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Strength training

Strength training, also known as resistance training, is a specialized method of physical exercise designed to improve muscular fitness by requiring muscles to exert force against external resistance, such as weights, bands, or body weight, thereby enhancing the ability to generate or resist force.^[1]^[2] This form of training induces muscular contractions that promote adaptations in strength, hypertrophy (increase in muscle size), and anaerobic endurance, distinguishing it from aerobic exercises like running or cycling.^[3] Common methods include free weights (e.g., barbells and dumbbells), weight machines, resistance bands, medicine balls, and bodyweight exercises such as push-ups or squats, allowing for progressive overload to continually challenge the muscles.^[4]^[5] Engaging in strength training yields significant health benefits across all age groups, including increased muscle mass and strength, which help counteract age-related sarcopenia (muscle loss) and improve overall physical function.^[6]^[7] It also strengthens bones, reducing the risk of osteoporosis and fractures, while enhancing metabolic health by improving insulin sensitivity and aiding in weight management.^[8]^[9] For older adults, regular strength training lowers the incidence of falls, alleviates arthritis symptoms by reducing pain and stiffness, and supports independent living by preserving daily activity capabilities.^[10]^[11] Additionally, it contributes to cardiovascular health by lowering risks of heart disease and type 2 diabetes,^[12] and may even enhance mental well-being through improved mood and cognitive function.^[13] Health organizations recommend that adults perform muscle-strengthening activities targeting all major muscle groups (legs, hips, back, abdomen, chest, shoulders, and arms) at least two days per week, using moderate or high intensity to achieve optimal results.^[14]^[15] Programs should emphasize proper form to prevent injury, starting with lighter loads and progressing gradually, and can be adapted for various fitness levels, from beginners using body weight to athletes employing advanced techniques like Olympic lifts.^[16]^[17] Despite its accessibility—requiring minimal equipment in many cases—consultation with a healthcare provider is advised for individuals with pre-existing conditions to ensure safe implementation.^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition and Types

Strength training, also known as resistance training, is a form of physical activity designed to improve muscular fitness by exercising muscles or muscle groups against external resistance, thereby enhancing strength, endurance, and size.^[18] This process typically involves performing exercises using body weight, free weights such as barbells and dumbbells, weight machines, or resistance bands, with the goal of progressively challenging the muscles to adapt.^[19] The resistance can be applied in various forms to target specific physiological responses, distinguishing strength training from other exercise modalities like aerobic activities. Strength training exercises are categorized based on the type of muscle contraction involved. Isometric exercises feature static muscle contractions where the muscle length remains constant without joint movement, such as holding a plank position to engage the core.^[20] Isotonic exercises involve dynamic contractions where muscle tension stays relatively constant while the muscle length changes, including concentric (shortening) and eccentric (lengthening) phases, as seen in squats where the quadriceps contract to lift and lower the body.^[20] Isokinetic exercises maintain a constant speed of movement throughout the range of motion, typically requiring specialized machines like dynamometers to provide variable resistance, allowing for controlled acceleration and deceleration.^[20] Specialized variants of strength training focus on particular goals and competitive formats. Powerlifting emphasizes maximal strength in three compound lifts: the squat, bench press, and deadlift, where athletes compete to achieve the highest total weight lifted across three attempts per lift.^[21] Bodybuilding prioritizes muscle hypertrophy and aesthetic symmetry through targeted resistance exercises that isolate muscle groups, often involving higher repetitions and varied angles to promote balanced development. Olympic weightlifting, or simply weightlifting, centers on explosive power through two Olympic lifts: the snatch, where the barbell is lifted from the ground to overhead in one motion, and the clean and jerk, involving a pull to the shoulders followed by an overhead press.^[22] Functional training integrates multi-joint, multi-planar movements that mimic real-life activities to improve overall movement quality, coordination, and performance in daily tasks or sports, such as kettlebell swings or medicine ball throws.^[23] Key concepts in strength training include distinctions among maximal strength, hypertrophy, and power, which guide exercise selection and loading. Maximal strength refers to the highest force a muscle can produce in a single effort, trained with heavy loads (typically 85-100% of one-repetition maximum) and low repetitions, exemplified by deadlifts to build absolute lifting capacity.^[24] Hypertrophy focuses on increasing muscle size through moderate loads (60-80% of one-repetition maximum) and higher volume, promoting sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar growth via exercises like bicep curls.^[24] Power training combines strength and speed, using lighter to moderate loads (30-60% of one-repetition maximum) at high velocities to enhance rate of force development, as in Olympic lifts like the power clean.^[24]

Basic Principles

Strength training is grounded in several foundational principles that guide effective program design and ensure adaptations occur in response to exercise stimuli. The principle of progressive overload is central, involving the gradual increase in stress on the musculoskeletal system—typically through higher loads, repetitions, or volume—to drive continued physiological adaptations and prevent plateaus in strength gains.^[25] This approach relies on systematically challenging the body beyond its current capacity, such as by incrementing weight lifted as a percentage of one-repetition maximum over training sessions or cycles.^[26] Complementing progressive overload are the principles of specificity, individuality, and reversibility. Specificity dictates that training adaptations are tailored to the demands imposed, meaning exercises should mirror the movements, muscle groups, and energy systems relevant to an individual's goals, such as emphasizing compound lifts for athletic power.^[27] Individuality recognizes that responses to the same training stimulus vary based on factors like genetics, training history, and baseline fitness, necessitating personalized programs to optimize outcomes and minimize injury risk.^[27] Reversibility highlights that strength gains are not permanent; without ongoing stimulus, muscular adaptations diminish over time, with detraining leading to losses in force production within weeks to months.^[27] The specific adaptations to imposed demands (SAID) principle encapsulates these ideas, positing that the body responds precisely to the type, intensity, and duration of stress applied during training, resulting in targeted enhancements like increased neural efficiency for heavy lifts or improved power output for explosive actions.^[19] Integral to this process is recovery, which allows for the repair of exercise-induced damage and the realization of adaptations; inadequate rest between sessions can impair neuromuscular function and hinder strength progress, while optimal recovery periods—often 24-72 hours depending on volume and exercise type—facilitate supercompensation and long-term gains.^[28] At the biomechanical level, the force-velocity relationship underpins these principles, describing an inverse curve where maximal force production decreases as contraction velocity increases, due to reduced time for actin-myosin cross-bridge formation during faster movements.^[29] In strength training, this relationship informs exercise selection: low-velocity, high-force actions (e.g., heavy squats) build maximal strength, while high-velocity efforts enhance power, with training shifting the curve to improve performance across the spectrum.^[29]

