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Toronto Alexithymia Scale

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) is a 20-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure alexithymia, a personality construct defined by difficulties in identifying, describing, and regulating emotions, alongside a cognitive style focused on external rather than internal emotional experiences.^[1] Developed as a standardized tool for clinical and research purposes, it uses a 5-point Likert scale (from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree") to assess these dimensions, with higher scores indicating greater levels of alexithymia.^[1] The TAS-20 originated from earlier iterations of the scale in the late 1980s and early 1990s, refined by psychologists R. Michael Bagby, James D. A. Parker, and Graeme J. Taylor to address limitations in item composition and factorial structure.^[1] Published in 1994, it was constructed through factor analysis of responses from large samples of undergraduates and psychiatric patients, resulting in three primary factors: Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF) (7 items, focusing on challenges recognizing emotional states), Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF) (5 items, assessing verbal expression of emotions), and Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT) (8 items, measuring a preference for concrete, objective thinking over fantasy or introspection).^[1] Items 4, 5, 10, 18, and 19 are reverse-scored to account for positively worded statements.^[1] Scoring involves summing the items after reverse-scoring, yielding a total score from 20 to 100, where scores below 52 indicate an absence of alexithymia, 52–60 suggest borderline traits, and 61 or above denote clinically significant alexithymia; subscale scores provide further insight into specific facets.^[2] The TAS-20 has demonstrated robust psychometric properties, including high internal consistency (Cronbach's α ≈ 0.80–0.85 for the total scale), good test-retest reliability (r ≈ 0.75–0.80 over 1–5 weeks), and convergent validity with related constructs like emotional intelligence deficits, while showing discriminant validity from measures of depression and anxiety.^[1]^[2] Since its inception, the TAS-20 has become the most widely used instrument for assessing alexithymia, translated into over 30 languages and cited in more than 8,000 publications (as of 2025), facilitating research in psychosomatic medicine, psychiatry, and personality psychology.^[2] It is commonly applied in clinical settings to identify emotional processing impairments associated with conditions such as depression, eating disorders, autism spectrum disorders, and somatic symptom disorders, aiding in therapy planning and outcome prediction, though limitations include potential cultural biases in EOT items and self-report subjectivity.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) is a 20-item self-report questionnaire designed to assess the stable personality trait of alexithymia, defined as difficulties in identifying feelings and distinguishing them from bodily sensations, challenges in describing emotions to others, and a cognitive style focused on externally oriented thinking.^[3] Developed to provide a reliable measure of this construct, the TAS-20 operationalizes alexithymia as a dimensional trait rather than a categorical disorder, facilitating its evaluation across diverse populations. The primary purpose of the TAS-20 is to quantify alexithymia levels for both research and clinical applications, enabling the identification of emotional processing deficits that may contribute to vulnerability for psychiatric and psychosomatic conditions. In clinical settings, it serves as a screening tool to inform treatment planning, such as in psychotherapy where emotional awareness is targeted, while in research, it supports investigations into alexithymia's associations with disorders like depression and PTSD. The scale is self-administered and employs a 5-point Likert response format (ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree"), yielding a total score from 20 to 100, where higher scores reflect greater alexithymia severity.^[3] Interpretive cutoffs for the TAS-20 are as follows: scores of 51 or less indicate non-alexithymia, 52 to 60 suggest possible (or borderline) alexithymia, and 61 or higher denote alexithymia.^[4] These thresholds help categorize individuals while acknowledging the trait's continuum nature. Additionally, the TAS-20 aids in distinguishing alexithymia from overlapping constructs like depression and anxiety, as its externally oriented thinking subscale shows minimal correlation with negative affect, supporting its discriminant validity.

Background on Alexithymia

Alexithymia is a personality trait characterized by difficulties in recognizing and articulating one's own emotions, often manifesting as impaired emotional awareness.^[5] It encompasses three primary dimensions: difficulty identifying feelings (DIF), which involves challenges in distinguishing emotional states from physical sensations; difficulty describing feelings (DDF), reflecting struggles in verbalizing emotions; and externally oriented thinking (EOT), marked by a focus on external events over internal experiences, accompanied by reduced fantasy and introspective tendencies.^[5] This construct highlights a cognitive-affective deficit rather than an absence of emotions, where individuals may experience feelings but lack the tools to process or express them effectively.^[6] The term "alexithymia," derived from Greek roots meaning "no words for emotions," was coined in 1972 by psychiatrist Peter Sifneos to describe characteristics observed in patients with psychosomatic disorders, such as an impoverished fantasy life and concrete, externally focused thought patterns.^[7] Initially linked to physical illnesses without clear psychological explanations, the concept evolved to recognize alexithymia as a broader trait influencing emotional regulation across various contexts.^[7] Prevalence estimates indicate that approximately 10% of the general population exhibits clinically significant levels of alexithymia, with higher rates in clinical populations, such as up to 50% in individuals with autism spectrum disorder and elevated levels in those with eating disorders.^[8]^[9]^[10] Theoretical models of alexithymia suggest neurological underpinnings, particularly involving the right hemisphere of the brain, which is implicated in emotional processing and prosodic recognition; deficits here may contribute to the trait's core features.^[11] Additionally, alexithymia is associated with increased vulnerability to mental health outcomes, including heightened risks for anxiety and depression due to unprocessed emotional distress, as well as somatic symptom disorders where emotional experiences somatize into physical complaints.^[12]^[13] These links underscore alexithymia's role in exacerbating interpersonal and psychological difficulties without constituting a disorder itself.^[14] Unlike transient emotional numbing from stress or trauma, alexithymia is viewed as a stable, enduring personality trait that persists across situations and is not classified as a mental disorder in diagnostic manuals.^[14] This stability distinguishes it from state-dependent emotional impairments, emphasizing its origins in longstanding cognitive styles rather than acute conditions.^[14]

