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Transverse colon

The transverse colon is the third segment of the large intestine, representing its longest and most mobile portion, with an average length of approximately 50 cm. It extends horizontally across the abdomen in an intraperitoneal position, connecting the ascending colon at the right colic (hepatic) flexure to the descending colon at the left colic (splenic) flexure, and is suspended by the transverse mesocolon attached along the inferior border of the pancreas. This central structure facilitates the propulsion and processing of digestive contents, contributing to the absorption of water and electrolytes while compacting waste into feces.^[1]^[2]^[3] Structurally, the transverse colon features the typical layers of the large intestine, including mucosa, submucosa, muscularis propria, and serosa, with taeniae coli (longitudinal muscle bands), haustra (sacculations), and appendices epiploicae (fat-filled pouches of peritoneum). Its high mobility, enabled by the mesentery with an average perpendicular height of 7.4 cm, allows adaptation to abdominal movements but can predispose it to conditions like volvulus or redundancy in certain pathologies. The blood supply primarily arises from the middle colic artery, a branch of the superior mesenteric artery, with venous drainage via the corresponding middle colic vein into the superior mesenteric vein; anastomoses with the left colic artery form the marginal artery, ensuring collateral circulation.^[1]^[2]^[1] Innervation of the transverse colon is divided along its length: the proximal two-thirds receives parasympathetic and sympathetic input from the superior mesenteric plexus, while the distal third is supplied by the inferior mesenteric plexus, supporting both motor and sensory functions essential for peristalsis and defecation reflexes. Clinically, the transverse colon can be affected by colorectal adenocarcinoma and is often involved in surgical procedures such as partial colectomy for cancer or inflammatory bowel disease, where its mobility aids in resection and anastomosis.^[1]^[3]

Anatomy

Location and relations

The transverse colon is the longest segment of the large intestine, typically measuring 40 to 50 cm in length, and extends horizontally across the abdomen from the right colic (hepatic) flexure, located near the right lobe of the liver, to the left colic (splenic) flexure, situated near the spleen, forming a downwardly convex arched loop that traverses the epigastric and umbilical regions.^[1]^[4]^[5] This positioning places it in the subcostal plane, inferior to the diaphragm, with its course influenced by the distention of adjacent viscera such as the stomach.^[6] It is suspended within the peritoneal cavity by the transverse mesocolon, a fold of peritoneum that attaches along the anterior surface of the pancreas, conferring greater mobility compared to the ascending and descending colons, which are retroperitoneal.^[1]^[4] The transverse colon lies anterior to the second part of the duodenum, the head of the pancreas, and coils of the jejunum and ileum, while posteriorly it relates to the root of the mesentery and portions of the small intestine.^[6]^[5] Superiorly, from right to left, it is in relation to the liver and gallbladder, the greater curvature of the stomach, and the spleen, with ligamentous connections such as the hepatocolic and phrenicocolic ligaments stabilizing the flexures.^[5]^[4] Inferiorly, it overlies loops of the small bowel, and anteriorly it is covered by the greater omentum and the anterior abdominal wall.^[6]^[5]

