The Clean Network
The Clean Network was a United States Department of State initiative launched on August 5, 2020, by Secretary of State Mike Pompeo to secure global telecommunications and digital infrastructure against risks from untrusted vendors, particularly Chinese firms such as Huawei and ZTE controlled by the Chinese Communist Party.[1] The program promoted "clean" alternatives across five pillars—clean carriers, clouds, apps, application stores, and data paths—ensuring that 5G networks, cloud services, and mobile applications utilized only providers adhering to democratic standards of privacy, data security, and supply chain integrity, thereby protecting citizens' private information, companies' intellectual property, and national security from surveillance and coercion.[2] Under the direction of Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach, the Clean Network achieved rapid international adoption, with more than 30 countries and territories joining by late 2020, expanding to over 60 nations representing approximately two-thirds of global GDP, alongside commitments from 180 telecommunications operators and 1,800 app developers to exclude high-risk equipment and services.[3][4] This effort marked a pivotal shift in global 5G deployment, countering Chinese market dominance through voluntary alliances among democracies, including 27 of 30 NATO members and 26 of 27 European Union states, while facing criticism from some quarters for potentially fragmenting international digital trade standards.[5][6]
Definition and Objectives
Core Principles and Goals
The Clean Network initiative rests on the principle of constructing telecommunications infrastructure—beginning with 5G and extending to future wireless generations—using only trusted vendors and partners free from influence by authoritarian regimes, specifically excluding entities like Huawei, ZTE, and other Chinese firms subject to Chinese national intelligence laws that mandate cooperation with state security apparatus.[2] This exclusion targets risks of embedded backdoors, data interception, and surveillance, as evidenced by documented instances of Chinese telecom equipment facilitating espionage, such as the 2018 Bloomberg report on alleged supply-chain compromises in server hardware, though contested by affected parties.[7] The framework prioritizes supply chains grounded in democratic norms, contrasting with models reliant on state-subsidized dominance that undermine competitive markets. Central goals encompass safeguarding data privacy, intellectual property, and human rights against long-term threats from digital authoritarianism, where untrusted networks could enable mass surveillance akin to China's social credit system or enable censorship exports.[2] By fostering "clean" carriers, paths, apps, stores, and clouds, the initiative aims to prevent the free world's data flows from routing through PRC-controlled infrastructure, thereby reducing vulnerabilities to cyber threats and economic coercion.[8] Under Secretary Keith Krach emphasized trust principles derived from shared values: integrity, accountability, transparency, reciprocity, and rule of law, which guide partner selection and operational standards to ensure interoperability without compromising security. The program seeks to build a voluntary global coalition of governments, enterprises, and investors committed to these standards, demonstrated by over 30 countries pledging adherence by late 2020, including commitments to remove high-risk vendors from core networks by 2023 in line with risk assessments from bodies like the UK's Huawei Cyber Security Evaluation Centre, which identified unacceptable risks in successor equipment.[2] Ultimately, it counters the Chinese Communist Party's strategy to monopolize 5G infrastructure, promoting diversified, resilient alternatives that align economic incentives with geopolitical security.[7]Security Rationale and Threats Addressed
The Clean Network initiative was established to counter the security risks posed by telecommunications equipment and services from untrusted vendors, particularly those domiciled in China and subject to the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) influence. Under Chinese laws such as the 2017 National Intelligence Law, companies including Huawei and ZTE are obligated to cooperate with state intelligence efforts, potentially enabling unauthorized access to data flows and network infrastructure.[2][9] This legal framework, combined with the CCP's fusion of civilian and military technology development, raises concerns over embedded backdoors that could facilitate espionage or sabotage without detection.[7] Key threats addressed include pervasive surveillance and data exfiltration, as Chinese vendors' integration into 5G core networks could allow interception of sensitive communications, personal data, and intellectual property across borders. U.S. officials cited Huawei's historical involvement in cyber intrusions, such as the 2018 Bloomberg-reported supply chain attacks via manipulated hardware, and documented intellectual property theft cases exceeding $600 billion annually attributed to Chinese state actors by the U.S. Trade Representative.