Development

Historical Context

The concept of alexithymia emerged from clinical observations in the early 1970s, when psychiatrist Peter E. Sifneos noted that certain psychotherapy patients with psychosomatic disorders displayed marked difficulties in recognizing, describing, and expressing their emotions, often confusing feelings with physical sensations. Sifneos formally introduced the term "alexithymia" in 1973, deriving it from Greek roots meaning "no words for emotions," to characterize this constellation of traits in his seminal paper on psychosomatic patients. Early studies, including those by Sifneos and colleagues, relied on qualitative assessments during therapy sessions, revealing alexithymia's potential role in hindering emotional processing and contributing to somatic symptomology.^[7] By the 1980s, the limitations of these observational and interview-based methods—such as their subjectivity, lack of standardization, and impracticality for large-scale or cross-cultural research—prompted the need for quantifiable self-report instruments to empirically investigate alexithymia as a stable personality dimension.^[7] In response, R. Michael Bagby, James D.A. Parker, and Graeme J. Taylor, affiliated with the University of Toronto, initiated the development of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) in the mid-1980s. The initial 26-item version (TAS-26) was constructed through clinical interviews with psychosomatic patients and factor analysis of candidate items, marking the first psychometrically oriented self-report measure for the construct.^[15] The primary motivations for the TAS were to overcome the inefficiencies of prior tools like the Beth Israel Questionnaire, which required extensive clinician training, and to enable reliable assessment in diverse populations for advancing research on alexithymia's links to mental health outcomes.^[7] Key milestones followed in the early 1990s with refinements, culminating in the widely adopted 20-item version (TAS-20) published in 1994, which facilitated its integration into psychosomatic medicine. By the mid-1990s, the TAS had become a cornerstone in empirical studies, with alexithymia increasingly recognized in DSM-related contexts as a trait implicated in personality disorders, especially those in Clusters B and C.^[16]

Versions and Revisions

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) was initially developed as a 26-item self-report measure in 1985 to assess alexithymia, featuring four factors intended to capture difficulties in identifying and describing emotions, as well as externally oriented thinking.^[17] However, psychometric evaluations revealed issues such as low internal consistency for certain factors and an unstable factor structure, particularly with the externally oriented thinking dimension splitting into two subscales, prompting a revision to improve reliability and theoretical alignment.^[18] In 1994, the scale was revised to the 20-item version (TAS-20) by removing six items that demonstrated poor item-total correlations or loaded ambiguously on factors, based on a combination of expert content ratings for theoretical relevance and empirical factor analyses across two independent samples of undergraduate and psychiatric patients.^[19] This revision, published in the Journal of Psychosomatic Research, resulted in a more parsimonious three-factor structure—difficulty identifying feelings (DIF), difficulty describing feelings (DDF), and externally oriented thinking (EOT)—that better reflected the core alexithymia construct and exhibited improved internal consistency.^[18] Subsequent adaptations expanded the TAS-20's utility beyond self-report. In 2006, the Toronto Structured Interview for Alexithymia (TSIA), a clinician-administered observer-rated measure with 20 items assessing the same three factors plus additional dimensions like imaginal processes and affective responding, was developed by Bagby, Taylor, and Parker to complement self-report assessments and reduce biases in populations with limited insight.^[20] For younger populations, the Alexithymia Questionnaire for Children (AQC), a 20-item self-report scale adapted from the TAS-20 framework, was developed in 2006 for children aged 9-15, maintaining the three-factor structure but with simplified language and validated through factorial analysis in school samples.^[21] A separate informant-rated measure, the 33-item Observer Alexithymia Scale (OAS), was introduced in 2000 by Haviland, Warren, and Riggs, correlating moderately with TAS-20 scores while providing third-party perspectives on alexithymia traits.^[22] Since the establishment of the TAS-20 core in 1994, no major structural revisions have occurred, but minor cross-cultural adaptations have been validated in the 2010s to ensure applicability across diverse groups; for instance, a revised Spanish version demonstrated strong factorial invariance in clinical and non-clinical samples, while a Chinese adaptation confirmed the three-factor model with high reliability in adolescent and adult cohorts. Ongoing refinements target specific populations, such as a 2021 psychometric investigation in autistic adults that proposed an 8-item general alexithymia factor score derived from the TAS-20 to enhance measurement precision in neurodiverse contexts, though the full TAS-20 remains the standard.^[23]

Structure and Administration

Item Composition and Factors

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) is composed of 20 self-report items designed to assess the core features of alexithymia through a structured questionnaire format. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), allowing respondents to indicate the degree to which they endorse statements about their emotional experiences.^[19] To mitigate potential response biases such as acquiescence, five items are reverse-scored prior to analysis; these include items 4, 5, 10, 18, and 19, which are positively worded to reflect lower levels of alexithymia when endorsed highly.^[24] The scale's items are organized into a three-factor model that captures the primary dimensions of alexithymia as conceptualized in its development. The Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF) factor comprises 7 items focusing on challenges in recognizing and distinguishing emotions from physical sensations, such as the example item: "I am often confused about what emotion I am feeling."^[25] The Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF) factor includes 5 items addressing verbal expression of emotions, exemplified by: "It is difficult for me to find the right words for my feelings."^[25] The Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT) factor consists of 8 items evaluating a cognitive style preoccupied with external events over internal emotional processing, such as: "I prefer talking about everyday, practical matters rather than my personal feelings."^[26] Administration of the TAS-20 is straightforward and self-guided, typically requiring 5 minutes to complete with no strict time limit imposed. It is intended for adults aged 18 and older, though adaptations have been explored for younger populations in research contexts.^[27]