Gross and microscopic structure

The transverse colon exhibits distinctive gross features that contribute to its structure and mobility within the abdomen. It is the longest segment of the colon, measuring up to 45 cm in length, with a lumen diameter of approximately 6-7 cm, wider than that of the small intestine.^[5]^[7] This segment displays sacculations called haustra, which are formed by the puckering action of the three longitudinal smooth muscle bands known as taeniae coli—named the mesocolic, omental, and free taeniae.^[6]^[7] Additionally, the external surface bears epiploic appendages, which are small, pedunculated pouches of fat-filled peritoneum.^[6]^[7] Unlike the retroperitoneally fixed ascending and descending colons, the transverse colon is entirely intraperitoneal, suspended by the transverse mesocolon—a broad peritoneal fold that attaches to the posterior abdominal wall along the anterior aspect of the pancreas—conferring it significant mobility.^[6]^[8] The wall of the transverse colon is organized into four concentric layers, characteristic of the gastrointestinal tract. The outermost serosa consists of a thin layer of visceral peritoneum, providing a smooth covering where the colon is intraperitoneal.^[9]^[7] Beneath this lies the muscularis externa, comprising an inner continuous circular layer of smooth muscle and an outer longitudinal layer that is thickened and gathered into the taeniae coli, which converge at the rectosigmoid junction to form a complete muscular coat.^[6]^[7] The submucosa is a supportive layer of loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatics, and the submucosal (Meissner) plexus of nerves.^[9]^[7] Innermost is the mucosa, which lacks villi and plicae circulares, distinguishing it from the small intestine.^[7] At the microscopic level, the transverse colon's mucosa is lined by a simple columnar epithelium composed primarily of absorptive enterocytes and goblet cells, the latter increasing in density from right to left along the colon to facilitate mucus production.^[7] This epithelium forms straight, tubular invaginations called crypts of Lieberkühn, which extend through the mucosal layer and are densely packed with goblet cells, stem cells, enteroendocrine cells, and, in the proximal colon, Paneth cells.^[7] The underlying lamina propria is a loose connective tissue matrix rich in capillaries, lymphatics, plasma cells, eosinophils, and scattered lymphoid follicles.^[7] Separating the mucosa from the submucosa is the thin muscularis mucosae, a layer of smooth muscle fibers.^[7] The submucosa and muscularis propria also house lymphoid aggregates and the myenteric (Auerbach) plexus, respectively, supporting structural integrity.^[7]

Embryology

Developmental origin

The transverse colon originates primarily from the midgut, which contributes its proximal two-thirds, and the hindgut, which forms the distal one-third, during embryonic development between weeks 5 and 10 of gestation.^[10]^[11] The primitive gut tube, derived from endoderm, initially forms as a straight structure in the early embryo, with the midgut extending from the distal duodenum to the proximal transverse colon and the hindgut continuing distally.^[12] This segmentation occurs as the gut differentiates based on arterial supply, with the midgut vascularized by the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and the hindgut by the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA).^[10] The transverse colon forms through the elongation and rotation of the embryonic gut, particularly involving the midgut loop, which undergoes a 270-degree counterclockwise rotation around the axis of the SMA between weeks 6 and 10.^[12]^[11] Due to rapid growth outpacing the abdominal cavity's expansion, the midgut herniates into the extraembryonic coelom through the umbilical ring around week 6, forming a U-shaped loop that positions the future transverse colon transversely upon its return to the abdomen by week 10.^[10] This herniation and subsequent retraction, accompanied by the rotation, establish the transverse orientation of the colon in the adult peritoneal cavity.^[12] A key vascular landmark in this development is the transition at the distal third of the transverse colon, where supply shifts from the middle colic artery (a branch of the SMA, reflecting midgut origin) to branches of the IMA (hindgut derivative).^[11]^[12] Early positioning of the midgut loop is facilitated by the vitelline duct, which connects the apex of the loop to the yolk sac, and the omphalomesenteric (vitelline) vessels, which provide initial nourishment and structural support during herniation.^[10] The vitelline duct typically obliterates by weeks 5 to 9, aiding the loop's proper alignment as it returns to the abdomen.^[11] This process contributes to the transverse colon's notable mobility in the adult.^[12]