Training Methods

Exercise Selection and Equipment

Strength training exercises are broadly categorized into compound and isolation movements, which differ based on the number of joints and muscle groups involved. Compound exercises, also known as multi-joint exercises, engage multiple muscle groups simultaneously across several joints, promoting overall strength development and functional movement patterns. Examples include the bench press, which targets the chest, shoulders, and triceps, and the squat, which works the quadriceps, hamstrings, glutes, and core.^[30] In contrast, isolation exercises focus on a single joint and primary muscle group, allowing for targeted development and refinement of specific areas. The bicep curl, for instance, primarily isolates the biceps brachii.^[30] This distinction is fundamental, as compound movements are often prioritized for efficiency in building foundational strength, while isolation exercises complement them for addressing imbalances or aesthetic goals.^[19] Equipment selection in strength training varies widely, encompassing free weights, machines, bodyweight exercises, and resistance bands, each offering unique advantages for different training levels and objectives. Free weights, such as barbells and dumbbells, require stabilization from accessory muscles, enhancing neuromuscular coordination and mimicking real-world movements, which can lead to greater overall strength gains.^[31] Machines provide guided paths of motion, making them ideal for beginners by minimizing the need for balance and reducing injury risk through controlled resistance.^[32] Bodyweight exercises, like push-ups, rely on gravitational resistance and promote accessibility without equipment, fostering body control and endurance.^[18] Resistance bands offer variable tension that increases through the range of motion, providing a portable and joint-friendly option suitable for rehabilitation or travel.^[18] Research indicates no significant differences in muscle hypertrophy or maximal strength between free weights and machines when programs are equated for volume, though free weights may better improve stabilizer muscle activation.^[33] When selecting exercises and equipment, criteria such as muscular balance, progression, and individual goals guide the process to ensure safe and effective training. A balanced approach often incorporates a push-pull-legs framework, where push movements (e.g., presses) target anterior muscles, pull movements (e.g., rows) emphasize posterior chains, and leg exercises address lower body symmetry, preventing imbalances that could lead to injury.^[34] For beginners, starting with machines or bodyweight exercises facilitates learning proper form and builds confidence, progressing to free weights or compound variations as skill and strength improve to challenge stabilizers and coordination.^[34] Equipment choices should align with goals: free weights and bodyweight for functional strength applicable to sports or daily activities, while machines and bands support aesthetic hypertrophy by allowing isolated focus. Common exercises include squat variations (e.g., back squat for lower body power), deadlifts (for posterior chain strength), overhead and bench presses (for upper body pushing), and rows (for pulling balance).^[19] Integrating these based on whether the emphasis is functional performance or targeted muscle development optimizes outcomes without overcomplicating routines.^[34]

Programming Variables

Programming variables in strength training refer to the adjustable components of a workout program that influence adaptations such as muscle hypertrophy, strength gains, and endurance. These variables include volume, frequency, tempo, rest periods, exercise order, and breathing techniques, each tailored to specific goals while ensuring progressive overload and recovery. Optimizing these elements allows individuals to balance intensity and recovery, minimizing injury risk and maximizing physiological responses. Volume, defined as the total work performed in a session (sets × repetitions × load), is a primary driver of training outcomes. For hypertrophy, guidelines recommend moderate loads at 60-80% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) with 3-5 sets of 6-12 repetitions per exercise, as this range promotes metabolic stress and mechanical tension conducive to muscle growth.^[24]^[35] In contrast, strength-focused volume emphasizes heavier loads (above 85% 1RM) with fewer repetitions (1-6 per set) across 3-6 sets to enhance neural drive and force production.^[35] Weekly volume per muscle group typically ranges from 10-20 sets for optimal hypertrophy in trained individuals, with beginners starting lower to accommodate recovery needs.^[30] Frequency denotes the number of training sessions per muscle group or body part per week, influencing recovery and cumulative stimulus. For beginners, 2-3 sessions per week per muscle group—often via full-body routines—sufficiently stimulates adaptations without excessive fatigue.^[36]^[35] Intermediate trainees may benefit from 3-4 sessions, while advanced lifters can handle 4-5, provided volume is distributed to avoid overtraining.^[35] Tempo, or the speed of repetition execution (typically notated as eccentric-pause-concentric-pause in seconds), further refines frequency's impact by controlling time under tension. A common tempo for balanced development is 2-1-2 (2 seconds eccentric, 1-second pause, 2 seconds concentric), which enhances muscle activation during both lengthening and shortening phases.^[37]^[38] Rest periods between sets modulate energy system involvement and performance. For muscular endurance, 30-90 seconds allows partial recovery while maintaining metabolic stress; hypertrophy benefits from 60-120 seconds to sustain moderate-intensity efforts; and strength training requires 3-5 minutes to replenish phosphocreatine stores for maximal lifts.^[39] Exercise order within a session prioritizes larger muscle groups and multi-joint movements first (e.g., squats before leg curls), as this sequence preserves energy for compound exercises that demand greater systemic effort and yields superior overall strength gains.^[40]^[41] Proper breathing techniques stabilize the core and enhance force output during lifts. The standard approach is to exhale during the concentric (exertion) phase and inhale during the eccentric (release) phase, such as exhaling while pressing a barbell upward and inhaling while lowering it, which prevents intra-abdominal pressure buildup and supports spinal integrity.^[16]^[42]

Periodization and Splits

Periodization refers to the systematic planning of athletic training regimens to optimize performance and adaptation by varying training variables such as volume, intensity, and frequency over time.^[43] This approach aims to prevent training plateaus, manage fatigue, and allow for peaking at specific events, such as competitions, by aligning physiological adaptations with performance demands.^[43] Common models include linear, undulating, and block periodization, each suited to different training goals and athlete levels. Linear periodization involves a steady progression where training volume decreases while intensity increases across mesocycles, typically spanning several weeks to months.^[43] For example, an initial hypertrophy phase with higher volume and moderate loads transitions to a strength phase with lower volume and higher loads, followed by a power phase.^[43] This model is effective for building foundational strength and preparing for events requiring peak performance, as it provides predictable progression and minimizes detraining risks, though it may lead to temporary declines in other qualities like power during the strength focus.^[43] A meta-analysis found linear periodization produces significant strength gains, comparable to other models when total volume is equated.^[44] Undulating periodization, in contrast, varies volume and intensity more frequently—often daily or weekly—within shorter cycles to enhance recovery and target multiple adaptations simultaneously.^[43] Daily undulating periodization, for instance, might alternate high-volume/low-intensity days with low-volume/high-intensity days in the same week.^[45] Its purpose is to reduce monotony, accommodate individual recovery needs, and sustain motivation, making it suitable for intermediate trainees or those prone to overtraining.^[43] Research indicates undulating models yield superior neuromuscular adaptations compared to non-periodized training, with meta-analyses showing no significant difference in overall strength gains versus linear approaches but better hypertrophy outcomes in some cases.^[46]^[44] Block periodization emphasizes concentrated training blocks focused on specific qualities, such as 2-6 weeks of high-volume accumulation followed by transmutation and realization phases with increasing intensity.^[43] This sequential structure leverages residual training effects to build targeted adaptations efficiently, ideal for athletes with multiple competitions or those needing rapid peaking.^[47] Unlike traditional models that balance multiple qualities concurrently, block periodization minimizes interference between adaptations, though it requires careful monitoring to avoid overload.^[47] Evidence from randomized trials supports its efficacy for strength and power gains, particularly in sports like kayaking and team athletics, where it outperforms non-blocked training in performance metrics.^[48] Training splits divide workouts to organize volume and frequency across muscle groups, influencing recovery and overall program efficiency. Full-body splits, typically performed 3 times per week, train all major muscle groups in each session, allowing higher frequency per muscle while keeping total weekly volume moderate.^[49] This approach benefits beginners or those with limited time, promoting balanced development and recovery due to distributed load, though it may limit per-session volume to avoid excessive fatigue.^[50] Upper/lower splits, often 4 days per week (two upper-body and two lower-body sessions), enable higher weekly volume per muscle group with adequate rest between similar sessions, supporting intermediate trainees focused on hypertrophy and strength without overwhelming recovery demands.^[51] Push/pull/legs splits, usually 6 days per week, separate pushing muscles (e.g., chest, shoulders), pulling muscles (e.g., back, biceps), and legs into dedicated days, maximizing volume and specificity but requiring robust recovery capacity to handle the higher frequency.^[50] Meta-analyses confirm that when weekly set volume is equated, full-body, upper/lower, and push/pull/legs splits produce similar strength and hypertrophy gains, with choices guided by individual recovery, schedule, and goals rather than inherent superiority.^[50]^[49] Deload weeks involve intentionally reducing training intensity or volume, typically every 4-6 weeks for about 7 days, to facilitate supercompensation and mitigate accumulated fatigue.^[52] Methods include cutting sets by 50%, lowering loads to 50-70% of one-repetition maximum, or focusing on lighter accessory work, often planned within periodized cycles or adjusted autoregulatorily based on performance markers.^[52] This strategy enhances recovery, reduces injury risk, and improves subsequent training preparedness by allowing physiological and psychological restoration.^[52] Expert consensus from coaches in strength sports supports deloads for sustaining long-term progress, with evidence indicating they prevent overtraining symptoms and boost adherence, though direct empirical studies remain limited.^[53]