[8][10] The initiative targets these vulnerabilities by promoting trusted alternatives, thereby mitigating risks to national security, economic competitiveness, and democratic alliances reliant on secure digital infrastructure.[2] Beyond espionage, the rationale encompasses potential disruptions to critical infrastructure, where untrusted 5G elements could enable remote manipulation during conflicts or crises, given China's military-civil fusion strategy documented in its 2017 State Council policy. Empirical evidence includes the U.S. government's 2019 designation of Huawei as a national security threat based on intelligence assessments of undisclosed capabilities in deployed equipment, prompting over 30 countries to join the Clean Network by restricting such vendors by 2021.[10] This approach prioritizes supply chain integrity to prevent cascading failures in sectors like healthcare, finance, and defense, where data integrity underpins operational resilience.[7]Historical Background
Pre-2020 Foundations in 5G Security Concerns
The architectural shift toward 5G networks, standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) in June 2018, introduced amplified security vulnerabilities compared to prior generations due to increased software-defined elements, edge computing deployment, and support for billions of Internet of Things devices.[11] These features expanded potential attack surfaces, including remote management capabilities and virtualized core functions, heightening risks of supply chain compromise where untrusted components could embed persistent backdoors or facilitate data exfiltration undetectable by standard cybersecurity measures.[11] A July 2019 Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) report emphasized that 5G's reliance on global supply chains exacerbates threats from malicious hardware insertions, counterfeit parts, or manufacturing flaws introduced by vendors under adversarial influence, potentially undermining network integrity, confidentiality, and availability across critical sectors like energy, finance, and defense.[11] US intelligence assessments identified Chinese telecommunications firms, notably Huawei and ZTE, as primary vectors for these risks, citing their market dominance—Huawei controlled approximately 28% of global mobile infrastructure market share by 2018—and obligations under China's 2017 National Intelligence Law to cooperate with state intelligence efforts, including data provision or technical assistance.[12] In February 2018, directors of the CIA, NSA, FBI, and other intelligence agencies publicly warned US businesses and consumers against procuring Huawei or ZTE equipment, asserting it posed unacceptable national security threats due to potential espionage facilitation.[13] FBI Director Christopher Wray reiterated in January 2019 that Huawei's network access could enable the Chinese government to "maliciously modify or steal information," underscoring causal pathways from vendor compliance with Beijing's directives to systemic vulnerabilities in deployed infrastructure.[14] Allied nations acted on similar intelligence: Australia prohibited Huawei and ZTE from its 5G rollout in August 2018, determining the firms' equipment presented "significant network security risks" incompatible with protecting national telecommunications.[12] New Zealand's signals intelligence agency rejected a Huawei-led 5G consortium bid in November 2018 for equivalent cyber risks.[12] In the US, Section 889 of the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, enacted August 2018, barred federal executive agencies from using or contracting with Huawei or ZTE systems deemed to pose "unacceptable risks" to US networks.[11] The Department of Defense's April 2019 analysis further highlighted 5G supply chain perils from Chinese components, including embedded malware or hardware trojans, as barriers to secure military and civilian adoption.[15] These pre-2020 developments crystallized around empirical evidence of Huawei's opaque practices, including prior intellectual property theft convictions and export control violations, rather than unsubstantiated speculation, laying groundwork for coordinated exclusion of high-risk vendors to preserve democratic alliances' technological sovereignty.[12] By May 2019, the Commerce Department's addition of Huawei to the Entity List restricted its access to US-origin technologies, reflecting determinations that the firm's activities threatened US national security and foreign policy interests amid accelerating 5G deployments.[12]Launch and Early Implementation (2020)
The Clean Network initiative was publicly announced on August 5, 2020, by U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo as an expansion of the 5G Clean Path policy, which had been introduced on April 29, 2020, to secure data flows by excluding untrusted vendors.[2][1] The program outlined five key "clean" elements—Clean Carrier, Clean Store, Clean Apps, Clean Cloud, and Clean Cable—aimed at preventing the use of Chinese telecommunications and technology infrastructure from companies like Huawei, ZTE, and their affiliates in global networks.[1] This approach sought to mitigate risks of espionage and data theft, citing Chinese laws that compel companies to cooperate with state intelligence agencies.[1] Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach led the diplomatic push for adoption, emphasizing partnerships with trusted providers from democratic nations.[16] Early implementation efforts included Krach's European tour from September 21 to October 4, 2020, visiting eight countries, the European Union headquarters, and NATO to advocate for alignment with Clean Network principles.[17] During this period, commitments emerged from nations such as the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Romania, Denmark, Latvia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom to exclude untrusted equipment from their 5G and broader telecom infrastructures.[2][3] By late 2020, initial telco partners included major carriers like Orange in France and Reliance in India, which began aligning with clean standards by phasing out high-risk vendors.[18] These steps represented the first wave of international buy-in, with over a dozen countries and territories pledging adherence, covering significant portions of global GDP and telecom markets.[18] The U.S. also restricted federal use of untrusted apps and cloud services, enforcing domestic implementation alongside global outreach.[2]Expansion and Policy Shifts (2021–2025)
![Edi Rama, Prime Minister of Albania, meeting with Keith Krach][float-right] Following the inauguration of President Joe Biden on January 20, 2021, the Clean Network initiative experienced continued but moderated expansion, with several nations committing to exclude untrusted vendors from their telecommunications infrastructure. In the Western Balkans, Albania, Kosovo, and North Macedonia aligned with Clean Network principles, pledging to avoid Huawei and other high-risk providers in 5G deployments amid concerns over China's Digital Silk Road influence.[19] This built on the rapid growth in 2020, extending the coalition of democracies rejecting Chinese Communist Party-controlled technology. By 2023, adoption had reached approximately 60 countries and 180 telecommunications operators, representing two-thirds of global GDP and significantly limiting market access for entities like Huawei.[20] Policy under the Biden administration shifted from the Trump-era's aggressive, branded diplomatic campaign to a more integrated, multilateral approach emphasizing alliances and supply chain resilience, while retaining key restrictions on untrusted equipment. Although the State Department archived the Clean Network webpage under the prior administration's domain, the Biden team upheld Huawei's placement on the entity list and advanced domestic measures such as the Secure and Trusted Communications Networks Reimbursement Program, which allocated $1.9 billion in June 2022 for removing and replacing prohibited equipment from U.S. networks.[21] Internationally, efforts aligned with frameworks like the EU's 5G Toolbox and Quad partnerships, promoting trusted vendors without the explicit "Clean Network" labeling, as evidenced by ongoing U.S. advocacy for secure 5G in regions like the Western Balkans into 2025.[22] These developments reflected a pragmatic continuity in countering security risks from Chinese technology, despite reduced emphasis on the initiative's nomenclature; empirical outcomes included Huawei's declining share of high-risk 5G contracts globally, dropping from over 30 in 2019 to fewer than 10 by 2023 in aligned markets.[23] By October 2025, the embedded standards had influenced broader digital sovereignty policies, with reports indicating expansion to 68 countries through sustained bans and vendor exclusions.[24]Operational Components
Clean 5G Infrastructure and Core Networks
The Clean 5G component of the Clean Network initiative emphasizes the deployment of 5G radio access networks (RAN) and core infrastructure using vendors free from influence by authoritarian regimes, particularly excluding those with ties to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) such as Huawei and ZTE.[2] This approach aims to mitigate risks of espionage, data manipulation, and network disruption inherent in equipment from untrusted suppliers, drawing on established security frameworks like the Prague 5G Security Proposals from May 2019 and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) trust criteria from May 2020.[2] Core networks, which handle critical functions like authentication, billing, and data routing, are prioritized for trusted architectures to prevent backdoors or embedded vulnerabilities that could enable foreign intelligence operations.[3] Trusted vendors identified under the initiative include Ericsson (Sweden), Nokia (Finland), and Samsung (South Korea), selected for their adherence to democratic governance, transparency in supply chains, and verifiable security practices absent CCP oversight.[2] These providers offer open RAN architectures compatible with multi-vendor ecosystems, facilitating interoperability and reducing single-point failures, as demonstrated in deployments like Singapore's 5G rollout on June 29, 2020, which favored Nokia and Ericsson over Huawei.[3] In contrast, untrusted vendors like Huawei and ZTE are barred due to documented CCP laws mandating cooperation with intelligence agencies, including China's 2017 National Intelligence Law, which compels firms to assist state security efforts without disclosure.[2] Adoption accelerated following the initiative's expansion on August 5, 2020, with over 50 countries committing to clean 5G paths.[2] Notable examples include the United Kingdom's July 14, 2020, decision to purge Huawei from its 5G networks by 2027, citing high-risk profiles; Canada's June 3, 2020, exclusion of Huawei from core infrastructure; and Estonia, Romania, and Latvia's June 25, 2020, pledges for trusted alternatives.[3] Telecom operators like Spain's Telefónica, which declared a clean 5G network on June 24, 2020, and Brazil's Vivo, committed to phasing out untrusted gear, enabling scalable, resilient cores that support edge computing without compromising sovereignty.[3] These shifts contributed to Huawei's market share decline in democratic markets, from leading in over 90 countries pre-2020 to exclusion in key allies by late 2020.[3]Clean Path, Carrier, Store, and Apps
The 5G Clean Path initiative, announced by U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo on April 29, 2020, establishes secure end-to-end communication pathways for 5G networks by excluding transmission, control, computing, or storage equipment from untrusted vendors, primarily those subject to Chinese Communist Party (CCP) influence such as Huawei and ZTE.[2][25] This approach aims to prevent risks like data interception or network disruption, drawing on evidence of Chinese vendors' legal obligations under China's National Intelligence Law to assist state intelligence activities, which could enable unauthorized access to sensitive traffic.[7] Initially applied to all 5G traffic entering and exiting U.S. diplomatic facilities, the Clean Path expanded as a foundational element of the broader Clean Network, promoting trusted alternatives from vendors in democratic nations to maintain data integrity across international links.[3] Clean Carrier extends these protections to mobile network operators, requiring carriers to avoid untrusted Chinese telecommunications equipment and apps that could compromise user data or enable surveillance.[1] Launched as part of the August 5, 2020, Clean Network expansion, it targets operators serving over a billion users globally by encouraging partnerships with vetted infrastructure, citing documented instances of Huawei's involvement in espionage, such as the 2018 conviction of a Huawei CFO-related entity for sanctions violations and broader reports of backdoor access in carrier networks.[2] U.S. Under Secretary Keith Krach emphasized that Clean Carriers would prioritize democratic providers, leading to commitments from operators in regions like Europe and the Indo-Pacific to phase out high-risk vendors by 2023–2025 timelines in aligned policies.[8] Clean Store focuses on app stores operated by trusted entities that exclude applications from untrusted PRC developers, particularly those linked to the CCP or military, to mitigate malware distribution and data exfiltration risks.[26] Announced alongside Clean Carrier on August 5, 2020, it responds to threats like PRC apps harvesting user data without consent, as evidenced by U.S. government bans on apps such as TikTok and WeChat in 2020 for national security reasons due to their ties to ByteDance and Tencent, respectively, which face CCP oversight.[1] Major stores like Google Play and Apple App Store were urged to implement rigorous vetting, resulting in removals of thousands of risky apps by 2021.[7] Clean Apps complements Clean Store by promoting applications developed outside untrusted ecosystems, free from embedded spyware or CCP-mandated censorship, ensuring they adhere to privacy standards without backchannels to authoritarian regimes.[2] This pillar, also unveiled August 5, 2020, addresses empirical cases of app-based threats, including PRC-linked software used for influence operations, as detailed in U.S. intelligence assessments of over 200 high-risk apps by 2020.[26] Adoption involved developer certifications and international alignments, fostering a market for secure apps from allies, with early endorsements from tech firms in Japan and Australia by late 2020.[8]Clean Cloud, Cable, and Telcos
The Clean Cloud component of the Clean Network initiative aims to protect sensitive personal data and intellectual property from storage on cloud systems vulnerable to access by foreign adversaries, specifically targeting providers linked to the People's Republic of China such as Alibaba, Baidu, and Tencent.[1] Announced on August 5, 2020, as part of the program's expansion, it encourages the use of trusted cloud providers to mitigate risks of data exfiltration or surveillance through unsecure platforms.[1] Companies like Cisco have aligned with the initiative by offering Clean Network-compatible cloud solutions.[2] Clean Cable focuses on securing undersea submarine cables that form the backbone of global internet connectivity, ensuring they are not owned, operated, or compromised by untrusted vendors capable of intelligence gathering.[1] Introduced alongside Clean Cloud in the August 5, 2020, announcement, this effort addresses vulnerabilities in the international cable network, where China-linked entities have sought increasing involvement in construction and operation.[1] It promotes partnerships with reliable international actors to maintain secure transoceanic data transmission routes.[1] Clean Telcos designates telecommunications companies worldwide that commit to deploying only trusted vendors for their infrastructure, thereby excluding high-risk suppliers like Huawei and ZTE.[2] Under Secretary Keith Krach highlighted this on June 25, 2020, emphasizing the role of major global telcos in building secure networks.[2] By December 17, 2020, the initiative had secured commitments from 180 Clean Telcos across 53 countries and territories, representing a significant portion of global mobile users and advancing network resilience against espionage threats.[3] Subsequent reports indicate growth to over 200 Clean Telcos, covering approximately 1.9 billion subscribers.[27]Trust Standards and Frameworks
The Trust Doctrine and Digital Standards
The Trust Doctrine, formulated by Keith Krach during his tenure as U.S. Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment from 2019 to 2021, establishes trust as the core principle for secure and prosperous global economic and technological partnerships. It prioritizes democratic values such as integrity, accountability, transparency, and reciprocity, while mandating respect for the rule of law, human rights, property rights, privacy, sovereignty, and environmental stewardship.[28][29] This framework contrasts sharply with authoritarian strategies, exemplified by the Chinese Communist Party's reliance on coercion, concealment, co-option, and control to dominate sectors like 5G telecommunications.[28] In application to digital standards, the Trust Doctrine sets benchmarks for evaluating technology vendors and infrastructure components within initiatives like the Clean Network. Trusted providers are required to operate without ties to entities subject to authoritarian influence, ensuring supply chain transparency to mitigate risks of embedded backdoors or data exfiltration.[29] For instance, it advocates excluding vendors like Huawei and ZTE, which U.S. intelligence assessments have linked to potential espionage due to mandatory cooperation with Chinese national security laws.[2] Digital standards under this doctrine emphasize interoperability, open architectures, and compliance with international norms for cybersecurity, such as those outlined in OECD privacy guidelines and ITU telecommunications recommendations, to foster resilient networks resistant to state-sponsored threats.[29] The doctrine's implementation promotes verifiable adherence through multi-stakeholder verification, including government certifications, independent audits, and alliances among democracies. By August 2020, it underpinned the Clean Network's rapid expansion to over 30 countries committing to trusted 5G vendors, representing a significant market exclusion of untrusted Chinese equipment estimated at $100 billion in lost opportunities for Huawei.[29] Critics from Chinese state media have dismissed these standards as protectionist, but proponents cite empirical evidence of espionage incidents, including the 2018 Bloomberg report on Chinese supply chain compromises, to justify the risk-based approach.[29] Ongoing efforts, such as the Krach Institute for Tech Diplomacy's advocacy, seek to codify these principles into global frameworks, ensuring digital ecosystems prioritize security over cost in vendor selection.[30]Integration with Global Proposals and Toolboxes
The Clean Network initiative was explicitly designed for compatibility with international 5G security frameworks, drawing on established digital trust standards to promote interoperability and collective risk mitigation. It operationalized principles from multi-stakeholder efforts, such as those outlined by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), which emphasize vendor transparency, supply chain integrity, and protection against espionage risks in telecommunications infrastructure.[31][2] A primary point of alignment occurred with the European Union's 5G Toolbox, a coordinated set of risk management measures adopted by EU member states on January 29, 2020, following a 2019 risk assessment that identified threats from high-risk vendors. On October 17, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and European Commissioner for Internal Market Thierry Breton released a joint statement affirming the synergies between the Clean Network and the EU Toolbox, stating that the latter "fits the criteria for trusted, clean infrastructure" by safeguarding data privacy, intellectual property, and national security against untrusted actors.[32] This integration facilitated transatlantic cooperation, with the Toolbox's emphasis on diversified supply chains and vendor audits complementing the Clean Network's exclusion of entities like Huawei and ZTE from core networks.[33] The Clean Network also incorporated elements from the Prague Proposals, issued after the May 2019 Prague 5G Security Conference hosted by the Czech Republic, which called for national strategies to exclude high-risk vendors, enhance cybersecurity standards, and foster international collaboration on 5G deployment. These proposals provided a foundational blueprint for the Clean Network's vendor trust criteria, influencing its expansion to over 50 countries by late 2020 and enabling harmonized policies that avoided fragmented "splinternets."[34] By aligning with such toolkits, the initiative aimed to set de facto global norms without mandating new standards, prioritizing empirical risk assessments over politically driven vendor preferences.[2]International Collaborations
Engagements with the European Union and NATO
On October 17, 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State Keith Krach and European Commission Internal Market Commissioner Thierry Breton issued a joint statement integrating the EU's 5G Toolbox into The Clean Network framework, emphasizing transatlantic cooperation to secure telecommunications infrastructure against untrusted vendors such as Huawei and ZTE.[32][17] This alignment built on the EU's January 2020 5G Toolbox recommendations, which called for risk assessments and mitigation measures for high-risk suppliers, by promoting trusted vendors and clean paths for data flows to protect privacy, intellectual property, and national security.[2] The partnership facilitated commitments from 26 of the 27 EU member states to The Clean Network principles, excluding Hungary, which maintained ties with Chinese vendors.[18] Specific bilateral engagements reinforced this cooperation; for instance, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—EU and NATO members—signed U.S.-led declarations on 5G security in 2019 and 2020, pledging to exclude untrusted equipment from core networks.[35] Despite these advances, implementation varied, with some EU countries like Germany and France imposing partial restrictions on Huawei rather than outright bans, reflecting differing assessments of supply chain risks.[36] Regarding NATO, The Clean Network sought to synchronize alliance-wide 5G security to prevent vulnerabilities in joint operations, as articulated in a U.S. fact sheet on October 17, 2020, which stressed that "the Alliance is only as strong as its weakest link" and advocated for a non-fractured Clean NATO Network.[17] By October 23, 2020, announcements confirmed NATO's alignment with Clean Network standards for 5G, aiming to safeguard against interference from authoritarian actors.[37] Krach later declared that "NATO is now 'in sync' on 5G security," attributing this to diplomatic efforts that encouraged allies to prioritize secure infrastructure over cost considerations.[18] However, as of 2020, the United States remained the only NATO member to have fully restricted Chinese vendors from its 5G networks, highlighting ongoing challenges in uniform adoption across the alliance.[38]Initiatives in the Three Seas and Beyond
The Three Seas Initiative, a cooperation forum of twelve EU member states spanning the Baltic, Black, and Adriatic Seas, endorsed the Clean Network during its virtual summit hosted by Estonia on October 21, 2020.[3] This announcement reflected the initiative's emphasis on enhancing regional digital infrastructure resilience against risks from untrusted telecommunications vendors.[39] U.S. Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach attended the summit to advance Clean Network adoption, highlighting alignment with shared values of transparency and free-market principles in technology deployment.[40] The United States pledged up to $1 billion in financing for Three Seas infrastructure projects, including digital connectivity, with the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation committing $300 million specifically to the Three Seas Investment Fund.[41] [42] Eleven of the twelve Three Seas countries joined the Clean Network, committing to exclude high-risk providers such as Huawei and ZTE from core 5G infrastructure.[2] Specific adherents included Estonia (October 2019), Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Romania, Bulgaria, Estonia, and others, with bans on untrusted vendors enacted through national legislation or procurement policies.[3] [35] Hungary remained the outlier, permitting Huawei participation in its networks despite regional trends.[43] These commitments advanced secure cross-border data flows and interoperability within the region, supporting the initiative's North-South connectivity goals. Beyond the core Three Seas area, Clean Network outreach extended to Mediterranean and Balkan neighbors. In Cyprus, on October 20, 2020, the U.S. and Cyprus signed a Memorandum of Understanding on science and technology cooperation, aligning the island nation with Clean Network standards for 5G security and the EU Toolbox framework.[44] [45] Krach's visit facilitated this agreement, emphasizing protection of sensitive data from authoritarian surveillance risks.[40] In the Western Balkans, Albania committed to Clean Network principles in 2020, with Prime Minister Edi Rama pledging exclusion of Huawei from 5G rollout; similar agreements were secured with North Macedonia, Kosovo, and Bulgaria.[46] [18] Georgia also joined via a 2020 MOU, extending secure network standards to the Caucasus.[18] These expansions fostered a broader coalition of trusted partners, countering Chinese Digital Silk Road influence in adjacent regions.[19]Diplomatic Outreach to Latin America and Other Regions
In November 2020, U.S. Under Secretary of State for Economic Growth, Energy, and the Environment Keith Krach conducted a diplomatic tour of Latin America to advance the Clean Network initiative, visiting Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Panama, and the Dominican Republic.[18] The delegation engaged with government officials and business leaders to highlight risks associated with Chinese telecommunications vendors like Huawei and ZTE, while promoting trusted alternatives for 5G infrastructure and data security.[47] This outreach emphasized private sector-led development and innovation investment to counterbalance Chinese influence in regional telecom markets.[2] Brazil emerged as the first Latin American participant, joining the Clean Network as its 50th member on November 10, 2020, following commitments to exclude untrusted vendors from sensitive networks.[3] Ecuador followed shortly thereafter, endorsing the initiative's principles and becoming the 51st member during the same tour.[33] Jamaica and the Dominican Republic also acceded soon after, expanding the alliance's footprint in the Caribbean.[48] These accessions represented a strategic push to build a coalition of democracies prioritizing network trustworthiness over cost-driven selections from high-risk providers.[2] Separate diplomatic efforts targeted Mexico, where U.S. Ambassador Christopher Landau publicly urged participation in November 2020, framing the Clean Network as essential for protecting national data sovereignty amid Huawei's market penetration.[49] Although Mexico did not formally join, the advocacy underscored broader U.S. aims to insulate Latin American telecom sectors from potential espionage and supply-chain vulnerabilities linked to Chinese firms.[50] Outreach extended to other regions through analogous engagements, though Latin America marked a pivotal focus for countering the Digital Silk Road's expansion in the Western Hemisphere.[51] Subsequent evaluations noted mixed adherence, with some signatories like Spain's Telefónica retaining Huawei equipment despite initial pledges, highlighting challenges in enforcing Clean Network standards amid economic pressures.[52] Nonetheless, the diplomatic push facilitated early commitments from over four Latin American and Caribbean nations, contributing to the initiative's rapid growth to represent two-thirds of global GDP within months of launch.[18]Impacts and Effectiveness
Restrictions on Huawei, ZTE, and Chinese Vendors
The Clean Network initiative, launched by the U.S. Department of State in August 2020, explicitly targeted high-risk vendors such as Huawei Technologies and ZTE Corporation by advocating for their exclusion from telecommunications infrastructure, including 5G networks, to mitigate national security threats posed by potential espionage, data interception, and supply chain vulnerabilities linked to the Chinese Communist Party's influence over these firms.[2] The program built on prior U.S. measures, including Huawei's designation on the Department of Commerce's Entity List in May 2019, which restricted U.S. exports of technology to the company, and prohibitions under the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 that barred federal agencies from procuring equipment from Huawei and ZTE.[53] These restrictions were justified by intelligence assessments citing risks of embedded backdoors and mandatory cooperation with Chinese intelligence under national laws like the 2017 National Intelligence Law.[12] Allied nations aligned with Clean Network principles implemented similar bans, significantly curtailing market access for these vendors. Australia prohibited Huawei and ZTE from supplying 5G equipment in August 2018, citing cybersecurity risks, a move predating but reinforced by the initiative.[12] The United Kingdom ordered the removal of Huawei equipment from 5G networks by 2027 in July 2020, following a government review that highlighted unacceptable risks to national security.[54] Japan effectively barred Huawei and ZTE from core 5G infrastructure in December 2018 through procurement guidelines favoring trusted vendors.[12] In Europe, eleven EU member states, including Sweden (ban enacted November 2020 and upheld in June 2023), Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria, invoked the EU's 5G Toolbox to restrict or ban high-risk vendors by mid-2024, with Germany mandating a phase-out of Huawei and ZTE components from 5G core networks by end-2026 and full critical components by 2029.[55][56][54]| Country/Region | Key Restriction Details | Date Implemented |
|---|---|---|
| United States | Entity List addition for Huawei; FCC designation as national security threats; ban on federal procurement and subsidies for equipment. | May 2019 (Entity List); Ongoing via annual NDAAs.[53] |
| Australia | Ban on 5G supply from Huawei and ZTE. | August 2018.[12] |
| United Kingdom | Purge of Huawei from 5G networks by 2027; no new purchases after December 2020. | July 2020.[54] |
| Japan | Guidelines excluding untrusted vendors from core 5G. | December 2018.[12] |
| Germany | Phase-out from 5G core by 2026; critical components by 2029. | July 2024.[56] |
| Sweden | Ban on Huawei/ZTE in 5G spectrum auctions. | November 2020 (upheld June 2023).[54] |