Congenital anomalies

Congenital anomalies of the transverse colon arise from disruptions in embryonic gut development, particularly during midgut rotation and fixation phases. Intestinal malrotation, a key anomaly affecting the transverse colon, results from incomplete counterclockwise rotation of the midgut, leading to abnormal positioning where the colon fails to cross the abdomen properly and remains on the right side.^[13] This positions the transverse colon in a non-standard location, often with a narrow mesenteric base that predisposes it to midgut volvulus, a life-threatening twisting that can compromise blood supply.^[14] Malrotation occurs in approximately 1 in 500 live births, though many cases remain asymptomatic until adulthood.^[15] A mobile cecum or redundant transverse colon represents another developmental variant, characterized by excessive mesenteric length or failure of the ascending and transverse colon segments to fuse adequately to the posterior abdominal wall during embryogenesis.^[16] This results in undue mobility of the right colon and transverse segment, allowing looping or torsion that increases susceptibility to cecal or transverse colon volvulus, particularly under conditions of colonic distension.^[17] Redundancy in the transverse colon specifically involves an elongated loop that may sag inferiorly or displace other viscera, contributing to chronic symptoms like intermittent obstruction if symptomatic.^[18] Colonic atresia or stenosis, though rare in the transverse segment, stems from failed recanalization of the intestinal lumen or vascular insults during fetal development, creating complete or partial blockages that manifest as neonatal bowel obstruction.^[19] Transverse colon atresia accounts for a subset of colonic atresias, with an overall incidence of about 1 in 66,000 live births, often presenting with abdominal distension, bilious vomiting, and failure to pass meconium shortly after birth.^[20] Stenosis, a milder form, involves luminal narrowing without complete interruption, similarly disrupting transit and requiring early intervention to prevent perforation.^[21] These anomalies may associate with situs inversus totalis, a mirror-image reversal of abdominal organs that can alter transverse colon orientation and heighten malrotation risks, or other gut malpositions like nonrotation.^[22] Diagnosis typically involves prenatal ultrasound for suspected cases or postnatal imaging such as upper gastrointestinal barium studies to visualize abnormal positioning and contrast flow.^[23]

Physiology

Primary functions

The transverse colon, as part of the large intestine, contributes to the absorption of water, electrolytes such as sodium and chloride, and short-chain fatty acids from the chyme received from the small intestine, thereby transforming the liquid chyme into semi-solid feces.^[9] The large intestine reabsorbs approximately 90% of the water entering the colon—typically 1 to 1.5 liters per day—primarily in the ascending and transverse segments through osmotic gradients driven by active sodium transport in the colonic epithelium.^[24]^[9] This process is facilitated by the colonic epithelial cells, which utilize sodium-chloride cotransporters for electroneutral absorption, maintaining fluid and electrolyte homeostasis.^[25] Gut microbiota in the transverse colon ferment undigested carbohydrates and fibers, producing short-chain fatty acids (such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate), vitamins K and B (including biotin), and gases like hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide.^[9] These short-chain fatty acids serve as an energy source for colonocytes and contribute to mucosal integrity, while the vitamins are absorbed into the bloodstream to support coagulation and metabolic functions.^[26] The transverse orientation of the colon enhances this fermentation by promoting thorough mixing of contents through haustral contractions, which slowly agitate the chyme to optimize microbial activity and nutrient exposure.^[9] Goblet cells in the transverse colon mucosa secrete mucus to lubricate the luminal surface, protect against mechanical abrasion and pathogens, and facilitate the smooth transit of fecal matter.^[27] This secretion also aids in pH regulation, maintaining a mildly acidic to neutral environment of approximately 5.5 to 7.0, which supports optimal microbial fermentation and prevents overgrowth of harmful bacteria.^[28] The transverse colon contributes to fecal continence by providing storage capacity for formed stool, allowing temporary accumulation before propulsion to the descending colon and rectum, thus enabling voluntary control over defecation.^[29]

Motility and transit

The motility of the transverse colon involves coordinated contractions that facilitate mixing and slow propulsion of luminal contents, distinct from the rapid transit of the small intestine. Haustral contractions, mediated by the circular muscle layer, produce slow, segmental movements that divide the colon into sacculations known as haustra. These contractions occur approximately every 30 minutes and last about 1 minute each, stimulated by distension from chyme or residue, resulting in back-and-forth shuttling that mixes contents to enhance contact with the mucosa for absorption.^[30]^[9] In contrast, mass movements represent powerful, propagating contractions that propel larger volumes of contents distally. These occur 1–3 times daily, often initiated by the gastrocolic reflex following a meal, with activity most pronounced in the transverse and left colon. Starting midway through the transverse colon, each mass movement can last up to 30 minutes, relaxing haustra to allow uniform peristalsis that advances material toward the splenic flexure.^[31]^[30]^[32] Transit through the transverse colon typically takes 10–15 hours, longer than the 3–5 hours in the small intestine, due to the colon's haustra, greater mobility, and emphasis on mixing over rapid propulsion. This extended duration allows for gradual dehydration and formation of feces. Overall colonic transit averages 30–40 hours (range 10–70 hours), with the transverse segment accounting for approximately 25–32% of total time, varying by sex and individual factors.^[33]^[34]^[35] Gas within the transverse colon is propelled via similar mechanisms, with haustral contractions aiding dispersion and mass movements facilitating antegrade movement. Occasional anti-peristaltic waves in this region promote retrograde mixing, preventing premature evacuation and allowing additional time for gas reabsorption or accommodation.^[9]^[36]

