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Training to failure

Training to failure, also known as training to momentary muscular failure, is a resistance training technique in which an individual performs the maximum number of repetitions possible in a set until they can no longer complete another repetition with proper form due to fatigue, typically defined as the inability to move a load beyond a critical joint angle or full range of motion.^[1]^[2] This method aims to maximize motor unit recruitment and muscle fiber activation, particularly in trained individuals, by pushing sets to the point of volitional exhaustion, which can elevate electromyographic (EMG) activity and potentially enhance training stimuli.^[1] However, systematic reviews and meta-analyses indicate that training to failure is not strictly necessary for achieving significant gains in muscular strength or hypertrophy, as non-failure protocols—stopping short of exhaustion, often with 1–3 repetitions in reserve (RIR)—produce comparable adaptations when training volume is equated.^[2]^[3] For strength development, effect sizes show no significant overall difference between failure and non-failure training (ES = –0.09, 95% CI: –0.22 to 0.05), though non-failure may be slightly favored when volume is not matched.^[2] Regarding muscle hypertrophy, earlier meta-analyses suggest similar outcomes across proximity-to-failure levels, with training closer to failure (lower RIR) yielding no superior growth compared to stopping further away, based on data from multiple randomized controlled trials.^[3] However, a 2024 meta-regression indicates a dose-response relationship where hypertrophy increases as sets are performed closer to failure.^[4] In resistance-trained populations, failure training may offer a marginal benefit for hypertrophy (ES = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.03–0.26), but this is not observed in untrained individuals.^[2]^[1] While effective for certain goals, training to failure carries risks, including increased neuromuscular fatigue, heightened perceptual discomfort (e.g., muscle soreness and exertion ratings), and potential for overtraining or musculoskeletal injury due to elevated hemodynamic stress and reduced movement velocity.^[1]^[5] Acute fatigue is more pronounced post-failure sets (e.g., –25% force reduction at 4 minutes recovery) compared to 3-RIR protocols (–8%), with recovery to baseline typically occurring within 48 hours regardless of approach.^[5] Recommendations from reviews emphasize individualizing proximity-to-failure based on experience level, sex (males may fatigue more), and objectives—opting for non-failure to minimize recovery demands while maintaining efficacy, especially for power-oriented or high-volume programs.^[5]^[2] Further research is needed on older adults and elite athletes to refine these guidelines.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Training to failure is a resistance training technique wherein an individual performs consecutive repetitions of an exercise until the neuromuscular system can no longer generate sufficient force to complete an additional repetition with proper form, leading to momentary muscular fatigue.^[6] This point of volitional exhaustion typically occurs during the concentric phase of the movement, where the muscle shortens under load, and is marked by the inability to overcome the sticking point or critical joint angle.^[6] The fundamental principles of training to failure center on maximizing the recruitment of muscle fibers, particularly high-threshold motor units, through sustained volitional fatigue to elevate mechanical tension on the muscle tissue. Mechanical tension, generated by the force demands of the exercise, serves as the primary stimulus for adaptations, while the approach also induces metabolic stress via the buildup of byproducts like lactate and hydrogen ions during anaerobic energy production. These elements are particularly emphasized in bodybuilding and hypertrophy-focused strength training to promote muscle growth, with loads often selected to allow 6–12 repetitions before failure.^[7] In contrast to non-failure training, which involves stopping sets short of exhaustion to maintain movement velocity and minimize accumulated fatigue, training to failure deliberately pushes each set to complete depletion, thereby enhancing overall muscle activation and potential hypertrophic signaling.^[8]^[6] This distinction allows non-failure methods to better support power development, whereas failure training prioritizes exhaustive effort per set for greater fiber involvement.^[6] The technique operates within the broader context of resistance training variables, including sets (a series of consecutive repetitions), repetitions (individual movement cycles), and load (the resistance magnitude, often expressed as a percentage of one-repetition maximum or 1RM).^[9] Load is typically calibrated using the repetition maximum (RM) as a benchmark, ensuring the weight challenges the target muscle groups appropriately for the desired rep range leading to failure.