Physiological Mechanisms

Aerobic Versus Anaerobic Exercise

Strength training primarily relies on anaerobic energy systems, which provide rapid bursts of energy without oxygen for high-intensity efforts lasting less than two minutes, such as weightlifting repetitions. These systems include the ATP-PC (adenosine triphosphate-phosphocreatine) pathway, which supplies immediate energy for the first 10-15 seconds of maximal effort by regenerating ATP from stored phosphocreatine in muscles, and anaerobic glycolysis, which breaks down glucose to produce ATP and lactate for activities up to about two minutes.^[54] In contrast, aerobic exercise depends on oxygen to metabolize carbohydrates and fats efficiently, generating ATP through oxidative phosphorylation for sustained efforts exceeding two minutes, such as running or cycling.^[55] The key differences lie in their physiological demands and adaptations: anaerobic training in strength exercises enhances power output but is limited by the accumulation of lactate, which lowers the pH in muscles and contributes to fatigue during intense sets.^[56] Aerobic training, however, boosts maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max), improving endurance capacity by enhancing mitochondrial density and oxygen delivery to muscles.^[57] There is overlap in hybrid approaches like circuit training, which alternates strength movements with minimal rest to engage both systems, allowing for concurrent development of power and cardiovascular efficiency.^[54] Combining aerobic and anaerobic training yields complementary benefits, including greater fat loss through increased metabolic rate and improved body composition, as well as enhanced cardiovascular health—such as better endothelial function—without significantly impairing strength gains when properly sequenced.^[58]^[59] This integration supports overall fitness by leveraging anaerobic efforts for neuromuscular power while incorporating aerobic components to sustain energy for longer sessions.^[57]

Neuromuscular Adaptations

Strength training induces significant neuromuscular adaptations that enhance force production and muscle efficiency, primarily through changes in the nervous system and muscle structure. Early strength gains, often observed within the first few weeks of training, are largely attributed to neural adaptations rather than substantial muscle growth. These include increased motor unit recruitment, where more motor units are activated during a given effort; elevated firing rates of motor units, allowing for higher frequency of contractions; and improved synchronization among motor units, leading to more coordinated and forceful muscle actions. Such neural efficiencies enable greater force output without initial hypertrophy, as evidenced by studies using electromyography to measure enhanced agonist muscle activation and reduced antagonist co-activation.^[60] At the muscular level, strength training promotes hypertrophy, the increase in muscle fiber size, which contributes to long-term strength improvements. Strength training promotes hypertrophy primarily through the enlargement of myofibrillar proteins (contractile elements) within muscle fibers, leading to increases in both strength and size. Increases in sarcoplasmic volume (non-contractile elements like glycogen stores) may also occur, potentially supporting metabolic capacity, though the distinction between these is debated and not always clearly delineated in research.^[61] Recent studies as of 2025 continue to explore training protocols aimed at emphasizing myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, though results indicate overlapping effects on muscle growth and strength.^[62] These adaptations occur preferentially in type II fast-twitch fibers, which are recruited during high-intensity efforts. Strength training can also induce shifts in muscle fiber types, with a tendency toward increased type II fiber proportions or conversions from type IIX to type IIA subtypes, enhancing power and fatigue resistance without altering the overall slow-twitch (type I) dominance seen in endurance activities.^[63]^[64] Hormonal responses play a key role in mediating these neuromuscular adaptations, with acute elevations in anabolic hormones following resistance exercise bouts. Testosterone and growth hormone levels spike post-training, particularly after high-volume or high-intensity sessions, promoting protein synthesis and satellite cell activation necessary for hypertrophy. These responses are influenced by factors such as load, volume, and rest intervals, with greater elevations observed in multi-joint exercises. The hypertrophic stimulus from strength training can be conceptualized as the product of three primary mechanisms: mechanical tension (force on muscle fibers), metabolic stress (accumulation of metabolites like lactate), and muscle damage (microtears repaired via regeneration), where hypertrophy ∝ mechanical tension × metabolic stress × muscle damage.^[65]^[66]^[67]

Health and Performance Benefits

Effects on Muscles, Bones, and Body Composition

Strength training induces hypertrophy in skeletal muscle fibers, primarily through type II fiber enlargement, leading to increased muscle cross-sectional area and overall mass. This adaptation enhances muscle strength and power, with meta-analyses showing gains of 20-40% in maximal strength after 8-12 weeks of progressive resistance programs in healthy adults. In older populations, such training effectively counters sarcopenia by preserving or increasing lean muscle mass, reducing the age-related loss that can exceed 1-2% annually after age 50.^[68]^[69]^[70] These muscular changes contribute to favorable shifts in body composition, including reduced fat mass and improved muscle-to-fat ratios. Consistent resistance training alone can decrease body fat percentage by 1-2% over 12-24 weeks, particularly when combined with moderate caloric control, while minimizing lean mass loss during weight reduction efforts. Meta-analyses confirm that resistance protocols promote visceral fat reduction and overall fat-free mass preservation, outperforming aerobic exercise in retaining muscle during energy deficits.^[71]^[72]^[73] On bones, strength training stimulates osteogenesis by applying mechanical stress, aligning with Wolff's law, which posits that bone remodels in response to imposed loads, increasing density where forces are greatest. Systematic reviews indicate that high-intensity resistance exercises, such as weightlifting or machine-based loading, elevate bone mineral density (BMD) by 1-3% at key sites like the lumbar spine and hip after 6-12 months, particularly in postmenopausal women and older adults at risk for osteoporosis. This loading enhances joint stability by strengthening surrounding musculature, thereby reducing the risk of osteoarthritis progression; longitudinal data show that regular strength training lowers the odds of radiographic knee osteoarthritis by 17-23% and mitigates cartilage degradation through improved biomechanics.^[74]^[75]^[76] Regarding posture and frailty-related functionality, strength training bolsters core and postural muscles, improving spinal alignment and reducing slouching tendencies associated with weakened abdominal and back extensors. Core-focused protocols enhance stability during dynamic movements, correlating with better balance and a 20-30% lower incidence of falls in community-dwelling older adults over follow-up periods of 6-12 months. Grip strength, a proxy for overall upper-body function, shows a strong positive correlation (explaining 20-30% of variance) with physical performance metrics like mobility and activities of daily living in the elderly, with training-induced improvements predicting reduced frailty markers such as slow gait speed.^[77]^[78]^[79]