Vascular and neural supply

Blood supply

The arterial supply to the transverse colon derives from both the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA), corresponding to its embryological development from the midgut and hindgut, respectively. The proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon receives blood primarily from the middle colic artery, which arises directly from the SMA and divides into right and left branches to form arterial arcades within the transverse mesocolon. These arcades give rise to vasa recta that penetrate the colonic wall to supply the antimesenteric border. In contrast, the distal third of the transverse colon is supplied by the ascending branch of the left colic artery, a branch of the IMA, ensuring perfusion to the region approaching the splenic flexure.^[1]^[6] A critical feature of this vascular arrangement is the marginal artery of Drummond, an anastomotic chain that runs parallel to the colon along its mesenteric border, connecting the terminal branches of the middle colic artery with those of the left colic artery. This arcade facilitates collateral circulation, allowing blood flow redistribution in cases of occlusion in either the SMA or IMA territories, and is supported by additional interconnecting arcades within the mesentery that provide redundancy to the overall supply. The hepatic and splenic flexures represent watershed areas where the arterial territories converge, making these regions particularly susceptible to ischemia during periods of hypotension or vascular compromise due to relatively sparse anastomoses and reliance on the marginal artery's patency.^[37]^[38] Venous drainage of the transverse colon parallels its arterial supply, with veins accompanying the corresponding arteries to form a network that ultimately converges on the portal venous system. The middle colic vein drains the proximal two-thirds, emptying into the superior mesenteric vein (SMV), while the left colic vein handles the distal third, draining into the inferior mesenteric vein (IMV). The IMV typically drains into the splenic vein, which then joins the SMV to form the portal vein, directing nutrient-rich blood from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver for processing. This parallel venous architecture maintains efficient return of absorbed substances and helps prevent localized congestion through interconnections similar to the arterial arcades.^[1]^[39]

Lymphatic drainage and innervation

The lymphatic drainage of the transverse colon follows pathways that parallel its arterial supply, beginning with epicolic and paracolic nodes along the colon wall, progressing to intermediate colic nodes associated with the middle colic vessels, and then to principal nodes within the superior mesenteric group for the proximal two-thirds of the colon.^[5] The distal third drains via left colic nodes to the inferior mesenteric nodes.^[40] From these regional nodes, lymphatics converge toward the cisterna chyli, facilitating the transport of lipids and immune cells while serving as a critical route for metastatic spread in colorectal cancers affecting the transverse colon.^[41] Innervation of the transverse colon involves autonomic and enteric components that regulate motility, secretion, and vascular tone. Parasympathetic supply to the proximal two-thirds arises from the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), which promotes peristalsis and glandular secretion via the superior mesenteric plexus, while the distal third receives fibers from pelvic splanchnic nerves (S2–S4) through the inferior mesenteric plexus, similarly enhancing motility and secretion.^[1] Sympathetic innervation originates from thoracic splanchnic nerves (T5–T12) for the proximal portion, conveyed through the superior mesenteric plexus to inhibit peristalsis, constrict blood vessels, and reduce secretion, and from lumbar splanchnic nerves (L1–L2) for the distal segment via the inferior mesenteric plexus, exerting comparable inhibitory effects.^[42] The enteric nervous system provides intrinsic control through the myenteric (Auerbach's) plexus, located between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers to coordinate peristaltic contractions, and the submucosal (Meissner's) plexus, situated in the submucosa to regulate local secretion and blood flow in response to luminal contents.^[43] These plexuses enable reflex arcs independent of central input, integrating sensory input from mucosal mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors to maintain segmental propulsion and absorption in the transverse colon.^[44]