Historical Development

Training to failure emerged in the mid-20th century within the burgeoning field of bodybuilding, where practitioners sought methods to maximize muscle growth through exhaustive efforts. Influenced by early advocates like Joe Weider, who began publishing bodybuilding magazines in the 1940s and developed the Weider Principles in the 1950s, the concept gained initial traction as part of high-intensity approaches emphasizing pushing muscles to their limits. Weider's principles, including techniques like forced reps—where a spotter assists beyond momentary failure—laid foundational ideas for intensity-focused training, though not exclusively centered on failure itself.^[10] The formalization of training to failure as a core tenet occurred in the 1970s with Arthur Jones, the inventor of Nautilus exercise machines, who popularized high-intensity training (HIT) by advocating brief, infrequent workouts with sets taken to absolute muscular failure. Jones introduced these ideas in a 1970 article in Iron Man magazine and demonstrated their efficacy through experiments like the 1973 Colorado Experiment, where participant Casey Viator reportedly gained significant muscle mass—claimed as 63 pounds in 28 days—using one-set-to-failure protocols on Nautilus equipment. The results have been widely debated due to factors such as muscle memory from Viator's recent injury recovery, optimized diet, and possible anabolic steroid use. This marked a pivotal shift, integrating failure training with innovative machinery to challenge prevailing volume-based routines.^[11]^[12] Building on Jones's framework, Mike Mentzer refined and promoted training to failure through his Heavy Duty system in the late 1970s and 1980s, emphasizing 6-9 repetitions to failure per set, often incorporating advanced techniques like negatives and forced reps for optimal hypertrophy. Mentzer, a Mr. America winner in 1976, disseminated these methods via articles in Weider's Muscle Builder & Power magazine starting in the mid-1970s, influencing a generation of bodybuilders with his philosophy of maximal intensity over high volume.^[11] By the 1980s and 1990s, training to failure achieved mainstream adoption in bodybuilding culture through magazines and professional competitions, with figures like Dorian Yates, who won six Mr. Olympia titles from 1992 to 1997 using a HIT variant with one all-out set to failure per body part. However, entering the 2000s, the approach began evolving as fitness shifted toward evidence-based protocols, with growing recognition that failure might not be essential for all gains, leading to more balanced integrations by the 2010s in professional and recreational contexts.^[11]

Types of Failure

Initial Failure

Initial failure represents the primary endpoint of exhaustion in a resistance training set, defined as the moment when the targeted muscle group achieves temporary fatigue, preventing the completion of another full-range repetition with controlled form. This point is characterized by the inability to move the load through the full range of motion, particularly during the concentric phase, due to localized metabolic and neuromuscular fatigue in the working muscles. Unlike broader fatigue states, initial failure focuses on momentary incapacity specific to the exercise's demands, often occurring after sustained high-intensity effort with loads typically above 60% of one-repetition maximum (1RM). In practice, initial failure serves as the standard target in many failure-based protocols, where the lifter stops upon recognizing the loss of ability to execute a proper repetition, thereby maximizing motor unit recruitment without excessive form breakdown. For instance, during a bench press set, initial failure is reached when the barbell can no longer be pressed upward from the chest through full extension, despite maximal voluntary effort, signaling the muscle's temporary limit. This distinguishes it as the core threshold for set termination in hypertrophy-oriented training, emphasizing controlled exhaustion over prolonged struggle. Within set structure, initial failure typically marks the conclusion after 8-12 repetitions, with loads chosen via repetition maximum estimates to ensure the set culminates at this precise point of fatigue.^[13]

Technical Failure

Technical failure in resistance training refers to the point at which an individual can no longer perform additional repetitions while maintaining proper exercise technique, even though more reps might be possible with compromised form. This approach serves as a controlled endpoint to approximate the intensity of failure while prioritizing biomechanical integrity.^[14] Key characteristics of technical failure include two primary subtypes: tempo failure, where the repetition cadence or velocity drops below a predetermined threshold (e.g., a 20-40% loss in mean velocity from the initial reps), and form failure, characterized by breakdowns in posture, range of motion, or the emergence of compensatory movements such as excessive spinal flexion or joint valgus. These indicators allow trainers to halt a set before full muscular exhaustion, thereby approximating the stimulus of failure without excessive fatigue accumulation.^[15] For example, during squat repetitions, technical failure might occur when the lifter can no longer achieve the required depth or sustain the initial lifting speed, prompting set termination to avoid risky substitutions like forward lean. This method is particularly preferred in repetition maximum (RM) testing protocols, where sets are stopped upon form degradation to ensure valid load assessments without invalidating the test due to poor execution.^[16] From a safety perspective, training to technical failure minimizes injury risk by preventing the adoption of hazardous compensations that could strain joints or connective tissues, making it a recommended strategy for beginners or those prioritizing joint health over maximal effort. Studies indicate that stopping at this point reduces the likelihood of acute injuries compared to pushing beyond form limits, while still eliciting substantial training adaptations.^[14]

