decreasing the dose by 400 to 800 mg (0.4 to 0.8 g) per meal every two weeks until serum phosphorus reaches the target range of 3.5 to 5.5 mg/dL. The average daily dose in clinical use is approximately 7.2 g, with a maximum studied dose of 14 g per day across both formulations. For patients switching from other phosphate binders like calcium acetate, dose equivalents are used, such as one 800 mg tablet of sevelamer equating to one 667 mg tablet of calcium acetate.^[43]^[1] In special populations, no dosage adjustments are required for renal or hepatic impairment, as sevelamer is not systemically absorbed. For pediatric patients aged 6 years and older, initial dosing with sevelamer carbonate is based on body surface area: 800 mg three times daily for those with 0.75 to less than 1.2 m², and 1,600 mg three times daily for 1.2 m² or greater, with titration increments of 400 mg or 800 mg per meal every two weeks for the first six weeks, then every four weeks thereafter. Use in pregnancy requires careful consideration of benefits versus risks, as sevelamer is not absorbed but high-dose animal studies have shown potential fetal bone effects; supplementation with fat-soluble vitamins and folic acid is recommended if needed.^[43]^[1] To improve compliance, strategies include using the powder formulation for easier administration in patients who struggle with the large pill burden of multiple daily tablets, though gastrointestinal discomfort may still impact adherence in some cases.^[1]

Safety profile

Contraindications

Sevelamer is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to sevelamer carbonate, sevelamer hydrochloride, or any of the excipients in the formulation, due to the risk of allergic reactions.^[43]^[44] It is also absolutely contraindicated in cases of bowel obstruction, as the non-absorbable polymer can exacerbate the condition and lead to serious complications such as perforation.^[43]^[44] In certain regions, additional absolute contraindications include hypophosphatemia, where sevelamer could further lower serum phosphate levels, and known active mucosal injury such as necrosis, perforation, ulcerative colitis, or gastrointestinal bleeding, which increase the risk of worsening gastrointestinal damage.^[44] Relative contraindications or conditions requiring caution involve severe gastrointestinal disorders, including dysphagia, swallowing disorders, severe motility issues, or recent major gastrointestinal tract surgery, as these may heighten the risk of obstruction, ulceration, or perforation; discontinuation should be considered in such cases if severe symptoms arise.^[43]^[44] Sevelamer binds to certain co-administered oral medications in the gastrointestinal tract, reducing their bioavailability. Specific examples include antibiotics like ciprofloxacin (dosed at least 2 hours before or 6 hours after sevelamer) and immunosuppressants like cyclosporine and tacrolimus (dosed at least 1 hour before or 3 hours after sevelamer, with monitoring of blood levels).^[44] Regarding special populations, sevelamer's use in pregnancy is limited by insufficient human data, though it is not systemically absorbed; preclinical studies in animals showed reduced fetal ossification at doses equivalent to 3-4 times the maximum human dose, so supplementation with fat-soluble vitamins and folic acid is recommended if used, and it should only be employed when the potential benefit justifies the risk.^[43] For breastfeeding, no excretion into human milk is expected due to its non-absorbable nature, but caution is advised given the lack of well-controlled studies. In pediatrics, sevelamer is not recommended for children under 6 years of age or those with a body surface area less than 0.75 m² due to insufficient safety and efficacy data; it has been studied primarily in patients 6 years and older on dialysis for end-stage renal disease.^[43]