Clinical significance

Associated disorders

The transverse colon is susceptible to several pathological conditions, with colorectal cancer being one of the most prevalent. Adenocarcinoma, the predominant histological type of colorectal cancer, can arise in the transverse colon, though this segment is less commonly affected compared to others. Transverse colon cancers represent approximately 10% of all colon cancers.^[45]^[46] Risk factors include advancing age over 50 years, diets low in fiber and high in processed meats or fats, sedentary lifestyle, obesity, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and genetic predispositions such as Lynch syndrome.^[47] Common symptoms encompass changes in bowel habits like diarrhea or constipation, rectal bleeding or blood-streaked stools, abdominal cramps or pain, a sensation of incomplete evacuation, unexplained weight loss, and in advanced cases, intestinal obstruction leading to nausea and vomiting.^[47]^[46] Volvulus of the transverse colon, though rarer than sigmoid volvulus, occurs due to the segment's inherent mobility, resulting in twisting around its mesentery and acute large bowel obstruction.^[48] This condition is more prevalent among elderly individuals aged 50 to 80, those with chronic constipation or prior abdominal surgery.^[48] Symptoms typically include sudden abdominal pain and distension, bloating, nausea, vomiting, and obstipation, with potential progression to fever, tachycardia, and shock if ischemia develops.^[48] Diverticulitis in the transverse colon involves inflammation of diverticula, which are small pouches forming along the taeniae coli, but this site is less commonly affected compared to the sigmoid colon.^[49] Risk factors mirror those for diverticular disease overall, including age over 50, low-fiber diet, obesity, smoking, physical inactivity, and use of medications such as NSAIDs, opioids, or steroids.^[50] Patients often present with acute left- or mid-abdominal pain, fever, nausea, tenderness on palpation, and alterations in bowel habits such as diarrhea or constipation.^[50] Ischemic colitis preferentially impacts the transverse colon at watershed areas, such as the splenic flexure, where blood supply is marginal and vulnerable to hypoperfusion from low-flow states like hypotension or dehydration.^[51] This non-occlusive ischemia arises from underlying conditions including atherosclerosis, heart failure, or medications that vasoconstrict vessels, leading to mucosal injury.^[51] Characteristic symptoms include sudden crampy abdominal pain, often in the mid- or left abdomen, urgent defecation, and bloody diarrhea, with maroon or bright red blood in the stool.^[51] Inflammatory bowel disease can involve the transverse colon in both Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, though patterns differ. Crohn's disease, a transmural inflammation, may discontinuously affect the transverse colon as part of ileocolonic or pancolonic involvement, with risk factors including family history, smoking, and northern European or Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.^[52] Ulcerative colitis typically causes continuous mucosal inflammation extending proximally from the rectum to include the transverse colon in extensive or pancolitis cases.^[53] Shared symptoms include chronic diarrhea (often bloody in ulcerative colitis), abdominal cramping, urgency, tenesmus, fatigue, fever, and weight loss.^[53]^[52]