Absolute Failure

Absolute failure is defined as the point in a resistance training set where the targeted muscles reach complete volitional exhaustion, rendering further concentric repetitions impossible, even with spotter assistance or alterations to exercise form, due to maximal neuromuscular recruitment and localized fatigue. This ultimate fatigue threshold typically occurs beyond the sticking point in the concentric phase, where no additional movement can be generated despite external aid.^[6] Reaching absolute failure often involves advanced techniques such as forced reps, in which a spotter provides minimal assistance to facilitate partial or full additional repetitions, or incorporation of eccentric phases with overload to extend the set. These approaches are frequently integrated into high-intensity protocols like drop sets, where the load is immediately reduced upon initial exhaustion to sustain effort until absolute limits are met. However, consistently training to absolute failure elevates the risk of overtraining by imposing excessive neuromuscular demands and extending recovery requirements.^[6]^[17] A practical example occurs in a bicep curl: after unassisted repetitions cease, a spotter applies controlled downward force during the eccentric lowering to enable 2–3 more concentric lifts until the biceps can produce no further motion, even assisted.^[6] Unlike initial failure, which halts the set at the first inability to complete full-range unassisted reps, absolute failure prolongs the effort through assistance, fostering heightened metabolic accumulation at the cost of amplified recovery needs. Technical failure offers a safer alternative by prioritizing form over maximal extension.^[18]^[19]

Repetition Maximum

In resistance training, the repetition maximum (RM) is defined as the maximum load an individual can lift for a specified number of consecutive repetitions before reaching muscular failure, serving as a fundamental metric for assessing and prescribing exercise intensity. The one-repetition maximum (1RM) specifically denotes the heaviest weight that can be lifted once through a full range of motion with proper form, while higher RM values, such as 5RM or 10RM, represent the maximal load sustainable for five or ten repetitions, respectively.^[20]^[21] RM values are typically determined through direct testing protocols that involve warming up with submaximal loads followed by progressive increases until failure is achieved, often to technical failure to minimize injury risk. Alternatively, submaximal estimation methods use formulas derived from loads lifted to failure at lower intensities; for instance, the Epley formula estimates 1RM as follows:

$1RM = w \times \left(1 + \frac{r}{30}\right)

where w is the weight lifted and r is the number of repetitions performed. For hypertrophy-oriented programs, testing a 10RM is frequently favored over 1RM due to reduced risk of injury, particularly for novice trainees or those unaccustomed to maximal efforts.^[22]^[23]^[24] In the context of training to failure, RM plays a central role in load selection to ensure sets culminate in failure within desired repetition ranges, such as 6-12 reps, which align with moderate intensities of approximately 70-85% of 1RM to promote muscle growth. Loads are thus calibrated as percentages of an individual's RM to target these zones, allowing precise progression while reaching volitional exhaustion. Repetitions approaching the RM threshold often signal proximity to failure, guiding effort regulation during sets.^[25]^[26] Despite its utility, RM testing has limitations, including variability stemming from acute fatigue, which necessitates adequate recovery (e.g., 3-5 minutes between attempts) to ensure reliable results, and from an individual's training experience, as novices may underestimate capacities due to form breakdown or hesitation. Furthermore, RM values are exercise-specific and not directly transferable between modalities; for example, loads achievable on machines often exceed those on free weights due to differences in stabilization demands, complicating cross-equipment comparisons.^[27]^[28]