Effects on Longevity, Mortality, and Frailty

Strength training has been consistently linked to reduced all-cause mortality risk in large-scale epidemiological studies and meta-analyses. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 prospective cohort studies involving over 480,000 participants found that engaging in muscle-strengthening activities, such as resistance exercise, was associated with a 10-17% lower risk of all-cause mortality, alongside reductions in cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and lung cancer mortality.^[80] Similarly, a 2023 scientific statement from the American Heart Association, synthesizing data from multiple cohorts, reported that adults participating in resistance training experienced approximately 15% lower all-cause mortality and 17% lower cardiovascular mortality compared to non-participants.^[81] An inverse dose-response relationship exists with muscle strength measures like grip strength; meta-analyses indicate that each 5 kg increase in handgrip strength correlates with a 14-16% reduction in all-cause mortality risk across community-dwelling populations.^[82] Regarding longevity, strength training supports cellular mechanisms that promote extended healthspan. Regular resistance exercise, particularly 1 hour or more per week, is associated with longer leukocyte telomere lengths—a biomarker of biological aging—in U.S. adults, potentially slowing cellular aging by up to 4 years compared to sedentary individuals.^[83] This telomere-protective effect may stem from reduced oxidative stress and enhanced DNA repair pathways activated by resistance stimuli. Additionally, strength training improves skeletal muscle mitochondrial function, increasing biogenesis and respiratory capacity, which counters age-related mitochondrial dysfunction and contributes to prolonged cellular vitality and lifespan extension in cohort observations.^[84] These adaptations mediate broader longevity benefits by preserving lean muscle mass, which buffers against sarcopenia and contributes to reduced biological aging, potentially equivalent to up to 4 fewer years of cellular aging.^[83] In terms of frailty, strength training effectively mitigates frailty progression in at-risk older populations, reducing the frailty index through gains in muscle power and functional capacity. A randomized controlled trial in obese older adults demonstrated that 18 months of resistance training, combined with weight loss, significantly improved physical function and reversed frailty status in 20-30% of participants, outperforming aerobic exercise alone.^[85] Meta-analyses of intervention studies confirm that progressive resistance programs decrease frailty prevalence by enhancing lower-body strength and balance, with effect sizes indicating 20-40% improvements in frailty-related outcomes like gait speed and chair-rise performance in frail elderly groups.^[86] This leads to practical benefits, including up to 46% lower all-cause hospitalization rates among older adults engaging in consistent resistance-based exercise programs, as observed in prospective cohorts tracking post-intervention health events.^[87]

Neurobiological and Inflammatory Effects

Strength training induces neurobiological adaptations that promote brain health, primarily through the upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a key protein involved in neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have demonstrated that resistance exercise significantly elevates circulating BDNF levels in healthy adults and those with neurological conditions, with effects observed after both acute bouts and chronic training programs lasting 8-12 weeks.^[88]^[89] These increases in BDNF support hippocampal neurogenesis, enhancing neuronal survival and connectivity, which contributes to overall cognitive resilience.^[90] Resistance training also yields cognitive benefits, particularly in executive functions such as selective attention, conflict resolution, and working memory. A 12-month randomized controlled trial in older adults found that once- or twice-weekly resistance training improved executive cognitive performance compared to balance training, with sustained effects measurable via standardized tests like the Stroop task.^[91] Similarly, meta-analyses confirm moderate-intensity resistance exercise enhances cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control, with acute sessions showing immediate post-exercise improvements in young adults.^[92]^[93] On the mental health front, strength training reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety through neuroplastic mechanisms and mood regulation. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials reported a moderate effect size (Hedges' g = 0.66) for resistance exercise in alleviating depressive symptoms, equivalent to approximately 30% reduction in severity scores on scales like the Beck Depression Inventory across diverse populations.^[94] For anxiety, systematic reviews indicate significant anxiolytic effects, with resistance training comparable to aerobic exercise in clinical and healthy groups, particularly when performed 2-3 times weekly for 8-12 weeks.^[95]^[96] In terms of inflammatory effects, strength training modulates chronic inflammation by lowering pro-inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Meta-analyses of older adults show resistance training reduces CRP levels with a standardized mean difference of -0.61 after 12-24 weeks, independent of body composition changes, with modest but non-significant effects on IL-6 (SMD -0.25).^[97]^[98] This anti-inflammatory action is mediated by myokines like irisin, released from contracting skeletal muscle, which inhibits pro-inflammatory pathways (e.g., NF-κB) and promotes anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10.^[99]^[100] Additionally, strength training mitigates oxidative stress, a contributor to aging-related inflammation, by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity (e.g., superoxide dismutase) and reducing reactive oxygen species, as evidenced in systematic reviews of chronic training protocols.^[101]^[102] Strength training favorably influences lipid profiles, with meta-analyses indicating small improvements such as increases in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (effect size 0.36) and decreases in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (effect size -0.45), though these effects are generally smaller than those from aerobic exercise and vary by population. In postmenopausal women, resistance training has been associated with LDL reductions of approximately 8.5 mg/dL but slight decreases in HDL of about 3 mg/dL after interventions.^[103]^[104] Emerging 2024 research highlights the role of strength training in modulating the gut-brain axis via alterations in microbiota composition, which may indirectly support neuroinflammation reduction and cognitive health through short-chain fatty acid production.^[105]^[106]

Impacts on Sports Performance and Posture

Strength training significantly enhances sports performance by increasing power output, as evidenced by meta-analyses showing moderate to large effect sizes on key metrics such as vertical jump height. In female adolescent team sport athletes, strength training programs yield a moderate effect size of 0.74 (95% CI: 0.31–1.17) on vertical jump performance, often translating to improvements of 10–20% in jump height depending on program duration and frequency.^[107] These gains are particularly pronounced with programs lasting 10 weeks or more at ≤2 sessions per week, enabling greater neuromuscular recruitment for explosive movements.^[107] Beyond power metrics, strength training contributes to injury prevention in sports by fortifying tendons and improving joint stability, notably reducing anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury risk. Systematic reviews indicate that training interventions, including core strengthening, decrease knee injury incidence by 25% (RR = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.65–0.85), with optimal effects from sessions of 5–15 minutes performed 4–5 times weekly over >26 weeks.^[108] This protective mechanism involves enhanced hamstring-quadriceps co-activation and reduced knee valgus angles during dynamic activities, thereby stabilizing the ACL.^[108] In terms of posture, balanced strength training programs exert corrective effects by addressing muscular imbalances and promoting spinal alignment. Targeted spine-strengthening exercises combined with posture training reduce thoracic kyphosis by approximately 3° as measured by Cobb angle (95% CI: -5.2 to -0.8) and kyphometer in older adults over 6 months.^[109] Core exercises further support this by enhancing trunk stability and reducing forward head posture or rounded shoulders, leading to improved overall postural alignment without adverse effects on physical function.^[109] For at-risk populations such as the elderly or those in rehabilitation, strength training improves proprioception, aiding balance and reducing fall risk through better joint position sense and neuromuscular coordination. Programs incorporating functional strength exercises over 12 weeks (3 sessions/week, 45 minutes each) enhance gait stability and lower limb control, with proprioceptive components targeting locomotion and level changes to boost postural feedback.^[110] Recent advancements as of 2025 integrate wearable technology for real-time posture tracking in athletes, enhancing strength training outcomes and injury prevention. Inertial measurement units (IMUs), the most common sensors, enable motion analysis for detecting postural deviations during training, with 47% of applications focused on rehabilitation and 44% on injury assessment, particularly for lower limb issues like knee sprains.^[111] These devices provide biofeedback to correct form, supporting sustained performance improvements in sports contexts.^[111]