Scoring and Interpretation

The scoring of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) involves rating each of the 20 items on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Five items (4, 5, 10, 18, and 19) require reverse scoring prior to summation, where responses are inverted (e.g., 1 becomes 5, 2 becomes 4). The total score is calculated by summing all 20 items after reversal, yielding a range of 20 to 100, with higher scores indicating greater alexithymia. Subscale scores are computed separately for the three factors: Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF; items 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 13, 14; range 7–35), Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF; items 2, 4, 11, 12, 17; range 5–25), and Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT; items 5, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20; range 8–40).^[1] Cutoff criteria for the total score classify individuals as follows: scores of 51 or below indicate no alexithymia, 52–60 suggest possible (or borderline) alexithymia, and 61 or above indicate alexithymia. Subscale thresholds provide additional insight into specific impairments; subscale scores provide further insight into specific facets. These thresholds are derived from normative data and are used to identify trait-like features rather than state-dependent changes.^[1] Interpretation of TAS-20 scores focuses on the total as a measure of overall alexithymia severity, with elevated totals suggesting a stable personality trait characterized by reduced emotional awareness and expression. High scores should be contextualized with comorbid conditions, such as depression or anxiety, which may inflate results, and the scale is not intended as a standalone diagnostic tool but as a screening aid in clinical or research settings. Subscale profiles can pinpoint dominant facets, such as predominant DIF in populations with somatic symptom disorders.^[1]

Psychometric Properties

Reliability

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) exhibits strong internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the total score typically ranging from 0.80 to 0.85 across diverse samples.^[2] For the subscales, the Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF) and Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF) factors generally show alphas of 0.70 to 0.80, indicating acceptable to good reliability, while the Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT) subscale yields lower values, often between 0.60 and 0.70, reflecting more modest consistency.^[28] These patterns hold in the original validation study and subsequent cross-cultural evaluations, where the total scale alpha was 0.81 in the undergraduate sample (N=360) and 0.82 in the psychiatric patient sample (N=344).^[1] Test-retest reliability of the TAS-20 is robust, with Pearson correlation coefficients or intraclass correlation coefficients ranging from 0.75 to 0.85 over short intervals of 2 to 4 weeks.^[1]^[2] Stability remains evident over longer periods, such as 6 months, where coefficients approximate 0.70 for the total score, supporting the scale's reproducibility in longitudinal assessments.^[28] Subscale reliabilities mirror this, though DDF occasionally shows slightly lower stability (around 0.65) in some cohorts.^[29] Item-total correlations for the TAS-20 items are generally above 0.30, contributing to the scale's homogeneity and underscoring its unidimensional yet multifaceted measurement of alexithymia.^[28] Meta-analytic reviews of over 60 studies confirm these correlations hold in diverse populations, with mean values supporting consistent item performance. Reliability estimates for the TAS-20 tend to be higher in clinical populations, such as psychiatric patients, compared to non-clinical groups, likely due to greater variability in alexithymia expression among those with mental health conditions.^[28] The scale demonstrates consistency across genders, with minimal differences in alpha coefficients between males and females.^[28] However, cultural factors influence reliability, particularly for the EOT subscale, which shows reduced alphas in non-Western samples owing to potential response biases or translation issues.^[28]

Validity and Factor Structure

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) demonstrates strong construct validity through convergent correlations with other established alexithymia measures, such as the Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire (BVAQ), where total scores typically show moderate to strong positive associations (r = 0.50–0.70) across multiple studies.^[30]^[31] This convergence supports the TAS-20's ability to capture core alexithymic features like difficulties in identifying and describing feelings. In contrast, the scale exhibits divergent validity with personality traits unrelated to alexithymia, such as openness to experience from the NEO Personality Inventory, yielding low negative correlations (r ≈ -0.20 to -0.30), indicating it does not merely reflect general personality variance.^[32]^[33] Criterion validity is evidenced by the TAS-20's predictive power for related clinical outcomes, including somatization, where total scores correlate moderately with somatic symptom reporting on scales like the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (r ≈ 0.23–0.35), particularly driven by the Difficulty Identifying Feelings subscale.^[34] Concurrent validity is further supported by moderate positive correlations with observer-rated alexithymia measures, such as the modified Beth Israel Questionnaire (r = 0.53) and the Observer Alexithymia Scale (r ≈ 0.50), confirming alignment between self-report and external assessments.^[35]^[36] The factor structure of the TAS-20 has been robustly confirmed as a three-factor model—Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF), Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF), and Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT)—through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in numerous studies. A meta-analytic CFA synthesizing 88 samples from 62 studies (N = 69,722) reported excellent model fit (CFI = 0.936, RMSEA = 0.027, SRMR = 0.041), outperforming alternative models.^[37] However, debate persists regarding the EOT factor, which exhibits lower reliability (ω = 0.62) and potential method effects from negatively keyed items, leading some researchers to question its distinctiveness from the affective components (DIF and DDF).^[37] Cross-validation of the TAS-20's structure and validity has been established in over 50 studies across diverse populations, with consistent replication of the three-factor model and its associations.^[37]^[38] The scale also shows incremental validity beyond general psychological distress measures, such as the Beck Depression Inventory, by uniquely predicting alexithymia-specific outcomes like emotional processing deficits after controlling for negative affect (ΔR² ≈ 0.05–0.10 in regression models).^[39]^[25]