Surgical considerations

Surgical considerations for the transverse colon primarily arise in the context of oncologic resections, where the segment's involvement in malignancies necessitates inclusion in broader colectomy procedures. For cancers affecting the transverse colon, extended right hemicolectomy extends the distal margin to include the proximal or mid-transverse colon, while extended left hemicolectomy incorporates the distal transverse segment up to the splenic flexure, ensuring adequate lymph node harvest and oncologic clearance.^[54]^[55] Segmental transverse colectomy is an alternative for mid-transverse lesions, preserving more bowel length compared to extended approaches.^[56] Laparoscopic approaches to transverse colectomy offer advantages over open surgery, including reduced blood loss, shorter hospital stays, and faster recovery, with comparable long-term oncologic outcomes such as 3-year survival rates exceeding 80%.^[57]^[58] Mobilization techniques are critical for these procedures; the transverse mesocolon is divided along its attachments, including the gastrocolic and hepatocolic ligaments for the right side and splenocolic ligament for the left, to facilitate complete mesocolic excision and tension-free resection margins.^[59] Anastomosis is typically performed using circular or linear stapling devices to reconnect the bowel, promoting efficient end-to-end or side-to-side configurations.^[55] Postoperative complications following transverse colon surgery include anastomotic leaks, occurring in approximately 3-10% of cases depending on the extent of resection, with higher rates in extended right hemicolectomies compared to left-sided procedures.^[60] Other common issues encompass postoperative ileus, affecting up to 20% of patients, and adhesion formation, which can lead to long-term bowel obstruction.^[61] Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols mitigate these risks through multimodal interventions like early mobilization, opioid-sparing analgesia, and standardized fluid management, reducing hospital length of stay by an average of 1.9-2 days and overall morbidity by nearly 50%.^[62]^[63] In bariatric surgery, such as Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, the transverse colon's mesocolon serves as a potential site for internal hernias if mesenteric defects are not closed, necessitating careful intraoperative positioning and mobilization to prevent Roux limb obstruction.^[64] For trauma involving the transverse colon, management favors primary repair or resection with anastomosis for non-destructive injuries, leveraging the segment's relative mobility for optimal surgical access, though diversion may be required in up to 20% of high-risk cases to avoid leaks.^[65]

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Oct 22, 2024 · This common colon disease develops when small pouches form in the colon wall and become inflamed, causing pain, fever and abnormal stool ...
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Ischemic colitis - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Nov 7, 2024 · Ischemic colitis happens when blood flow to part of the large intestine, called the colon, is temporarily reduced.Missing: volvulus | Show results with:volvulus
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Crohn's disease - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Oct 29, 2024 · Crohn's disease is an inflammatory bowel disease that causes chronic inflammation of the GI tract, which extends from your stomach all the way ...Missing: transverse | Show results with:transverse<|control11|><|separator|>
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Ulcerative colitis - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Crohn's disease can affect any part of the gastrointestinal system, often including the small intestine, and it may involve deeper layers of the bowel wall.
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Jun 17, 2024 · Extended right hemicolectomy refers to extension of the distal resection margin to include the distal transverse colon up to the splenic ...
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Hemicolectomy is a commonly performed operation for cancer of the colon. The first successful right hemicolectomy was performed in 1832 by Reybard.
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Three main surgical options are proposed: segmental colectomy of the transverse colon [transverse colectomy (TC)], extended right colectomy (ERC) and subtotal ...
[56]
A Comparison of Laparoscopically Assisted and Open Colectomy for ...
In this multi-institutional study, the rates of recurrent cancer were similar after laparoscopically assisted colectomy and open colectomy.
[57]
Laparoscopic-assisted surgery versus open surgery for transverse ...
We concluded that LA surgery for transverse colon cancer is oncologically safe and yields better short-term results in comparison to OP surgery.
[58]
Transverse colectomy using indocyanine green with flexure ...
Aug 23, 2019 · To perform transverse colectomy, both flexures should be mobilized, and lymph node dissection around the middle colic artery should be performed ...
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The dilemmas of the transverse colon cancer: segmental or ...
Jan 9, 2019 · describe a 3.3% rate of anastomotic leaks after a left colectomy versus 10.5% after an extended right colectomy. This directly contradicts ...Understanding basic technical... · Segmental transverse... · Discussion · Footnote
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While, in historic studies, leak rates of up to 30% were reported [3], more recent studies have suggested rates under 3% [4]. Colonic anastomotic leak is ...
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Colorectal - ERAS® Society
When comparing ERAS protocols with traditional care in colorectal surgery, ERAS significantly reduce the risk for postoperative morbidity with 48% (6) and ...
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If a retrocolic Roux limb is fashioned, the site where the Roux limb crosses the transverse mesocolon is also a location for potential obstruction. GI ...
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Colon Trauma: Evidence-Based Practices - PMC - NIH
Sharp debridement back to bleeding tissue is essential. Wounds are then typically closed in two layers using absorbable sutures. Drains should not be routinely ...