Nutrition and Recovery

Nutritional Requirements

Strength training imposes specific nutritional demands to support muscle repair, energy provision, and overall adaptation. Adequate intake of macronutrients is essential for optimizing protein synthesis, glycogen replenishment, and hormonal balance in resistance-trained individuals.^[112] Protein requirements for strength training typically range from 1.6 to 2.2 grams per kilogram of body weight per day to maximize muscle protein synthesis and hypertrophy. This recommendation accounts for the increased demands of resistance exercise, where intakes below 1.6 g/kg may limit gains in lean mass, while exceeding 2.2 g/kg offers minimal additional benefits for most athletes. Higher-quality sources, such as whey or soy, are prioritized for their complete amino acid profiles to enhance recovery and performance.^[112]^[112]^[112] Carbohydrates serve as the primary energy source for high-intensity strength sessions, with recommended intakes of 4 to 7 grams per kilogram of body weight per day to maintain glycogen stores and support training volume. This range allows for sustained performance during repeated bouts of resistance exercise, particularly in programs involving multiple sets and moderate repetitions.^[113]^[113] Dietary fats should constitute 20 to 30 percent of total daily calories to support hormone production, including testosterone, which is crucial for muscle growth in strength athletes. This level ensures essential fatty acid intake without compromising carbohydrate or protein allocation, promoting overall metabolic health.^[114]^[114] Nutrient timing plays a key role in enhancing training outcomes, with 20 to 40 grams of protein consumed in the pre- and post-workout windows to stimulate muscle protein synthesis and reduce breakdown. For those aiming to build muscle mass, a moderate calorie surplus of 300 to 500 kilocalories above maintenance daily supports hypertrophy without excessive fat gain, while a controlled deficit facilitates fat loss during cutting phases. Proper nutrition also aids recovery processes during rest periods between sessions.^[112]^[113]^[115]^[115] Micronutrients are vital for supporting the physiological stresses of strength training, including bone integrity and oxygen transport. Calcium and vitamin D intakes of 1,000 to 1,200 milligrams and 600 to 2,000 international units per day, respectively, promote bone density and reduce fracture risk in weight-bearing activities. Iron, at 8 to 18 milligrams daily depending on sex and training intensity, is essential for hemoglobin formation and preventing fatigue from impaired oxygen delivery. Recent analyses indicate that plant-based diets can meet these needs for strength athletes through fortified foods and diverse sources, without compromising performance when total protein and calorie targets are achieved.^[116]^[116]^[117]

Supplementation and Hydration

Supplementation in strength training often involves compounds that support energy production, muscle recovery, and performance during high-intensity efforts. Creatine monohydrate is one of the most researched ergogenic aids, primarily enhancing phosphocreatine stores to replenish adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for short-duration, maximal efforts. A maintenance dose of 3-5 grams per day, following an optional loading phase of 20 grams per day for 5-7 days, has been shown to increase upper- and lower-body strength gains more than resistance training alone in various populations.^[118]^[119] A 2024 meta-analysis confirmed these benefits, particularly in adults under 50 years old during resistance training protocols.^[120] Protein supplementation, such as whey protein isolates or concentrates, provides a rapidly absorbed source of essential amino acids to stimulate muscle protein synthesis post-exercise, complementing dietary protein intake. Consuming 20-40 grams of whey protein immediately after training sessions has been associated with greater increases in skeletal muscle mass and handgrip strength compared to placebo in older adults engaging in resistance exercise.^[121] Beta-alanine supplementation, typically at 4-6 grams per day for 2-4 weeks, elevates muscle carnosine levels to buffer hydrogen ions during intense contractions, thereby improving exercise capacity in efforts lasting 1-4 minutes. The International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand notes consistent performance enhancements in high-intensity activities relevant to strength training.^[122] Emerging research on nitrate supplementation, often from beetroot juice providing 5-8 millimoles of nitrate, shows potential to modestly boost muscle power output in resistance exercises, particularly in females, by improving vascular function and oxygen efficiency. A 2025 systematic review indicated small ergogenic effects on power but no significant improvements in overall muscle strength across doses tested.^[123]^[124] Hydration is critical for maintaining performance and recovery in strength training, as even mild dehydration can impair strength output and increase fatigue. Baseline daily fluid intake for active adults is recommended at 3-4 liters, adjusted upward based on body size, climate, and sweat rate, with athletes targeting 5-7 milliliters per kilogram of body weight per hour during sessions to replace losses.^[125] During training lasting over 60 minutes, consuming 400-800 milliliters per hour, including electrolytes like sodium (300-600 milligrams per liter) and potassium, helps preserve electrolyte balance and prevent muscle cramps. The American College of Sports Medicine emphasizes monitoring urine color and body weight pre- and post-exercise to ensure losses stay below 2% of body mass.^[125] Safety considerations for these supplements include adhering to evidence-based dosing to minimize side effects. Creatine at recommended levels is safe for up to five years in healthy individuals, with rare gastrointestinal upset or water retention, though those with kidney conditions should consult a physician.^[126] Whey protein and beta-alanine are generally well-tolerated, but paresthesia (tingling) from beta-alanine can be mitigated by dividing doses. Interactions are minimal, but combining creatine with high caffeine intake (over 300 milligrams) may slightly attenuate strength benefits in some users due to potential interference with creatine uptake. Nitrate supplements pose low risk but may cause mild gastrointestinal discomfort at higher doses. Always verify purity through third-party testing and integrate supplements under professional guidance to avoid excesses.^[119]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Practices

The earliest evidence of strength training practices dates back to ancient civilizations around 3000 BCE, where physical conditioning was integral to survival, warfare, and ritual. In Minoan Crete, artifacts such as frescoes from Knossos depict wrestling and bull-leaping activities that required exceptional strength and agility, suggesting these were formalized training methods for young participants in athletic and possibly initiatory rites.^[127] Similarly, in ancient India, malla-yuddha, a form of combat wrestling, emerged as early as 3000 BCE, incorporating grappling techniques and bodyweight exercises to build power and endurance, as evidenced by archaeological depictions in South Asian regions including modern-day India and Pakistan.^[128] These practices emphasized functional strength for combat and cultural displays rather than isolated muscle development. In ancient Greece and Rome, strength training evolved further with legendary figures and structured regimens tied to military prowess. The wrestler Milo of Croton, active in the 6th century BCE, is renowned for carrying a newborn calf daily until it grew into a full-grown bull, exemplifying the principle of progressive overload—a gradual increase in resistance to build strength—that remains foundational today.^[129] This anecdote, preserved in historical accounts, underscores how Greek athletes trained for Olympic events like pankration, combining wrestling and striking to enhance overall power.^[130] Roman gladiators, trained in ludus schools from the 3rd century BCE onward, followed rigorous programs including weightlifting with halteres (dumbbell-like tools), running, and weighted weapon drills to prepare for arena combat, as described by physicians like Galen who advocated balanced conditioning for endurance and force.^[131]^[132] During the Middle Ages, strength training persisted through knightly preparation and Eastern traditions, often linked to feudal warfare and physical feats. European knights underwent intensive regimens from childhood, including lifting heavy stones, swinging weighted weapons, and performing armored calisthenics to develop the power needed for mounted combat and sieges, as outlined in medieval training manuals emphasizing practical endurance over aesthetics.^[133] In Persia and India, Indian clubs (meels or muggars), wooden or stone implements swung in circular patterns, were used by wrestlers and warriors since at least the 5th century BCE to cultivate rotational strength and coordination, with roots in Zoroastrian physical culture for military readiness.^[134] These tools, documented in ancient texts, facilitated dynamic exercises that improved grip, shoulder stability, and full-body power. By the 18th century, a cultural shift in Europe began transitioning strength displays from purely military or survival-oriented purposes to performative and aesthetic spectacles, influenced by Enlightenment ideals of the body as a harmonious form. Strongmen like Thomas Topham, active in the 1740s, captivated audiences with feats such as lifting 224-pound weights or pulling carts with their hair, blending raw power with theatricality in public shows that popularized physical culture beyond battlefields.^[135] This evolution culminated in the 19th century with Eugen Sandow, dubbed the "father of modern bodybuilding," who in the 1890s organized posing exhibitions in London, such as the 1901 Great Competition, shifting focus to muscular symmetry and visual appeal through progressive resistance methods.^[136] Sandow's performances, drawing thousands, marked the emergence of strength training as a pursuit of idealized physique, distinct from earlier utilitarian applications.^[137]