Adverse effects

The most common adverse effects of sevelamer, occurring in more than 10% of patients in clinical trials, are gastrointestinal in nature, including nausea (20%), vomiting (22%), diarrhea (19%), dyspepsia (16%), and constipation (8%). These effects led to treatment discontinuation in 3% to 16% of patients across studies. Overall, gastrointestinal adverse events were reported in approximately 20% to 30% of sevelamer-treated patients compared to lower rates with placebo in randomized trials.^[39] Less common adverse effects, affecting 1% to 10% of patients, include abdominal pain (9%) and flatulence (8%). Rash and pruritus have also been observed in this range during clinical use.^[1] Metabolic acidosis is a less common effect specifically associated with the hydrochloride formulation, occurring in up to 22% of peritoneal dialysis patients and potentially worsening existing acidosis in hemodialysis patients.^[46]^[1] Rare but serious adverse effects, reported in less than 1% of patients, include intestinal obstruction, perforation, or bleeding, particularly in those with predisposing factors such as prior bowel surgery or severe constipation. Hypersensitivity reactions, such as rash or pruritus, have been identified in post-marketing surveillance.^[47] Sevelamer use may also lead to reduced levels of fat-soluble vitamins (D, E, K) and folic acid, with clinical trials showing a statistically significant decrease in 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels (from 39 ng/mL to 34 ng/mL over one year).^[1] Long-term use of sevelamer tablets has been associated with the potential formation of tablet bezoars, as reported in case studies presenting as cecal masses or gastrointestinal obstructions.^[48] Gastrointestinal adverse effects appear to occur at a higher incidence with tablet formulations compared to powder, with studies showing GI event rates of up to 35.9% for tablets versus 12.9% for powder in crossover trials.^[49]

Drug interactions and monitoring

Sevelamer, as a non-systemically absorbed phosphate binder, primarily interacts with co-administered oral medications by binding to them in the gastrointestinal tract, which can reduce their bioavailability and efficacy. Specific examples include antibiotics like ciprofloxacin (dosed at least 2 hours before or 6 hours after sevelamer) and thyroid replacement therapy such as levothyroxine (dosed at least 1 hour before or 3 hours after sevelamer); to mitigate this, monitoring of clinical responses or blood levels is recommended.^[27] Similarly, immunosuppressants with narrow therapeutic indices, including cyclosporine and tacrolimus, require separated dosing (at least 1 hour before or 3 hours after) and monitoring of blood levels or clinical responses.^[1] Sevelamer also impairs the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and folic acid by interfering with bile acid reabsorption, often necessitating supplementation, particularly vitamin D in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients.^[27] Due to its negligible systemic absorption, sevelamer does not interact with cytochrome P450 enzymes or affect the pharmacokinetics of intravenously administered drugs.^[1] Monitoring guidelines for patients on sevelamer emphasize regular assessment of mineral and bone disorder parameters in CKD, as per the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) 2017 clinical practice guideline update. In CKD stage 5 (including dialysis), serum phosphorus and calcium should be measured every 1-3 months to guide dosing and prevent hyper- or hypophosphatemia and hypercalcemia, while parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels are evaluated every 3-6 months to assess secondary hyperparathyroidism.^[5] Bicarbonate levels require periodic monitoring to detect and manage metabolic acidosis, a potential complication exacerbated by sevelamer hydrochloride.^[27] Additionally, lipid profiles and fat-soluble vitamin status should be checked annually, given sevelamer's potential to lower cholesterol and the risk of vitamin deficiencies.^[1] Overdose of sevelamer poses low risk of systemic toxicity because it is not absorbed into the bloodstream; management is supportive, focusing on monitoring electrolytes and gastrointestinal symptoms such as constipation.^[27] Hemodialysis is ineffective for removing sevelamer due to its large molecular size and lack of systemic distribution.^[1] For recent ingestions, gastrointestinal decontamination (e.g., via laxatives) may be considered to reduce binding effects, though empirical data are limited.^[37] A notable toxicity risk arises from medication error due to the visual similarity of sevelamer tablets to metformin, which has resulted in inadvertent metformin intoxication and lactic acidosis in case reports.^[1]