Applications

Clinical Uses

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) is widely employed as a screening tool in psychiatric practice to identify alexithymia among patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), eating disorders, and chronic pain, facilitating the customization of emotion-focused therapies that address deficits in emotional identification and expression. In PTSD, the TAS-20 reveals high levels of alexithymia that can impede engagement in trauma processing, prompting clinicians to integrate adjunctive strategies like emotion regulation training to enhance treatment efficacy.^[40]^[41] For eating disorders, elevated TAS-20 scores signal underlying emotional processing challenges that contribute to symptom maintenance, enabling therapists to prioritize interventions such as mindfulness-based approaches to improve emotional awareness and recovery outcomes.^[42]^[43] In chronic pain contexts, the scale assesses alexithymia's role in amplifying pain experience and emotional distress, guiding the incorporation of psychotherapeutic elements like Affect School programs to target these traits directly.^[44]^[45] Particularly in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the TAS-20 demonstrates substantial clinical value due to alexithymia's prevalence exceeding 50% in this population, which often exacerbates social and emotional difficulties; assessments using the scale inform targeted interventions, including mentalization-based therapy, to foster better recognition of internal states and interpersonal understanding.^[46]^[47] Clinically, the TAS-20 is integrated into practice through pre- and post-treatment evaluations to quantify changes in alexithymic features over the course of therapy, frequently supplemented by structured interviews such as the Toronto Structured Interview for Alexithymia (TSIA) for a multifaceted diagnostic profile that captures both self-reported and observer-rated aspects.^[48]^[49] Evidence from 2010s clinical trials underscores its utility, with studies showing meaningful TAS-20 score reductions following cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in diverse patient groups, such as a 2011 multicomponent intervention yielding a moderate effect size (Cohen's d = 0.60) and a 2017 CBT program for PTSD-related issues achieving significant decreases (p < 0.01).^[48]

Research Applications

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) has been instrumental in epidemiological research, enabling the assessment of alexithymia prevalence across large community cohorts. Studies using the TAS-20 report rates of 10-15% in general populations, with variations by gender and demographics; for instance, a Finnish community survey found 9.4% prevalence among males and 5.2% among females, often associated with lower socioeconomic status.^[50] Longitudinal applications of the TAS-20 have further illuminated its prognostic value, linking elevated scores to negative health trajectories such as reduced emotional well-being, heightened anxiety and depression, and diminished quality of life over time.^[51]^[52] In neuroimaging research, the TAS-20 facilitates investigations into the neural underpinnings of alexithymia, particularly through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigms. Higher TAS-20 scores have been consistently associated with amygdala hypoactivation in response to emotional stimuli, as observed in studies from the 2000s onward, suggesting impaired affective processing at the brain level.^[53]^[54] This tool has been employed in over two decades of fMRI research to correlate self-reported alexithymia with reduced limbic system reactivity, advancing models of emotion regulation deficits.^[55] The TAS-20's interdisciplinary utility spans psychology, neurology, and public health, where it quantifies alexithymia's role in broader health risks. In psychological and neurological contexts, it has linked alexithymia to altered pain perception and empathy deficits, informing integrated models of affective disorders.^[53] Public health applications highlight connections to somatic outcomes, including elevated cardiovascular risk factors like hypertension and increased susceptibility to substance use disorders, with meta-analyses confirming higher TAS-20 scores among individuals with alcohol and drug dependencies.^[56]^[57] Recent trends in the 2020s emphasize digital adaptations of the TAS-20 for remote administration and integration with machine learning techniques to predict alexithymia levels from multimodal data. Online platforms have validated the scale's reliability in virtual settings, enhancing accessibility for large-scale studies, while machine learning models have used TAS-20-derived features alongside sociodemographic variables to classify alexithymia in clinical cohorts like those with fibromyalgia.^[58]^[59]

Limitations

Subscale Challenges

The Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT) subscale of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) has been consistently criticized for its low internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha values often around 0.60 or lower across diverse populations.^[37]^[25] For instance, meta-analytic reviews report an omega reliability of 0.62 for EOT, substantially below the acceptable threshold of 0.70, compared to higher values for other subscales.^[37] This subscale, comprising eight items assessing a preference for external over internal emotional focus, may primarily capture a cognitive style—such as concrete, practical thinking—rather than a core emotional processing deficit, leading to debates about its alignment with the alexithymia construct.^[23] Additionally, confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) frequently reveal poor factor loadings for EOT items, often below 0.40, contributing to overall model misfit and uninterpretable structures in various samples.^[60]^[37] In contrast, the Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF) and Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF) subscales demonstrate greater robustness, with internal consistencies typically exceeding 0.70 (e.g., omega = 0.84 for DIF and 0.75 for DDF).^[37] These subscales effectively measure affective components of alexithymia, showing strong convergent validity in clinical and non-clinical contexts.^[60] However, high intercorrelations between DIF and DDF, often exceeding 0.70 (e.g., r = 0.77), indicate substantial overlap, potentially reflecting redundancy in assessing emotional awareness deficits.^[61] This multicollinearity can complicate subscale-specific interpretations and inflate shared variance in multivariate analyses.^[37] Furthermore, potential ceiling effects have been noted for DIF and DDF in low-alexithymia groups, where respondents may cluster at low scores, limiting sensitivity to subtle variations in emotional processing.^[37] Response biases also undermine the TAS-20's subscales, particularly through social desirability influences that may encourage underreporting of emotional difficulties on self-report items.^[62] The inclusion of five reverse-scored items, intended to control for acquiescence bias, has instead been linked to respondent confusion and poor model fit in CFAs, as these items often load weakly or negatively.^[23] Such issues disproportionately affect EOT, exacerbating its psychometric weaknesses.^[63] Given these subscale challenges, researchers recommend prioritizing the TAS-20 total score for overall alexithymia assessment, as it exhibits strong reliability (e.g., omega > 0.90) and captures a general factor more robustly than individual subscales.^[23] For the EOT domain specifically, supplementation with qualitative measures—such as observational assessments or structured interviews—is advised to mitigate self-report limitations and better evaluate cognitive-emotional processing.^[23]^[64] This approach enhances the scale's utility while acknowledging inherent design flaws.^[37]