Modern Evolution and Research

The formalization of Olympic weightlifting occurred at the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896, where it debuted as one of the original sports, though initial events lacked standardized weight classes or lifts.^[138] In the mid-20th century, bodybuilding pioneer Joe Weider developed foundational training principles in the 1940s, emphasizing progressive overload and split routines to promote muscle growth, which became central to modern bodybuilding practices.^[139] Concurrently, during World War II, U.S. Army physician Thomas L. DeLorme introduced progressive resistance exercise in 1945 as a rehabilitation method for injured servicemen, using multiple sets of 10-repetition maximum loads that evolved into a structured three-set protocol by 1948, significantly shortening recovery times and establishing periodization concepts in clinical settings.^[140] The founding of the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) in 1978 marked a pivotal milestone in professionalizing strength training research and education, providing peer-reviewed journals and certifications that bridged scientific inquiry with practical application.^[141] In the 2000s, meta-analyses advanced evidence-based programming; for instance, a 2003 review by Rhea et al. demonstrated that periodized training programs yielded superior strength and power gains compared to non-periodized approaches across diverse populations, influencing widespread adoption in athletic and rehabilitative contexts.^[142] Later meta-analyses examining dose-response relationships quantified optimal training volumes for hypertrophy, showing that at least 10 weekly sets per muscle group maximized muscle growth without excessive fatigue.^[143] By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, strength training's global spread accelerated with greater inclusion of women, spurred by the 1972 enactment of Title IX in the U.S., which prohibited sex-based discrimination in education and dramatically increased female participation in school and collegiate sports, including resistance programs.^[144] This momentum culminated in women's Olympic weightlifting debut at the 2000 Sydney Games, standardizing female categories and promoting gender equity in the sport.^[145] The 2000s also saw the rise of functional training modalities, exemplified by CrossFit, founded in 2000 by Greg Glassman, which integrated high-intensity Olympic lifts, gymnastics, and metabolic conditioning to emphasize broad fitness adaptability and community-driven workouts.^[146] Recent advancements from 2024 to 2025 have incorporated artificial intelligence for program design, with a 2025 study assessing AI-generated resistance training plans for hypertrophy and strength as providing moderate-quality frameworks as rated by experienced coaches, offering a useful initial structure but requiring expert supervision for individualization and safety.^[147] Blood flow restriction training, originating in Japan in the 1960s but gaining traction through 21st-century meta-analyses, enables significant muscle hypertrophy at low loads (20-30% of 1RM) by occluding venous return, offering benefits for rehabilitation and older adults while minimizing joint stress.^[148]

Considerations for Subpopulations

Children and Adolescents

Strength training for children and adolescents, when properly supervised, can be a safe and effective component of physical development, with guidelines emphasizing age-appropriate progression to support growth without compromising safety. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends initiating resistance training as early as ages 5 to 7 years for children who demonstrate sufficient maturity, focusing on bodyweight exercises to build foundational skills rather than heavy loads. Supervision by qualified professionals, such as those certified by the National Strength and Conditioning Association, is crucial to provide real-time feedback and maintain appropriate instructor-to-participant ratios, ensuring proper technique takes precedence over maximal efforts to minimize injury risk. Among the key benefits, strength training enhances bone mineral density during the critical growth periods of childhood and adolescence, when skeletal loading can optimize peak bone mass accrual.^[149] Programs incorporating resistance exercises have been shown to increase bone strength index and overall mineralization, particularly when combined with weight-bearing activities.^[2] Additionally, it promotes motor skill development and physical literacy, improving coordination, balance, and overall movement proficiency in young participants.^[150] Recommended programs for this population typically involve 2 to 3 sessions per week, lasting 20 to 30 minutes, with 1 to 2 sets of 8 to 12 repetitions using bodyweight, free weights, or machines at moderate intensities (≤60% of one-repetition maximum initially). Progression should be gradual, incorporating dynamic warm-ups, core exercises, and adequate rest periods, with optimal gains observed after 8 to 12 weeks or longer durations exceeding 23 weeks. In prepubertal children, adaptations are primarily neurologic, enhancing strength through improved motor unit recruitment rather than muscle hypertrophy. Despite these advantages, risks arise from improper implementation, including overuse injuries such as muscle strains, low back pain, or hand injuries, which are more common with excessive loads or insufficient recovery. For instance, repetitive stress in youth sports can lead to conditions like Little League elbow (medial epicondyle apophysitis), an overuse injury to the elbow's growth plate often seen in throwing athletes.^[151] Common myths, such as the notion that strength training stunts linear growth or damages growth plates, have been debunked; well-designed programs show no adverse effects on height or skeletal development. During puberty, monitoring is essential as hormonal changes shift training responses toward hypertrophic gains, requiring adjustments in volume and intensity based on individual maturation and training experience to prevent overtraining.

Sex Differences in Adults

Adult men and women exhibit notable physiological differences in strength training outcomes, primarily driven by hormonal variations. Women typically have 10-15 times lower circulating testosterone levels than men.^[152] This contributes to a baseline strength disparity, particularly in the upper body where women typically demonstrate 40-50% lower absolute strength (or about 50-60% of men's levels).^[153] Despite this, both sexes experience similar relative gains in strength and muscle mass when normalized to baseline levels, indicating that training adaptations are comparably effective across genders.^[154]^[155] Muscle hypertrophy responses to resistance training are equivalent between men and women, challenging earlier assumptions of diminished growth in females. Studies show that women achieve proportional increases in muscle cross-sectional area with progressive overload, often matching or exceeding men's relative improvements in strength per unit of muscle mass.^[156]^[157] Programming for strength training should thus emphasize similar volumes and frequencies for both sexes, though initial loads for women may need adjustment to 40-50% lower than men's to account for baseline differences, particularly in upper-body exercises.^[158] Women may also tolerate higher training volumes due to greater fatigue resistance, allowing for extended sets without proportional strength loss.^[159] The menstrual cycle introduces phase-specific variations in women's training performance, with the follicular phase—marked by rising estrogen—often associated with peak strength and power output. Research indicates that anaerobic capacity and maximal lifts are optimized during this early cycle stage, potentially due to enhanced neuromuscular efficiency, while the luteal phase may slightly impair recovery or endurance.^[160]^[161] However, long-term adaptations to training programs remain unaffected by cycle phase, supporting consistent programming without mandatory periodization around menstruation.^[162] Socio-cultural factors have historically limited women's participation in strength training, including myths that heavy lifting causes excessive bulking or is unsuitable for females, which deter access and equity. These misconceptions stem from traditional gender roles and overlook women's capacity for lean muscle gains without masculinization, as lower testosterone prevents the same hypertrophic extremes seen in men.^[163]^[164] Recent data from 2025 highlight progress in female powerlifting, where participation has surged to nearly 31% of competitors, and records show women achieving 46-64% of male totals, narrowing performance gaps through increased training access and debunked stereotypes.^[165]^[166]^[167] Strength training considerations for transgender and non-binary individuals involve accounting for hormone therapy effects on muscle adaptations and recovery. For transgender women on estrogen therapy, strength gains may be moderated compared to cisgender women, while transgender men on testosterone may experience enhanced hypertrophy similar to cisgender men; individualized programming and medical consultation are recommended to optimize safety and efficacy.^[168]

Older Adults

Strength training offers significant benefits for older adults, helping to counteract age-related declines in muscle mass and function known as sarcopenia. Research spanning over 40 years demonstrates that it increases muscle strength and mass, improves motor function, and reduces frailty, with higher training intensities producing greater adaptations. For instance, progressive resistance exercises at 60–85% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) can lead to hypertrophy and enhanced neuromuscular efficiency after 6–9 weeks, preserving independence and mobility.^[169]^[170] In addition to physical gains, strength training enhances bone density, reducing osteoporosis risk and fracture incidence, particularly when combined with weight-bearing activities like weighted vests. It also improves metabolic health by boosting fat and glucose processing, combating sarcopenic obesity, and supporting overall vitality. Meta-analyses confirm improvements in quality of life domains such as physical functioning (standardized mean difference [SMD] 0.31), mental health, and reduced depression (SMD -1.13), alongside gains in upper- and lower-limb strength (mean differences of 15.26 kg and 48.46 kg, respectively). These effects extend to better balance, gait, and activities of daily living, lowering fall risk by up to 32–40% when integrated with aerobic exercise.^[169]^[171]^[172] Guidelines from authoritative bodies recommend 2–3 sessions per week on non-consecutive days, targeting major muscle groups with multijoint exercises. Programs should start at moderate intensity (40–60% 1RM for beginners, progressing to 60–80% 1RM), involving 2–3 sets of 8–12 repetitions to build strength and power without excessive fatigue. The National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) emphasizes individualized progression, such as 5–10% load increases as tolerated, and inclusion of power-focused movements (e.g., 40–60% 1RM at higher speeds) for functional improvements. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) outlines phased programs beginning with bodyweight exercises like squats and wall push-ups, advancing to dumbbells for curls and presses, to ensure safe adaptation over 12 weeks or more.^[69]^[9] Safety is paramount, as older adults may face higher injury risks from overuse or improper form, particularly with conditions like cardiovascular disease or arthritis. Medical clearance is advised for those with chronic illnesses, and training should avoid the Valsalva maneuver to prevent blood pressure spikes; supervised sessions with proper spotting minimize risks while maximizing benefits. Evidence shows that well-designed programs are safe and effective even for frail individuals, yielding 15–30% strength gains without adverse events when starting slowly and monitoring progress.^[69]^[9]