Additional effects and research

Effects on lipids and cardiovascular health

Sevelamer, a non-calcium phosphate binder, exerts beneficial effects on lipid profiles in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), particularly those on dialysis, by binding bile acids in the intestine, which promotes their fecal excretion and upregulates hepatic low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors.^[36] Clinical trials have demonstrated reductions in total cholesterol levels by 15-30% and LDL cholesterol by 15-35%, with no significant impact on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol or triglycerides.^[1]^[50] These lipid-lowering effects are particularly advantageous for CKD patients with dyslipidemia, a common comorbidity that exacerbates cardiovascular risk.^[51] Regarding cardiovascular health, sevelamer has been shown to attenuate vascular calcification compared to calcium-based phosphate binders. In the Calcium Acetate Renagel Evaluation-2 (CARE-2) study, a randomized trial involving hemodialysis patients, sevelamer resulted in similar progression of coronary artery calcification over one year compared to calcium acetate, independent of lipid control.^[52] Similarly, meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials confirm that sevelamer reduces coronary and aortic calcification scores, with mean differences of -102.66 for coronary scores and -1008.73 for aortic scores versus calcium binders.^[53] Observational data suggest a potential mortality benefit, with some studies reporting 15-20% lower all-cause mortality associated with sevelamer use, though randomized trials like the Dialysis Clinical Outcomes Revisited (DCOR) study found no significant difference in all-cause or cardiovascular mortality.^[54]^[55] The carbonate formulation of sevelamer also improves serum bicarbonate levels, mitigating metabolic acidosis in CKD patients, unlike the hydrochloride form which may exacerbate it due to chloride load.^[56] Additionally, sevelamer reduces markers of inflammation, such as C-reactive protein (CRP), by decreasing endotoxemia and systemic inflammation, as evidenced in clinical studies of dialysis patients.^[57] However, evidence on hard cardiovascular endpoints remains mixed, with randomized controlled trials showing inconsistent benefits for events like myocardial infarction or stroke, highlighting the need for further research. A 2025 Cochrane systematic review of 104 trials (13,744 participants) found low-certainty evidence that sevelamer may reduce all-cause mortality compared to calcium-based phosphate binders in people on dialysis (RR 0.54, 95% CI 0.32 to 0.93).^[53]^[58]

Ongoing research and comparisons

Recent comparative studies have demonstrated that sevelamer exhibits superior effects in reducing the progression of vascular calcification compared to calcium acetate in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) stages 3 and 4. For instance, a randomized controlled trial showed that sevelamer carbonate treatment led to favorable reductions in biomarkers of systemic inflammation, vascular calcification, and bone-related inflammation relative to calcium acetate.^[59] In comparisons with lanthanum carbonate, sevelamer demonstrates similar efficacy in controlling hyperphosphatemia but offers better tolerability, with fewer disruptions in biochemical parameters and lower rates of adverse gastrointestinal effects in systematic reviews of randomized trials.^[60] Cost-effectiveness analyses following the introduction of sevelamer generics in 2017 highlight substantial savings, with generic formulations priced approximately 65% lower than branded versions, making sevelamer a more economically viable option for long-term phosphate management in dialysis patients.^[61] Ongoing research includes phase 4 trials evaluating sevelamer's impact on cardiovascular outcomes in non-dialysis-dependent CKD patients, such as a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study assessing its effects on serum calcification propensity in stages 3b/4 CKD.^[62] Pediatric studies focus on long-term safety, with phase 2 trials confirming sevelamer carbonate's efficacy in controlling hyperphosphatemia in children aged 6-18 years on dialysis, showing no new safety signals over 6 months but emphasizing the need for extended monitoring.^[63] Combination therapies with tenapanor, a sodium-hydrogen exchanger 3 inhibitor, are under investigation to enhance adherence; preclinical and phase 3 data indicate that the duo more effectively reduces urinary phosphorus excretion and achieves target serum phosphorus levels than either agent alone in dialysis patients.^[64] Key gaps in knowledge persist regarding sevelamer's long-term effects on bone health, where while short-term use may mitigate hyperparathyroidism, extended data on bone mineral density and fracture risk in CKD remain limited according to systematic reviews.^[8] Its role in peritoneal dialysis versus hemodialysis shows comparable efficacy in phosphate control, but peritoneal dialysis patients may experience slightly higher gastrointestinal tolerability issues, warranting modality-specific trials.^[65] Additionally, the impact of sevelamer's gastrointestinal binding on the gut microbiome is underexplored, with emerging evidence suggesting potential alterations in uremic toxin production but no definitive changes in microbial composition or endotoxin levels in CKD cohorts.^[66]