Cultural and Population-Specific Issues

The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) has been translated and validated in over 30 languages, including Chinese, Japanese, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, supporting its cross-cultural applicability, though adaptations are often required to account for linguistic and conceptual nuances.^[2] In non-Western samples, particularly from Asian cultures, the scale exhibits lower reliability, especially on the externally oriented thinking (EOT) subscale, where scores tend to be inflated due to collectivist values that emphasize external focus and emotional restraint over introspection.^[65] ^[66] This cultural bias can lead to overestimation of alexithymia in collectivistic societies, as EOT items may reflect normative social orientations rather than pathological emotional deficits.^[67] Population-specific biases further complicate TAS-20 interpretations. Males consistently score higher on the scale than females, potentially overestimating alexithymia prevalence in men due to gender differences in emotional expression and self-reporting styles.^[68] Similarly, scores increase with age, with older adults showing elevated levels, which may reflect cohort effects, cognitive changes, or reduced willingness to endorse emotional awareness rather than true alexithymia escalation.^[69] In neurodiverse populations, such as those with autism spectrum disorder or ADHD, the TAS-20 underperforms without adjustments, as its self-report format may confound trait alexithymia with communication challenges or inattention, leading to measurement artifacts.^[70] Developmentally, the TAS-20 lacks validation for children under 12, where abstract language and self-reflection demands exceed typical cognitive capacities, resulting in unreliable scores.^[71] Low-literacy groups also face higher risks of false positives, as comprehension difficulties inflate total scores independent of emotional processing deficits.^[72] To mitigate these issues, researchers recommend using culture-specific normative data to establish contextually appropriate cutoffs and combining TAS-20 self-reports with observer-rated measures, such as the Observer Alexithymia Scale, to enhance accuracy across diverse groups.^[2] ^[73]

Other Alexithymia Assessments

The Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire (BVAQ) is a 40-item self-report measure that assesses both cognitive and affective components of alexithymia.^[30] It includes five subscales: two affective dimensions—emotionalizing (tendency to experience emotions) and fantasizing (imagination and fantasy life)—and three cognitive dimensions—identifying feelings, analyzing emotions, and verbalizing emotions.^[30] The BVAQ demonstrates good internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from 0.79 for subscales to 0.85 for the total score across multiple language versions.^[30] Compared to the TAS-20, the BVAQ provides greater depth in evaluating externally oriented thinking (EOT) through its cognitive subscales, showing higher reliability for this facet (alpha >0.80), though its longer length increases administration time.^[74] Correlations between BVAQ total scores and TAS-20 total scores are moderate to strong (r = 0.50–0.70), supporting convergent validity while highlighting the BVAQ's unique affective coverage absent in the TAS-20.^[30] The Perth Alexithymia Questionnaire (PAQ), developed in 2018, is a 24-item self-report instrument designed to address limitations in existing measures by focusing on valence-specific deficits in emotional processing.^[75] It comprises subscales for difficulty identifying feelings (DIF) and difficulty describing feelings (DDF) separately for negative and positive emotions, along with a general EOT subscale emphasizing observational deficits.^[75] The PAQ exhibits strong internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.87–0.96 across subscales and composites) and has been validated through confirmatory factor analysis, confirming its multidimensional structure.^[75] It offers improved assessment of cognitive alexithymia compared to the TAS-20, particularly for EOT (alpha = 0.90 versus <0.60 in TAS-20), and distinguishes processing of positive versus negative emotions, which the TAS-20 does not.^[75] Intercorrelations with the TAS-20 are high (r = 0.60–0.80 for total scores), indicating substantial overlap, though the PAQ's facet-level detail enhances precision for research on emotional appraisal.^[76] The Observer Alexithymia Scale (OAS) is a 33-item questionnaire intended for third-party ratings by individuals familiar with the target person, such as relatives or clinicians, to mitigate self-report biases inherent in measures like the TAS-20.^[22] It yields a total score and five factors—distant, uninsightful, somatizing, humorless, and rigid—capturing observable behavioral manifestations of alexithymia in interpersonal contexts.^[22] Psychometric evaluations show excellent internal consistency (alpha = 0.88–0.89) and test-retest reliability (r = 0.87 over two weeks), with factor structure supported by exploratory and confirmatory analyses.^[22] The OAS complements self-report tools by providing external perspectives on emotional expression deficits, and its total scores correlate moderately with TAS-20 totals (r = 0.40–0.60), reflecting shared variance while addressing discrepancies in self-perception.^[77] Overall, these alternatives differ from the TAS-20 primarily in scope and administration: the BVAQ's extended format allows deeper exploration of affective and cognitive facets at the cost of brevity, while the PAQ's recent design prioritizes nuanced cognitive processing, and the OAS shifts to observer input for bias reduction.^[30]^[75]^[22] Moderate intercorrelations among all four scales (r = 0.50–0.70) affirm their assessment of a common alexithymia construct, yet each offers targeted advantages for specific clinical or research needs.^[77]^[76]

Complementary Psychological Tools

The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) serves as a key complementary tool to the TAS-20, providing an ability-based assessment of emotional intelligence through objective tasks that evaluate perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions.^[78] Unlike the TAS-20's self-report format, which relies on metacognitive self-appraisal, the MSCEIT measures actual emotional processing skills, revealing negative correlations between TAS-20 scores and MSCEIT subscales for perceiving (r = -0.18) and understanding emotions (r = -0.24).^[78] This contrast helps distinguish self-perceived emotional deficits from objective impairments in clinical evaluations.^[79] Personality inventories like the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) are frequently paired with the TAS-20 to differentiate alexithymia from overlapping traits, particularly low openness to experience and its fantasy facet, which correlate negatively with TAS-20 total scores and subscales.^[80] Studies show TAS-20 alexithymia facets align with high neuroticism and low extraversion on the NEO-PI-R, supporting its discriminant validity by isolating alexithymia from broader personality dimensions.^[79] These inventories aid in parsing whether emotional difficulties stem from alexithymic tendencies or stable personality characteristics.^[80] Distress measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) are commonly administered alongside the TAS-20 to account for overlaps with depressive and anxious symptoms, which can confound alexithymia assessments.^[81] For instance, TAS-20 scores fluctuate proportionately with BDI changes in major depressive disorder patients, indicating a state-dependent relationship that necessitates controlling for depression severity.^[81] Similarly, TAS-20 subscales for difficulty identifying and describing feelings correlate positively with STAI trait anxiety scores in chronic conditions like multiple sclerosis, allowing researchers to isolate alexithymia from general distress.^[82] In comprehensive assessment batteries, the TAS-20 is often combined with tools like the MSCEIT for differential diagnosis, enabling clinicians to disentangle trait-like alexithymia from ability-based emotional deficits and guide targeted interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral approaches over insight-oriented therapies.^[79] This multifaceted approach enhances the interpretive power of TAS-20 results in both research and clinical contexts.^[78]

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Alexithymia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Alexithymia is defined as a deficit in the cognitive processing and regulation of emotions, characterized by the inability to identify and describe one's ...
[7]
A History of the Alexithymia Concept and Its Explanatory Models
This unusual psychological concept was what in 1972 Sifneos coined as 'alexithymia', which is formed by the roots of several Greek words, and literally ...
[8]
Prevalence and Correlates of Alexithymia and Its Relationship With ...
Nov 22, 2021 · The prevalence of alexithymia has been reported to be ~10% in the general population (19), and 7.3–29.9% in adolescents (20, 21). Alexithymia is ...
[9]
Alexithymia in Adult Autism Clinic Service-Users - MDPI
Dec 7, 2023 · Furthermore, alexithymia is estimated to be experienced by 12% of the general population compared to significantly higher estimates of 49.9% of ...Alexithymia In Adult Autism... · 1.4. Alexithymia, Sensory... · 4. Discussion
[10]
Direct and indirect effects of alexithymia on disordered eating in a ...
Nov 23, 2022 · Studies using the TAS-20 have consistently shown high levels of alexithymia in patients with eating disorders: anorexia nervosa (8, 9), bulimia ...
[11]
Alexithymia in Neurological Disease: A Review - Psychiatry Online
Feb 6, 2015 · In the few studies available, there does appear to be right hemisphere predominance for stroke associated with alexithymia. This would be ...
[12]
Alexithymia profiles and depression, anxiety, and stress
Jul 15, 2024 · All facets of alexithymia, across both valence domains, were significantly correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms.
[13]
Alexithymia and Somatization in Depressed Patients - NIH
This study aimed to establish the association between alexithymia and various factors, mainly somatization, and to determine the predictors of alexithymia ...
[14]
The Alexithymia Personality Dimension - Oxford Academic
Alexithymia is a dimensional personality trait characterized by difficulties in identifying and describing subjective feelings, a limited imaginal capacity,<|control11|><|separator|>
[15]
https://doi.org/10.1159/000287912
[16]
The implication of alexithymia in personality disorders: a systematic ...
Oct 1, 2024 · Alexithymia, characterized by difficulty identifying and expressing emotions, is often associated with various psychiatric disorders, ...
[17]
Toward the development of a new self-report alexithymia scale
This study reports the development of a new self-report scale. The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) was devised with concern for theoretical congruence with the ...
[18]
The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia scale—I. Item selection and ...
The first study resulted in the development of a new twenty-item version of the scale—the TAS-20. The TAS-20 demonstrated good internal consistency and test- ...
[19]
The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale - PubMed
The first study resulted in the development of a new twenty-item version of the scale--the TAS-20. The TAS-20 demonstrated good internal consistency and test- ...
[20]
An Observer Scale to Measure Alexithymia - ScienceDirect.com
The 33-item Observer Alexithymia Scale (OAS) is internally consistent (coefficient alphas = 0.88 and 0.89) and stable (2-week test-retest reliability = 0.87).
[21]
An alexithymia questionnaire for children: Factorial and concurrent ...
Alexithymia questionnaire for children. Consistent with the original adult questionnaire for alexithymia (TAS-20) developed by Bagby et al. (1994), our ...
[22]
Improving the measurement of alexithymia in autistic adults: a ...
Aug 10, 2021 · The TAS-20 is organized into three subscales, Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF; 7 items), Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF; 5 items), and ...Missing: 1997 | Show results with:1997
[23]
Protocol - Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20)
Aug 7, 2015 · Each item is scored on a 5-point, Likert-type scale ... Total scores can range from 20-100, with higher scores indicating greater impairment.
[24]
Alexithymia or general psychological distress? Discriminant validity ...
May 1, 2024 · Separate DIF (7 items; e.g., “I am often confused about what emotion I am feeling”), DDF (5 items; e.g., “It is difficult for me to find the ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
[25]
Psychometric Properties of the 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale in ...
We studied the psychometric properties of the Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) in Chilean population using various modeling procedures.
[26]
Toronto Alexithymia Scale - Embrace Autism
Aug 15, 2020 · The Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) is a 20-item, self-administered questionnaire that measures difficulty in identifying and describing emotions.
[27]
https://embrace-autism.com/toronto-alexithymia-scale/
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Reliability and Validity of the 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale in ...
The TAS-20K was administered to a sample of 290 adolescents aged from 12 to 16 years old. Internal reliability, test-retest reliability, and factorial validity ...
[29]
Validity and reliability of the Bermond–Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire
Correlations between (sub)scales of the Dutch BVAQ and (sub)scales of the TAS-20 support the validity of the BVAQ. The validity of the BVAQ is further supported ...
[30]
Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Bermond–Vorst Alexithymia ...
Feb 27, 2021 · Higher correlations with the TAS-20 were observed for identifying, analyzing, and verbalizing feelings (0.34 ∼ 0.61) relative to fantasizing and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[31]
Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) - SpringerLink
Results on the TAS-20 were negatively correlated with measures of openness to experience and assertiveness. ... Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity.
[32]
The Twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale--II. Convergent ...
This paper describes a study that further evaluated the construct validity of the TAS-20 by examining its relationship with measures of personality traits.
[33]
Alexithymia and somatisation: A quantitative review of the literature
A small to moderate relationship was found between general alexithymia and somatic symptom reporting.
[34]
[PDF] assessment of alexithymia: self-report and observer-rated
Taylor, G.J., Ryan, D.P., & Bagby, R.M. (1985). Toward the development of a new self-report alexithymia scale. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 44, 191-199 ...
[35]
The Observer Alexithymia Scale: A Reliable and Valid Alternative for ...
Aug 9, 2025 · ... TAS-20. Although many studies were conducted on the construct validity of the TAS-20, no studies have been published on its criterion validity.
[36]
The Structure of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20)
The scale was designed to assess the three factors: (a) difficulty identifying feelings (DIF), (b) difficulty describing feelings (DDF), and (c) EOT. However, ...
[37]
Cross validation of the factor structure of the 20-item Toronto ...
The study found the three-factor model of the TAS-20 replicable in both groups, with adequate reliability and test-retest reliability.
[38]
(PDF) Examining the Incremental Validity of the Perth Alexithymia ...
May 5, 2023 · Overall, the TAS-20 showed strong associations with these various constructs to which the PAQ was unable to add any meaningful increase in ...
[39]
Traumatic experiences, alexithymia, and posttraumatic ... - NIH
Aug 27, 2014 · The scale's subscales measure three dimensions of the construct of alexithymia: “difficulty identifying feelings”, “difficulty describing ...
[40]
Alexithymia and treatment response for prolonged exposure therapy
Alexithymia is the inability to identify and recognize emotions. The present study examined the impact of alexithymia on prolonged exposure (PE) therapy.
[41]
Alexithymia in eating disorders: Systematic review and meta ...
The aim of this review was to synthesise the literature on the use of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) in eating disorder populations and Healthy Controls ( ...
[42]
Alexithymia and Treatment Outcome in Anorexia Nervosa - Frontiers
Alexithymia is of great interest as an outcome predictor of recovery from anorexia nervosa, since it may interfere with both treatment compliance and patients' ...
[43]
Assessing alexithymia in chronic pain: psychometric properties ... - NIH
Dec 9, 2024 · The TAS-20 (comprised of DIF, DDF, and EOT subscales) has been widely used in people with chronic pain. The TAS-20 generally demonstrates good ...
[44]
Affect School for chronic benign pain patients showed improved ...
Jun 4, 2010 · Alexithymia is a disturbance associated with psychosomatic disorders, pain syndromes, and a variety of psychiatric disorders.Affect School · 3) Visual Analogue Scale For... · DiscussionMissing: applications PTSD<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
Investigating alexithymia in autism: A systematic review and meta ...
In these papers, prevalence rates of alexithymia in the ASD groups ranged from 33.3% to 63%, with a mean weighted prevalence rate of 49.93%. Prevalence rates in ...
[46]
Mentalization-Based Treatment in Groups for Adults With Autism ...
Mentalization-Based Treatment (MBT) is a form of psychotherapy in individual and group settings that focuses on the education and enhancement of mentalizing.
[47]
Psychological Treatments for Alexithymia: A Systematic Review - PMC
Dec 7, 2024 · Seventeen studies reported significant reductions in TAS-20 in experimental groups, with further reductions in follow-up measurements (Table 2).
[48]
Multi-Method Approach in the Assessment of Alexithymia in Patients ...
Alexithymia was measured using the self-administered questionnaire 20-item Toronto Alexithymia scale (TAS-20) and the semi-structured interview 24-item Toronto ...
[49]
Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of alexithymia in a ...
The prevalence of alexithymia (TAS-20 score > 60) was 9.4% in male and 5.2% in female subjects. Alexithymia was associated with poor education and low income ...
[50]
Longitudinal Investigation of Alexithymia as a Predictor of ... - PubMed
Persons with TBI who had higher alexithymia scores at 1 year after injury reported poorer emotional health at 2 years after TBI.
[51]
Alexithymia as a prognostic risk factor for health problems
Dec 17, 2012 · Approximately half of the studies reported statistically significant adverse effects, while 5 studies demonstrated favorable effects of ...
[52]
Neuroimaging studies of alexithymia: physical, affective, and social ...
Mar 28, 2013 · In this study, alexithymia was measured using the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) [15-18] and evocative pictures were used as emotional ...
[53]
[PDF] Neuroimaging Studies of Alexithymia
Jan 16, 2023 · Several fMRI studies have reported a reduced response of the amygdala to emotional stimuli with higher levels of alexithymia, both during ...
[54]
Individual differences in alexithymia and brain response to masked ...
In the present study fMRI at 3 T was used to investigate automatic reactivity not only of the amygdala as in our previous study (Kugel et al., 2008) but of the ...
[55]
Alexithymia | Hypertension - American Heart Association Journals
To find out independent correlates of blood pressure and predictors of alexithymia, multiple linear regression analyses were made by use of the statistically ...
[56]
Association between alexithymia and substance use: A systematic ...
We hypothesize that alexithymia is associated with both alcohol and drug abuse Furthermore, based on earlies findings (Pigoni et al., 2020; Thorberg et al., ...
[57]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9790486/
[58]
[PDF] Comparison of Machine Learning Methods for Classification of ...
For example, machine learning has been applied to predict alexithymia in fibromyalgia patients using socio-demographic data and self-report questionnaires10 and ...
[59]
Assessing alexithymia in chronic pain: psychometric... - PAIN Reports
The TAS-20, a 20-item self-report questionnaire, 5 includes subscales: (1) DIF (eg, “I am often confused about what emotion I am feeling.”), (2) DDF (eg, ...
[60]
The Structure of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20): A Meta ...
Jul 26, 2021 · Alexithymia is defined as the inability of persons to describe their emotional states, to identify the feelings of others, and a utilitarian ...Results · Confirmatory Factor Analyses · Discussion
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Correlations between TSIA and TAS-20 and their relation to self ...
The 20 item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) has been set as the golden standard in assessing alexithymia despite its limitation due to its self-report ...
[62]
Exploring Factor Validity of 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS ...
Jan 25, 2021 · The TAS-20 is a 20-item questionnaire measuring three dimensions of alexithymia: difficulty distinguishing feelings (DIF), difficulty ...
[63]
Assessing alexithymia across negative and positive emotions
The TAS-20 was originally designed to provide only a total scale score, but DIF (seven items, e.g., I am often confused about what emotion I am feeling), DDF ( ...
[64]
The 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. IV. Reliability and factorial ...
The aim of this paper was to review findings from studies that have evaluated the reliability and factorial validity of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale ( ...Missing: scoring procedure original<|control11|><|separator|>
[65]
(PDF) Assessing Alexithymia across Asian and Western Cultures
Jun 24, 2022 · Asian samples has almost exclusively used the TAS-20 to operationalise alexithymia,. and has consistently noted low reliability and factor ...
[66]
Unpacking Cultural Differences in Alexithymia - Jessica Dere, Carl F ...
Jan 31, 2012 · The current study examined the hypothesis that EOT is more strongly shaped by cultural values than are two other components of alexithymia ...
[67]
On the social cost of interdependence: Alexithymia is enhanced ...
In two studies we examined how self-construal is related to one's ability to identify and label emotions, and externally-oriented thinking (i.e. alexithymia).
[68]
Gender differences in alexithymia. - APA PsycNET
Furthermore, most of the effect sizes are positive in value, indicating that males had higher mean alexithymia scores than did females. Finally, we ...
[69]
Age is strongly associated with alexithymia in the general population
Alexithymia was associated with male gender, increasing age, low educational level, poor perceived health, and depression.
[70]
Improving the measurement of alexithymia in autistic adults - NIH
One small study by Berthoz and Hill [62] addressed the validity of two common alexithymia scales (the TAS-20 and Bermond–Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire-Form B ...
[71]
The measurement of alexithymia in children and adolescents - NIH
May 25, 2017 · Alexithymia can be reliably assessed in adolescents using the TAS-20 or AQC without the eight items rating the EOT dimension.
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a cross-validation study of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20 ...
Mar 6, 2007 · These studies would not comprehensively demonstrate a relationship between age and alexithymia if the TAS-20 scores by age have a nonlinear ...Statistical Analyses · Factorial Validity · DiscussionMissing: suitability | Show results with:suitability
[73]
Assessment of alexithymia: Self-report and observer-rated measures
Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS; Taylor,. Ryan, & Bagby, 1985). The TAS-20 has demonstrated good internal consistency and test-retest. reliability. In the ...
[74]
Psychometric Properties of the Bermond–Vorst Alexithymia ...
Apr 22, 2018 · Both questionnaires are self-report measures and both have good reliability (19). The TAS-20 operationalizes alexithymia as a constellation of ...
[75]
https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworkspost2013/4390/
[76]
Assessing alexithymia across negative and positive emotions - PMC
The Perth Alexithymia Questionnaire (PAQ) is a 24-item self-report measure of alexithymia. Originally developed in English.
[77]
[PDF] A psychometric comparison of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS ...
The. Observer Alexithymia Scale (OAS) has also been recommended. The aim of the present study was to assess the validity and reliability of the OAS and the TAS- ...
[78]
Acquired alexithymia following damage to the anterior insula - NIH
Fortunately, the negative association between our alexithymia data and the more objective MSCEIT supports the construct validity of the TAS-20. In future AI ...
[79]
Full article: The Assessment of Alexithymia in Medical Settings
Dec 5, 2007 · In this article, we review recent methods for assessing alexithymia and examine how assessing alexithymia can inform clinical practice.<|control11|><|separator|>
[80]
The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia scale—II. Convergent ...
1. RM Bagby, JDA Parker, GJ Taylor. The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale—I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. J Psychosom Res, ...
[81]
Alexithymia and depression: a prospective study of patients with ...
In addition, the BDI scores increased or decreased proportionately with the change in TAS-20 score in both groups. These results lend further support to the ...Missing: STAI | Show results with:STAI
[82]
Longitudinal study of alexithymia and multiple sclerosis - PMC
TAS-20, 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale; STAI-T, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory – trait scale; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory. Moderate or severe anxiety was ...