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Jul 20, 2021 · Multimodal exercise programs (i.e., aerobic, strength and/or balance) are the most prevalent intervention for preventing falls in older adults ...
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Grip Strength: An Indispensable Biomarker For Older Adults - PMC
Oct 1, 2019 · Grip strength is largely consistent as an explanator of concurrent overall strength, upper limb function, bone mineral density, fractures, falls, malnutrition, ...
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a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies
Muscle-strengthening activities were associated with a 10–17% lower risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease (CVD), total cancer, diabetes and lung ...
[79]
Resistance Exercise Training in Individuals With and Without ...
Dec 7, 2023 · Resistance training is a safe and effective approach for improving cardiovascular health in adults with and without cardiovascular disease.
[80]
Association of Grip Strength With Risk of All-Cause Mortality ...
Jun 1, 2017 · Conclusion: Grip strength was an independent predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular diseases in community-dwelling populations.
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Telomere Length and Biological Aging: The Role of Strength ... - NIH
Oct 30, 2024 · Adults who strength trained for one hour or more per week (the highest category) had significantly longer telomeres than those who did not ...
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Impact of Resistance Training on Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial ...
Sep 14, 2017 · Reports indicate that traditional high-load resistance exercise can stimulate muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial respiratory function.
[83]
Study: Strength Training May Add Up to 4 Years to Your Life
Dec 30, 2024 · Researchers found that strength training for 90 minutes a week was linked with slowing down biological aging by almost four years. Experts ...
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Aerobic or Resistance Exercise, or Both, in Dieting Obese Older Adults
May 18, 2017 · In conclusion, our study showed that weight loss plus resistance training or aerobic training improved physical function and ameliorated frailty ...
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Comparison of Power Training vs Traditional Strength Training on ...
May 11, 2022 · This systematic review and meta-analysis compares strength training vs power training for improving physical function in adults aged 60 ...
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Exercise Cuts Hospitalization Risk in Older Adults - Medscape
Sep 9, 2024 · The risk for all-cause hospitalization was 46% (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.54; P = .01) lower in older adults who participated in the exercise ...Missing: resistance elderly
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The impact of resistance training on brain-derived neurotrophic ...
Our systematic review and meta-analysis provides evidence that resistance training can significantly increase BDNF levels and reduce depressive symptoms among ...
[88]
Effects of Resistance Exercise on Neuroprotective Factors in Middle ...
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to 1) estimate the efficacy of resistance exercise on major neuroprotective factors, such as insulin-like growth ...
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Impact of physical exercise on the regulation of brain-derived ...
This review explores the impact of physical exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its relationship with neurodegenerative diseases.
[90]
Resistance Training & Executive Functions: 12-Month RCT
Jan 25, 2010 · Twelve months of once-weekly or twice-weekly resistance training benefited the executive cognitive function of selective attention and conflict resolution ...
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Effects of Acute Resistance Exercise on Executive Function
Dec 8, 2022 · Moderate intensity resistance exercise has a beneficial effect on working memory and cognitive flexibility. Introduction. A growing body of ...
[92]
a systematic umbrella review and meta-meta-analysis
These findings provide strong evidence that exercise, even light intensity, benefits general cognition, memory and executive function across all populations.
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Association of Efficacy of Resistance Exercise Training With ...
May 9, 2018 · Resistance exercise training was associated with a significant reduction in depressive symptoms, with a moderate-sized mean effect.
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Effects of resistance exercise training on depressive symptoms ...
Aug 2, 2023 · The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Sports ...
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The Effects of Aerobic and Resistance Exercise on Depression and ...
Aerobic, resistance, or a mixture of aerobic and resistance exercise is beneficial for improving symptoms of depression and anxiety.
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Effect of resistance training on inflammatory markers of older adults
Oct 1, 2018 · Results: The main meta-analyses showed RT reduced CRP in older adults (standard mean difference [SMD] = -0.61, 95%CI = -0.83; -0.31, p < 0.001), ...
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Effect of resistance training on inflammatory markers in middle-aged ...
Jun 14, 2024 · Resistance training reduces CRP, IL6, and TNF-α levels among middle-aged and elderly people. However, it has no significant anti-inflammatory effects on TNF-α.
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Irisin reduces inflammatory signaling pathways in inflammation ...
Jul 15, 2022 · Irisin is an exercise induced myokine that inhibits pro-inflammatory pathways. Irisin reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines and increases anti-inflammatory ...
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“Irisin Reduces Inflammatory Signaling Pathways in Inflammation ...
This review aims to describe the role of irisin in inflammatory processes and understand how targeting irisin can alter the inflammatory response in metabolic ...
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Physical Activity and Oxidative Stress in Aging - PubMed Central - NIH
Regular physical activity, particularly aerobic and resistance training, induces mild oxidative stress and inflammation, which triggers adaptive responses ...
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Effect of Different Exercise Modalities on Oxidative Stress: A ...
Feb 11, 2021 · We found that different intensities of resistance training can effectively reduce the oxidative damage in the participants when compared to the ...Abstract · Introduction · Results · Discussion
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Effect of Strength Training on Lipid and Inflammatory Outcomes
Jun 1, 2019 · Conclusion: ST promotes decreases in TC, TG, LDL, and CRP levels and increases HDL and adiponectin concentrations. Thus, progressive ST ...
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Effect of resistance training on lipid profile in postmenopausal women
Resistance training can decrease TC, LDL-C and TG levels in postmenopausal females. The impact of resistance training on HDL-C levels was small.
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The relationship between the gut microbiome and resistance training
This study aims to describe the effect of resistance or strength training on the gut microbiome of a human population.
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Physical activity, gut microbiota and the nexuses of metabolic and ...
Jul 8, 2024 · Exercise and physical activity are efficient methods for enhancing physical, metabolic, and mental health, which are often GM-mediated.
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Effects of Strength and Plyometric Training on Vertical Jump, Linear ...
Jun 1, 2025 · Meta-analyses revealed that ST and PT exhibited significant (p < 0.05) and moderate to large effects on VJ (ST, ES: 0.74, moderate; PT, ES: 0.87 ...
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The effects of training intervention on the prevention of knee joint ...
Feb 23, 2025 · Previous studies have shown that core strength training can prevent ACL injuries by increasing the co-activation ratio of the hamstring and ...
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Targeted spine strengthening exercise and posture training program ...
Jul 8, 2017 · A 6-month randomized controlled trial of spine-strengthening exercise and posture training reduced both radiographic and clinical measures of kyphosis.
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Proprioceptive and Strength Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Falls in ...
Jan 12, 2024 · This type of program should last 6 or more weeks and be prescribed based on four movement pillars (locomotion, level changes, pulling and pushing, and ...
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Sensor-based technologies for motion analysis in sports injuries
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International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and ...
Jun 20, 2017 · There is novel evidence that suggests higher protein intakes (>3.0 g/kg/d) may have positive effects on body composition in resistance-trained ...
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International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutrient timing
Aug 29, 2017 · Recommended daily intakes of carbohydrate are commonly reported to be 5–12 g/kg/day, with the upper end of this range (8–10 g/kg/day) reserved ...
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Current knowledge about sports nutrition - PMC - NIH
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International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body ...
Jun 14, 2017 · The implication of these findings is that reducing the proportion of dietary fat can cause a de facto reduction of total energy intake, thereby ...
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Vitamin Needs of Athletes - Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
Oct 27, 2021 · Exercise may cause some iron losses or decreased absorption. ... Some vitamins and minerals promote bone health, including vitamin D and calcium.
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Micronutrients and athletic performance: A review - PubMed
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Are Plant-Based Diets Detrimental to Muscular Strength? A ... - NIH
Jun 2, 2025 · This meta-analysis suggests that PBDs do not compromise muscular strength compared to omnivorous diets.
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Does oral creatine supplementation improve strength? A meta ...
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safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport ...
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Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training on ...
Creatine supplementation with resistance training enhances upper- and lower-body muscle strength in adults aged < 50, with greater benefits likely to be seen ...
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Effectiveness of Whey Protein Supplementation during Resistance ...
Aug 2, 2023 · WP supplementation during RET is more effective in increasing handgrip strength and skeletal muscle mass in older people with Sarcopenia.
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International society of sports nutrition position stand: Beta-Alanine
Jul 15, 2015 · Daily supplementation with 4 to 6 g of beta-alanine for at least 2 to 4 weeks has been shown to improve exercise performance.Missing: meta- analysis
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Does Nitrate Supplementation Improve Muscle Strength, Power, and ...
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The effect of dietary nitrate supplementation on resistance exercise ...
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American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and ...
This Position Stand provides guidance on fluid replacement to sustain appropriate hydration of individuals performing physical activity.
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Creatine - Mayo Clinic
Safety and side effects. When used orally at appropriate doses, creatine is likely safe to take for up to five years. As with any dietary supplement, it's ...
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Minoan Crete - OLYMPIC GAMES
Minoans practiced boxing, wrestling, bull-leaping, and acrobatics. These activities were part of training, possibly religious rites, and organized as ...Missing: artifacts strength 3000<|separator|>
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The Origins of the Top 5 Most Ancient Martial Arts that are Still ...
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Mechanisms of mechanical overload-induced skeletal muscle ...
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[PDF] Determination of static contraction times to exhaustion for given ...
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How the Romans Kept Fit - English Heritage
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Gladiators: Types and Training - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Aug 1, 2023 · During the first stage of training, gladiators often practiced with wooden weapons to avoid unnecessary injuries and to build stamina, as they ...
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The Fascinating Story of the First Bodybuilding Show - BarBend
Oct 2, 2024 · The man in question is Eugen Sandow, a Prussian born physical culturist whose celebrity during the 1890s and early 1900s spread throughout much of the English ...
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The History of Olympic Weightlifting
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The Weider Principles - Muscle & Fitness
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Thomas L. DeLorme and the science of progressive resistance ...
In 1945, an army physician, Dr. Thomas L. DeLorme experimented with a new rehabilitation technique. DeLorme had used strength training to recover from a ...Missing: periodization 1940s
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National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA)
### Summary of NSCA Content
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A meta-analysis of periodized versus nonperiodized strength and ...
It is concluded that PER training is more effective than Non-PER training for men and women, individuals of varying training backgrounds, and for all age ...
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A meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength ...
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The origins of Title IX - NCAA.org
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The History of CrossFit - Revival Fitness
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A professional assessment of training plans for muscle hypertrophy ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of resistance training plans for muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength generated by three large language ...
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The Evolution of Blood Flow Restricted Exercise - PMC
Dec 2, 2021 · The BFR technique originated in Japan by Yoshiaki Sato around the year 1960. The process began with self-experimentation, with Sato using the ...
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Strength Training in Children and Adolescents - NIH
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Strength training for children and adolescents - PubMed
A youth strength-training program has the potential to increase bone mineral density, improve motor performance skills, enhance sports performance.
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Elbow Injuries in Young Throwers - Nationwide Children's Hospital
The most common elbow injury in young baseball players is medial epicondyle apophysitis, better known as “little league elbow.” This is an overuse injury to one ...
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Testosterone and androgen receptors in females - NIH
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The Biological Basis of Sex Differences in Athletic Performance
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Biological Sex Differences in Absolute and Relative Changes in ...
Apr 28, 2024 · Males show superior absolute muscle size increases after resistance training, but relative increases are similar between sexes. Type I muscle ...
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Do men and women build muscle and strength differently?
Apr 30, 2025 · Yes, men tend to gain more total muscle mass and absolute strength, but it's the relative increases in muscle mass and strength that we're ...
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Muscle hypertrophy in men and women - PubMed
It is widely believed that women experience less skeletal muscle hypertrophy consequent to heavy-resistance training than men.
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Comparison of upper body strength gains between men and women ...
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Should Women Train Like Men? - StrengthLog
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Why Women Can Handle More Training Volume Than Men | BarBend
Jul 21, 2023 · While men can handle heavier loads in shorter time spans (think 90%+ of their 1RM), women are more set up to perform tasks of strength over a longer period of ...
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Effects of Follicular and Luteal Phase-Based Menstrual Cycle ...
Apr 26, 2022 · Studies demonstrate that anaerobic capacity and muscle strength are greatest during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, when estrogen levels peak.
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How your menstrual cycle affects strength training - Clue app
Some research has found that strength training during the follicular phase resulted in higher increases in muscle strength compared to training in the luteal ...
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Effects of menstrual cycle phases on athletic performance and ...
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Strength training for women: debunking myths that block opportunity
Traditional gender roles and differences in absolute strength have resulted in misconceived approaches to strength training for women.
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[PDF] Strength-Training-for-Women-Debunking-Myths-That-Block ...
Myth 2: Women should use different train- ing methods than men. Women are often en- couraged to use weight machines and slow, controlled movements out of a ...Missing: socio- barriers equity
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Young Women are Starting Powerlifting in Record Numbers
Oct 13, 2024 · Women's participation in powerlifting has increased from 18.4% in 2010 to 30.9% in 2023, with women aged 21-25 growing at 13.3% per year.
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Evolution of resistance training in women: History and mechanisms ...
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(PDF) Beyond the Barbell: Women in Strength-Based Sports and the ...
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The Intensity and Effects of Strength Training in the Elderly - PMC
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A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Resistance Training on ...
Aug 13, 2022 · The purpose of this meta-analysis was to investigate the efficacy of resistance training on quality of life, depression, muscle strength, and functional ...
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Physical Activity and Function in Older Age: It's Never too Late to Start!
The 2018 PAGAC Scientific Report provides strong evidence that physical activity reduces the risk of fall-related injuries in older people by 32-40%.