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SEVELAMER ... SEVELAMER HYDROCHLORIDE · Product SEVELAMER HYDROCHLORIDE. SEVELAMER HYDROCHLORIDE ... ・Molecular weight: 1,600 ~2,400 kDa. ・DMF filed ...
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[PDF] Renvela, INN: sevelamer carbonate - European Medicines Agency
Approval for the tablet form followed on 23. April 2001. The indication was extended in 2007 for use in peritoneal dialysis patients. Sevelamer hydrochloride is ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Effects of phosphate binders on the gastrointestinal absorption of ...
Sevelamer is a non-absorbable anion exchange resin which forms a stable complex with phosphate ions in the gastrointestinal tract, thus decreasing phosphate ...
[28]
[PDF] Phosphate Binders and Non-Phosphate Effects in the ...
In an in vitro study, sevelamer carbonate was shown to bind more phosphate in a solution with a pH of 3, while sevelamer hydrochloride binds more phosphate at ...
[29]
Sevalamer Hydrochloride, Sevelamer Carbonate and Lanthanum ...
Apr 10, 2015 · In fact, sevelamer HCl had a low affinity to catch protons at a pH of 4, whereas its best activity was assessed for pH values of 6–7 18. ...
[30]
Spontaneous carbonate formation in an amorphous, amine-rich ...
Spectral differences among multiple manufacturers/lots of sevelamer HCl were observed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, ...
[31]
Sevelamer: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action - DrugBank
Sevelamer prevents hyperphosphatemia by binding to dietary phosphate in the gut, preventing its absorption and thus decreasing serum parathyroid hormone levels.
[32]
[PDF] Office of Clinical Pharmacology Integrated Review - FDA
May 26, 2016 · Sevelamer carbonate was developed as a pharmaceutical alternative to sevelamer hydrochloride. (Renagel. ®. ). Sevelamer carbonate is an anion ...
[33]
Bile acid binding to sevelamer HCl - PubMed
The favorable bile acid binding characteristics of sevelamer provide a compelling explanation for its ability to lower LDL cholesterol in hemodialysis ...
[34]
[PDF] Sevelamer hydrochloride | Sanofi U.S.
Sevelamer hydrochloride is hydrophilic, but insoluble in water. The structure is represented in Figure 1. The primary amine groups shown in the structure are ...Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[35]
pH and Phosphate Binding - Medscape Education
In contrast, sevelamer has a lower binding affinity that varies depending on the pH. For example, at a pH of 4, the binding affinity is about 10% of that seen ...
[36]
[PDF] KDIGO 2017 Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis ...
May 31, 2017 · exposed to 3 different phosphate binders (sevelamer, lanthanum, or calcium acetate) versus matching placebos, in order to explore effects on ...
[37]
Oral phosphate binders - ScienceDirect.com
May 1, 2009 · It was originally developed to lower plasma lipids and also has this beneficial side effect in CKD patients. Sevelamer is an aluminum and ...Translational Nephrology · Calcium And Magnesium Salts · Sevelamer Hydrochloride And...<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
Sevelamer Versus Calcium-Based Binders for Treatment of ...
Dec 14, 2015 · End of treatment intact parathyroid hormone was significantly higher for sevelamer (MD, 32.9 pg/ml; 95% CI, 0.1 to 65.7 pg/ml). Serum phosphate ...
[39]
Cardiovascular Outcomes of Calcium-Free vs ... - JAMA Network
May 6, 2019 · This observational study examines the use of sevelamer vs calcium acetate for treatment of hyperphosphatemia in patients 65 years or older ...
[40]
[PDF] Renagel - accessdata.fda.gov
This label may not be the latest approved by FDA. For current labeling information, please visit https://www.fda.gov/drugsatfda. Page 2. FULL PRESCRIBING ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] PRODUCT MONOGRAPH PrRENVELA® sevelamer carbonate ...
May 12, 2023 · The recommended dosing to be used when initiating RENVELA in adult patients not using another phosphate binder is outlined below in Table 2.
[42]
Sevelamer-Induced Gastrointestinal Disease in 12 Patients with End ...
Whereas it has shown benefit in decreasing serum phosphorus versus placebo, meta-analyses have also shown increased GI adverse effects such as constipation ( ...
[43]
Sevelamer worsens metabolic acidosis in hemodialysis patients
Sevelamer hydrochloride, a major phosphate binder for patients on maintenance hemodialysis (MHD) is associated with reduced serum bicarbonate concentration.
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[PDF] sevelamer carbonate for oral suspension - accessdata.fda.gov
Sevelamer carbonate powder is available in 0.8 or 2.4 g pouches. Place the sevelamer carbonate powder in a cup and suspend in the amount of water described in ...