Proximity to Failure

Proximity to failure in resistance training refers to the degree of effort exerted during a set relative to the point of muscular failure, conceptualized as a continuum rather than a binary outcome.^[29] This is commonly quantified using repetitions in reserve (RIR), which represents the number of additional repetitions an individual could perform before reaching failure; for instance, 0 RIR indicates training to failure, while 3 RIR means stopping three repetitions short of failure.^[29]^[30] The concept's importance lies in enabling submaximal training approaches that approximate the stimulus of failure while minimizing excessive fatigue and recovery demands.^[29] Programming often utilizes a scale of 0-5 RIR to modulate effort levels across sessions, allowing for progressive overload without constant volitional exhaustion.^[29] This spectrum supports evidence-based autoregulation, where trainees adjust loads or reps based on daily capacity to sustain long-term adherence and performance.^[30] Assessment of proximity to failure can be subjective or objective. Subjective methods rely on self-reported RIR, akin to perceived exertion scales, where individuals estimate remaining capacity post-set based on internal cues like fatigue and technique breakdown.^[29]^[31] Objective approaches include velocity tracking, which monitors reductions in barbell or movement speed as an indicator of nearing failure, offering real-time feedback in gym settings.^[29] Recent developments in evidence-based training emphasize these tools for precise load management, particularly among trained individuals who demonstrate improved RIR prediction accuracy.^[31] Proximity to failure is calibrated relative to repetition maximum (RM) benchmarks, such as one-repetition maximum (1RM), to standardize effort. Loads prescribed at 70-85% of 1RM typically allow sets of 8-12 repetitions to approach close proximity to failure when performed with controlled tempo.^[32] This integration facilitates programming that aligns volume and intensity for targeted adaptations.^[32]

Scientific Evidence

Effects on Muscle Hypertrophy

Training to failure is posited to enhance muscle hypertrophy by maximizing motor unit recruitment, thereby ensuring full activation of muscle fibers, which is a primary driver of hypertrophic adaptations. This approach also elevates metabolic stress through accumulation of metabolites like lactate and hydrogen ions, contributing to cellular swelling and hormonal responses that support protein synthesis. Additionally, it induces greater muscle damage via eccentric contractions and prolonged tension, prompting repair processes that lead to fiber growth, as outlined in foundational models of resistance training responses.^[33] Systematic reviews from 2021 indicate that training to failure does not produce superior muscle hypertrophy compared to non-failure protocols when total training volume is equated. A meta-analysis of 15 studies found no significant differences in hypertrophy outcomes between the two approaches, suggesting equivalence in stimulating muscle growth. Similarly, another meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials confirmed no overall advantage for failure training in promoting hypertrophy, though both methods yielded comparable gains in muscle cross-sectional area.^[34]^[35] More recent evidence highlights nuances in proximity to failure. A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of 55 studies by researchers at Florida Atlantic University demonstrated that training closer to failure (0-2 repetitions in reserve) elicits greater hypertrophy than stopping farther from failure (3+ RIR), with effect sizes favoring near-failure sets for muscle thickness increases across various populations. This suggests a dose-response relationship where approaching failure optimizes hypertrophic stimuli without necessarily requiring complete exhaustion. Furthermore, a 2025 randomized controlled trial published in Frontiers in Psychology examined post-failure partial repetitions on the calf muscles, finding that adding past-failure partials after reaching momentary failure in plantarflexion exercises resulted in 9.6% medial gastrocnemius hypertrophy compared to 6.7% for standard full-range sets, while a 2023 study reported 15.2% growth from initial partials in the lengthened position, indicating enhanced regional adaptations in the triceps surae.^[36]^[37]^[38] Overall, these findings support that training to failure yields hypertrophy outcomes equivalent to non-failure training at matched volumes, but it may permit effective gains with reduced set volumes by intensifying per-set stimulus, particularly in proximity to failure.^[34]^[35]

Effects on Strength Gains

Training to failure in resistance exercise involves performing repetitions until the point where no further complete concentric actions can be achieved voluntarily, potentially influencing maximal strength gains through neural adaptations such as enhanced motor unit recruitment and synchronization. These mechanisms improve the nervous system's ability to activate muscle fibers more efficiently during high-load lifts, leading to greater force production over time. However, excessive fatigue from repeated failure sets can impair inter-set recovery and overall training volume in subsequent sessions, which may hinder long-term strength development, particularly for heavy, low-repetition protocols.^[39]^[40]^[41] A 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 studies found no significant differences in maximal strength gains between training to failure and non-failure protocols, with both approaches yielding similar improvements in 1-repetition maximum (1RM) across various exercises. This equivalence suggests that reaching failure is not necessary for strength adaptations, as non-failure training allows for higher overall workloads without the added neuromuscular fatigue. Subsequent research supports this, indicating that while failure training may acutely boost neural drive, it does not provide a superior stimulus for strength compared to stopping short of failure.^[35]^[2]^[42] More recent evidence from a 2024 meta-analysis by researchers at Florida Atlantic University examined the dose-response relationship between proximity to failure—measured via repetitions in reserve (RIR)—and muscular adaptations in trained individuals. The analysis revealed that strength gains occur independently of how close sets are taken to failure, unlike muscle hypertrophy, where closer proximity (0-1 RIR) yields greater growth; for strength, maintaining 1-3 RIR often optimizes outcomes by preserving recovery for progressive overload. This aligns with a 2023 randomized controlled trial showing similar 1RM increases in bench press and squat after 5 weeks of near-failure (1 RIR) versus non-failure (3-4 RIR) training, emphasizing that excessive failure may increase overtraining risks without added benefits at high loads (>80% 1RM).^[43]^[44]^[42] Emerging 2023-2025 meta-analyses further confirm this pattern of equivalence for strength development, with a 2024 dose-response review noting modest benefits from higher set volumes regardless of failure status, but highlighting potential drawbacks like reduced explosive power in protocols emphasizing speed and power (e.g., Olympic lifts) due to accumulated fatigue. For instance, a 2025 preprint systematic review on inter-set rest intervals indirectly supports these findings by showing that shorter rests (<60 seconds), often paired with failure training for metabolic stress, provide no edge over longer rests (>60 seconds) for strength gains in trained males, underscoring the importance of recovery to sustain neural adaptations. Overall, while training to failure can contribute to strength in specific explosive contexts, evidence favors non-failure approaches with 1-3 RIR for most maximal strength goals to minimize recovery interference.^[45]^[46]^[47]

Benefits, Risks, and Applications

Advantages

Training to failure in resistance exercise has been associated with enhanced muscle hypertrophy by maximizing motor unit recruitment through progressive fatigue, which may stimulate greater muscle fiber activation compared to stopping short of failure. This approach is particularly beneficial for advanced trainees experiencing plateaus, as occasional sets to failure can provide the additional stimulus needed to promote continued growth without necessarily increasing overall training volume.^[6]^[48] From an efficiency standpoint, training to failure allows for comparable strength and hypertrophy outcomes with fewer sets than non-failure protocols, shortening workout duration while intensifying effort per set. For instance, protocols involving sets to failure have demonstrated comparable strength gains even in lower volumes, though evidence shows similar or slightly inferior outcomes when training volumes are not equated, making them suitable for time-constrained programs. Scientific evidence indicates that these benefits align with non-failure training when volumes are equated, supporting its use for optimized effort without excess time commitment.^[6]^[35] Psychologically, training to failure fosters mental toughness and heightened workout intensity, appealing especially to bodybuilders and high-responders who value the motivational challenge of pushing limits. This intensity can enhance adherence by providing a sense of accomplishment, though it remains more anecdotal in strength and conditioning literature.^[6]

Potential Drawbacks and Injury Risks

Training to failure imposes significant demands on the central nervous system, leading to increased central fatigue that can impair neuromuscular function and overall performance during and after workouts. This fatigue arises from heightened metabolic stress and motor unit recruitment, resulting in greater acute declines in measures such as jump height and movement velocity compared to non-failure training.^[49] Consequently, recovery periods for affected muscle groups are extended, often requiring 48-72 hours to restore full strength and metabolic balance, which can disrupt training schedules if not managed properly.^[50] Frequent or prolonged use of training to failure elevates the risk of overtraining syndrome, characterized by persistent fatigue, decreased performance, and potential psychological burnout from accumulated mental strain. Studies recommend limiting its application to avoid this syndrome, as repetitive sessions to failure over extended periods heighten susceptibility to overtraining and associated symptoms like mood disturbances.^[48] Additionally, it diminishes performance in subsequent sets within the same session due to elevated neuromuscular and biochemical fatigue markers, such as increased creatine kinase and ammonia levels.^[51] Injury risks are a primary concern, particularly from form breakdown as fatigue accumulates, which can lead to joint strain and musculoskeletal overuse injuries through repetitive high-effort contractions. This risk is amplified in absolute failure, where movement quality deteriorates more severely than in technical failure, which maintains better form and reduces hazard potential. Research indicates that training to failure with moderate loads, such as around a 10-repetition maximum (10RM), carries lower injury risk compared to heavier loads near a 1-repetition maximum (1RM), due to reduced maximal forces and better control.^[1]^[52] Such practices are less suitable for beginners, who may lack the technique to safely manage fatigue, and for high-frequency programs, where extended recovery demands conflict with frequent sessions.^[53] To mitigate these drawbacks, incorporating training to failure periodically within short-term cycles, alternated with non-failure phases, allows for recovery while minimizing overtraining and injury accumulation.^[48] This approach should be used sparingly overall to balance potential benefits against these safety concerns.^[54]

Practical Implementation

Incorporating training to failure into resistance training programs requires careful programming to balance potential benefits with recovery demands. Experts recommend limiting failure sets to 1-2 per muscle group per week to minimize the risk of overtraining and overuse injuries, integrating them periodically within a broader periodized structure rather than applying them consistently across all sessions.^[48] This approach allows for progressive overload, such as gradually increasing the load relative to the repetition maximum (RM) or adding reps while maintaining form, to drive long-term adaptations in strength and hypertrophy.^[26] Exercise selection plays a key role in safe implementation, with training to failure being most suitable for isolation exercises like bicep curls or leg extensions, where it is easier to achieve true muscular failure without form breakdown compared to compound movements such as squats or bench presses, which involve multiple joints and potential bottlenecks in execution.^[55] Training frequency for affected muscle groups should typically be 2-3 sessions per week, ensuring at least 48 hours of recovery between sessions targeting the same muscles to allow for neural and muscular repair.^[56] Variations in application depend on the primary goal. For hypertrophy, perform sets of 6-12 repetitions to initial concentric failure using moderate loads (60-80% of 1RM), which maximizes metabolic stress and motor unit recruitment.^[26] In contrast, for strength development, aim for technical failure—where form begins to falter—at 3-5 repetitions with heavier loads (80-100% of 1RM), while monitoring repetitions in reserve (RIR) to stay 0-1 reps shy of absolute failure on compound lifts.^[1] Throughout, track RIR to gauge proximity to failure and adjust loads accordingly, ensuring sets end when no additional rep can be completed with proper technique. Practical tips emphasize safety and sustainability. Always begin with a thorough warm-up, including dynamic movements and lighter sets, to prepare joints and muscles.^[56] For absolute failure attempts, especially on free-weight exercises, employ spotters or safety equipment like power racks to prevent injury from failed reps. Periodize failure training by alternating phases of inclusion (e.g., 4-6 weeks) with non-failure blocks to prevent burnout and support ongoing progress.^[48]

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Apr 15, 2024 · Overall, training to failure can increase recovery times, potentially negatively impacting subsequent performance on high priority sessions.Results · Proximity To Failure · Exercise SelectionMissing: breakdown | Show results with:breakdown<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
Acute effects of equated volume-load resistance training leading to ...
Jan 21, 2020 · The aim of this study was to compare the acute effects of resistance training to failure (TF) and non-failure (TNF) with volume-load ...
[52]
Test-retest reliability of the ten-repetition maximum test in untrained ...
Oct 1, 2024 · Multiple-RM tests, such as the 10RM test, have a lower maximum weight and may have a lower risk of measurement-related injury than the 1RM test.
[53]
No Time to Lift? Designing Time-Efficient Training Programs for ...
However, heavy load and low repetitions are more effective for improving maximal strength capacity, and when heavy loads are employed training to failure ...
[54]
Effect of Training Leading to Repetition Failure on Muscular Strength
Failure training may provide the stimulus needed to enhance muscular strength development. However, it is argued that non-failure training leads to similar ...Missing: advantages efficiency psychological
[55]
Are compound exercises best for hypertrophy? - Stronger by Science
Jul 2, 2025 · Theoretically, compound movements present more potential bottlenecks to reaching true muscular failure than isolation exercises. When it comes ...
[56]
Resistance Training Variables for Optimization of Muscle Hypertrophy
Jul 4, 2022 · This umbrella review aimed to analyze the different variables of resistance training and their effect on hypertrophy, and to provide practical recommendations.