[45]
Sevelamer resin bezoar presenting as a cecal mass - PubMed
Sevelamer resin bezoar presenting as a cecal mass. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017 Dec;86(6):1186-1187. doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2017.06.021. Epub 2017 Jul 1. Authors.
[46]
[PDF] Extract from the Clinical Evaluation Report for Sevelamer Carbonate
The proposed indication specifies that sevelamer carbonate is for the management hyperphosphataemia in adult patients with Stage 4 and 5 CKD. The sponsor drew ...
[47]
Simultaneous lowering of serum phosphate and LDL-cholesterol by ...
Sevelamer hydrochloride administration was associated with a 23.0 +/- 3.1% fall in total cholesterol, a 35.9 +/- 3.0% fall in LDL cholesterol, and a 35.2 +/- 5 ...
[48]
Effects of sevelamer and calcium-based phosphate binders on lipid ...
The improvements in multiple surrogate markers of inflammation and lipids in the NIED study make sevelamer a promising therapy for treatment in MHD patients ...
[49]
the Calcium Acetate Renagel Evaluation-2 (CARE-2) study - PubMed
A 1-year randomized trial of calcium acetate versus sevelamer on progression of coronary artery calcification in hemodialysis patients with comparable lipid ...
[50]
A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | PLOS One
Jul 31, 2015 · Sevelamer hydrochloride is used widely, but its impact upon cardiovascular calcification, cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality and ...
[51]
A comparison of sevelamer and calcium-based phosphate binders ...
A large, randomized, multicenter, open-label study, compared effects of sevelamer with calcium-based phosphate binders on mortality and hospitalization in ...Missing: calcification | Show results with:calcification
[52]
Sevelamer Use and Mortality in People with Chronic Kidney ...
Dec 12, 2023 · Rationale and objective: Data suggest that non-calcium-based binders, and specifically sevelamer, may lead to lower rates of death when ...
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risk of metabolic acidosis and clinical implications - PubMed
However, reported drawbacks of this agent are metabolic acidosis, high pill burden, and a relatively low affinity and selectivity for phosphate anions.
[54]
Sevelamer decreases systemic inflammation in parallel to ... - PubMed
Mar 31, 2010 · We conclude that sevelamer treatment leads to a decrease in hsCRP levels, which was accompanied by a parallel decrease in endotoxemia, ...
[55]
Effects of sevelamer carbonate versus calcium acetate on vascular ...
Oct 2, 2021 · SC showed favorable effects on anti-inflammatory and vascular calcification biomarkers compared to CA treatment in patients with CKD stages 3 and 4.
[56]
The efficacy and safety of sevelamer and lanthanum versus calcium ...
Sep 20, 2016 · Lanthanum had less favorable impact on biochemical parameters. Sevelamer hydrochloride and sevelamer carbonate were similar in three studies.
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Managing Oral Phosphate Binder Medication Expenditures Within ...
Dec 29, 2023 · Generics of sevelamer hydrochloride and lanthanum carbonate will become available in 2015 and cost 65% of the price of branded phosphate binders ...
[58]
The effect of sevelamer on serum calcification propensity in patients ...
Nov 13, 2024 · A multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of sevelamer carbonate in participants with stage 3b/4 CKD.
[59]
Efficacy and safety of sevelamer carbonate in hyperphosphatemic ...
This was a phase 2, multicenter study (NCT01574326) with a 2-week, randomized, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose period (FDP) followed by a 6-month, single-arm, ...<|separator|>
[60]
Combination treatment with tenapanor and sevelamer ... - PubMed
Jan 1, 2021 · When administered together, tenapanor and sevelamer decreased urinary phosphorus excretion significantly more than either tenapanor or sevelamer ...
[61]
Sevelamer hydrochloride in peritoneal dialysis patients - PubMed
This uncontrolled cross-sectional study in peritoneal dialysis patients showed that sevelamer hydrochloride treatment allows an adequate serum phosphate level ...
[62]
Gut microbiota; an overlooked effect of phosphate binders
Feb 5, 2020 · This review aims to highlight the impact of oral phosphate binders on the gut microbiome in CKD.<|separator|>
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https://europepmc.org/article/med/28900759
[64]
Meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of sevelamer as ...
Jun 5, 2023 · This study was designed to examine the relative safety and efficacy of sevelamer in the treatment of chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients ...