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Tringa

Tringa is a genus of waders in the family Scolopacidae (order Charadriiformes), encompassing 13 species commonly known as shanks, tattlers, and yellowlegs.^[1] These medium-sized shorebirds are characterized by long, slender legs—often brightly colored such as yellow or red—straight to slightly upturned bills adapted for probing mud and water, and plumage that varies from grayish-brown to spotted patterns for camouflage in wetland environments.^[2] Members of the genus are primarily migratory, breeding in northern boreal and tundra regions of North America, Europe, and Asia, and wintering in tropical and subtropical wetlands, coastal mudflats, and freshwater habitats across the Americas, Africa, and Australasia. The genus Tringa, established by Carl Linnaeus in 1758,^[1] derives its name from the ancient Greek term for a white-rumped thrush, originally applied to the green sandpiper.^[3] Taxonomically, Tringa belongs to the tribe Tringini within the subfamily Scolopacinae, and molecular studies indicate that species like the tattlers (formerly in Heteroscelus) and the willet (formerly in Catoptrophorus) are embedded within the genus, supporting its monophyly.^[4] The included species are: common redshank (T. totanus), spotted redshank (T. erythropus), common greenshank (T. nebularia), Nordmann's greenshank (T. guttifer), marsh sandpiper (T. stagnatilis), wood sandpiper (T. glareola), green sandpiper (T. ochropus), solitary sandpiper (T. solitaria), greater yellowlegs (T. melanoleuca), lesser yellowlegs (T. flavipes), willet (T. semipalmata), wandering tattler (T. incana), and gray-tailed tattler (T. brevipes).^[1] Notable for their role in wetland ecosystems, Tringa species forage on invertebrates, small fish, and crustaceans by wading in shallow water, contributing to nutrient cycling and serving as indicators of environmental health.^[5] Many face conservation challenges due to habitat loss from drainage and climate change, with species like Nordmann's greenshank classified as endangered.^[6] Their long-distance migrations, some spanning hemispheres, highlight adaptations for endurance, including fat storage and precise navigation.

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Tringa originates from the Ancient Greek term tringas (τρῖγγας), denoting an unidentified wading bird, possibly akin to a thrush-sized shorebird, as referenced by Aristotle in his Historia Animalium around 350 BCE.^[7] This Neo-Latin form was first employed by the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1599 to describe the green sandpiper (Tringa ochropus), drawing directly from the classical Greek root to evoke a waterside bird.^[7] Carl Linnaeus formalized Tringa as a genus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758, using it to classify several sandpiper-like species and distinguishing the group from other scolopacid genera based on shared morphological traits such as long legs and bills adapted for probing mud.^[7] In the evolution of ornithological nomenclature, Tringa has undergone minor emendations, such as correcting Linnaean misspellings like ocrophus to ochropus for the green sandpiper, justified under ICZN guidelines.^[8] The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature stabilized the name by placing Tringa Linnaeus, 1758 on the Official List of Generic Names in Zoology via Opinion 67 (1925), designating Tringa totanus (common redshank) as the type species under plenary powers to resolve ambiguities in Linnaeus's original listings.^[8] The genus is treated as feminine in gender, influencing agreement with species epithets.^[8]

Species

The genus Tringa comprises 13 extant species of waders in the family Scolopacidae, primarily characterized by their long legs, straight or slightly upturned bills, and migratory habits across wetlands and shorelines worldwide.^[9] These species exhibit variation in size, plumage, and leg coloration, with many showing cryptic patterns for camouflage in their habitats. The current taxonomy follows the IOC World Bird List (version 15.1, 2025), which incorporates molecular phylogenetic studies confirming the placement of tattlers within Tringa.^[10] No major splits or merges have occurred since the 2021 inclusion of the tattlers (Tringa brevipes and T. incana) based on genetic evidence from Gill et al. (2007), though ongoing genomic research continues to refine relationships. The recognized species are as follows:

Gray-tailed Tattler (Tringa brevipes): A compact wader (21–25 cm) with short yellowish legs, a short straight bill, and uniformly gray non-breeding plumage; key identifier is its soft, whistled calls and lack of spotting, recently transferred from Heteroscelus based on molecular data.
Wandering Tattler (Tringa incana): Slightly larger at 23–26 cm, with yellow legs, a bicolored bill (dark tip, pale base), and slate-gray breeding plumage with barring; notable for its loud, ringing calls during displays, also moved to Tringa in recent revisions.^[11]
Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca): Larger counterpart at 29–32 cm, with proportionally longer yellow legs and bill, boldly streaked underparts, and a sharper "dear-dear" call; prefers deeper water for foraging compared to the lesser yellowlegs.^[12]
Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes): 23–25 cm, with long bright yellow legs, a slender straight bill (shorter than greater yellowlegs), and finely streaked neck; a common migrant in the Americas, identified by softer calls than its congener.^[13]
Willet (Tringa semipalmata): Large, 30–35 cm, with blue-gray legs, a long straight bill, and cryptic gray-brown plumage; unique for its loud "wil-willet" calls, with eastern and western subspecies showing plumage differences. Subspecies: T. s. semipalmata, T. s. inornata.^[14]
Green Sandpiper (Tringa ochropus): A small to medium-sized species (22–25 cm length) with olive-yellow legs, a dark upper body heavily spotted in breeding plumage, and a white rump; distinguished by its habit of bobbing its tail and a straight, dark bill. Synonym: Helodromas ochropus.^[15]
Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria): Measures 18–23 cm, featuring dull greenish legs, a slender dark bill with a slight droop, and boldly spotted upperparts; unique among Tringa for nesting in tree cavities and its solitary foraging behavior. Subspecies include T. s. cinnamomea.
Common Redshank (Tringa totanus): Medium-sized (27–29 cm) with bright orange-red legs, a long red-based bill, and streaked brown plumage; the most widespread Tringa in Eurasia, recognized by its loud, ringing alarm calls. Subspecies: T. t. totanus, T. t. robusta, among others.
Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus): Larger at 29–31 cm, with gray legs (red in juveniles), a needle-like black bill, and extensively white underparts in winter; breeding adults show dense black spotting, distinguishing it from the common redshank. Synonym: Totanus fuscus.
Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis): Slender, 22–25 cm long, with long dull green legs, a fine straight bill, and pale gray non-breeding plumage; adapted for picking prey from vegetation, similar to but smaller than the common greenshank.
Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia): Robust, 30–35 cm, featuring long greenish legs, a slightly upturned gray bill, and gray-brown upperparts; known for its graceful flight and loud, disyllabic calls, it is the largest typical shank.^[16]
Nordmann's Greenshank (Tringa guttifer): Rare and vulnerable, 32–35 cm, with yellowish-green legs, a broad upturned bill, and heavily barred breeding plumage; distinguished by white underwing coverts and Endangered status due to habitat loss.^[17]
Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola): Smallest shank at 19–23 cm, with yellowish legs, a long fine bill, and boldly spotted brown upperparts; often forages in wooded wetlands, bobbing its head like the green sandpiper but with paler underparts.

Phylogenetic relationships

The genus Tringa is classified within the tribe Tringini of the family Scolopacidae, forming a clade with closely related genera such as Xenus (Terek sandpiper) and Heteroscelus (tattlers), as resolved by comprehensive molecular phylogenies incorporating both mitochondrial and nuclear loci.^[18] Early molecular studies in the 2010s, primarily based on mitochondrial DNA sequences and limited nuclear markers like RAG-1, revealed Tringa to be paraphyletic, with species of Catoptrophorus (willet) and Heteroscelus nested within it, necessitating taxonomic revisions to maintain monophyly.^[19] Subsequent analyses in the 2020s, utilizing expanded datasets with multiple nuclear genes alongside mitochondrial sequences and morphological characters, confirmed the monophyly of Tringa and refined its position within Tringini, sister to Xenus with Heteroscelus and Actitis as close relatives.^[18] Phylogenetic reconstructions depict the tattlers (T. incana and T. brevipes) forming a basal clade within Tringa, with the yellowlegs (T. melanoleuca and T. flavipes) sister to the remaining shanks, and divergences estimated around 8–12 million years ago during the late Miocene, stemming from shared ancestors in the broader Scolopacidae radiation.^[20] Supporting this monophyly post-revision, morphological evidence includes shared syringeal anatomy among tringine genera, characterized by specific bronchial ring modifications and tracheobronchial structures that distinguish them from other scolopacid tribes.^[21]

Systematics and evolution

Historical classification

The classification of the genus Tringa began with pre-Linnaean naturalists who described waders informally. In 1599, Italian scholar Ulisse Aldrovandi referred to the green sandpiper (Tringa ochropus) using the term "Tringa" in his Ornithologiae, grouping it with other similar shorebirds under broad, non-systematic categories such as "aquatic birds" or "waders of marshy places," without a formal genus structure.^[22] The genus was formally established by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758, where Tringa encompassed a diverse array of small to medium-sized shorebirds, including Tringa cinerea (now the dunlin, Calidris alpina) and the common redshank (Tringa totanus), based primarily on morphological similarities like long legs and bills suited for probing mud. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, classifications underwent refinements as ornithologists dissected relationships within the Scolopacidae. R. Bowdler Sharpe, in his 1896 Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, Volume 24 (Limicolæ), retained Tringa for typical shanks but separated outliers like the spotted sandpiper into Tringoides and maintained the Willet in the distinct genus Catoptrophorus (established by Gmelin in 1789), emphasizing differences in plumage and structure. Similarly, James L. Peters in the 1934 Check-list of Birds of the World, Volume 2 upheld this separation, placing the Willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) outside Tringa while including core shanks like the greater yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca), reflecting a focus on anatomical and distributional traits. In the 21st century, molecular and vocal analyses prompted major revisions to address the paraphyly of Tringa. The American Ornithological Society's 47th supplement to the Check-list of North American Birds in 2006 (published in 2007) merged Heteroscelus (tattlers) and Catoptrophorus (Willet) into Tringa, supported by mtDNA evidence showing close relationships among these groups, resulting in new combinations such as Tringa incana (wandering tattler) and Tringa semipalmata (Willet).^[23] Subsequent updates in the Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive (revised through Lynx Edicions in 2022) incorporated additional genetic and vocal data, affirming this expanded Tringa and refining species limits within the genus to resolve lingering paraphyletic issues with Old World shanks.^[24]

Fossil record

The fossil record of the genus Tringa is sparse and primarily consists of isolated postcranial elements, such as leg bones, which has led to ongoing debates regarding the taxonomic validity and precise generic placement of many named species due to their fragmentary nature. Approximately 10–12 fossil species have been described and attributed to Tringa, though the number of confidently assigned taxa is lower, often around 5–7, with several requiring revision based on more complete material or phylogenetic analyses. These fossils provide evidence of the genus's ancient origins and wide paleogeographic distribution, but the record is biased toward Holarctic localities, reflecting both preservation conditions and research focus. The earliest tentative attribution to Tringa is ?Tringa edwardsi (originally described as Totanus edwardsii), based on a distal humerus from the Late Eocene or Early Oligocene (approximately 34–28 million years ago) of the Quercy Phosphorites in Mouillac, France; however, its generic assignment remains provisional pending further study of scolopacid phylogeny. More securely placed Miocene fossils mark the onset of a robust record for the genus, including Tringa lartetianus and Tringa gracilis from the early Miocene (Burdigalian, ~20–16 million years ago) of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy and La Grive-Saint-Alban in France, represented by tarsometatarsi that suggest affinities to modern shank-like forms. These European specimens indicate that Tringa had established a presence in the Old World by the early Neogene. In the New World, the Pliocene yields Tringa antiqua from the Upper Pliocene (Hemphillian, ~5–3 million years ago) of Kansas, USA, known from a nearly complete tarsometatarsus and pedal phalanges that closely resemble those of the modern solitary sandpiper (Tringa solitaria), supporting an early radiation of the genus across continents. Other notable Pliocene and Pleistocene taxa include fragmentary remains from North American and European localities, such as a Late Pleistocene tarsometatarsus from Bermuda akin to the wandering tattler (Tringa incana). No significant extinctions of Tringa lineages are evident post-Pleistocene, with the genus maintaining continuity into the present across its Holarctic breeding grounds.

Physical description

Morphology

Tringa species are small to medium-sized waders, ranging from 18–41 cm in length and 30–330 g in weight, with smaller species like the solitary sandpiper (T. solitaria) at the lower end and larger ones like the willet (T. semipalmata) at the upper end.^[25]^[26] Their bodies are slender and elongated, with a relatively long neck that facilitates visual detection of prey in shallow water, and a posture adapted for wading in wetlands and shorelines.^[27] The legs of Tringa birds are notably long and thin, enabling them to forage in water depths up to knee-level, with partial webbing between the toes in some species, such as the greater yellowlegs, aiding occasional swimming to pursue prey or cross water bodies.^[28] The hind toe is reduced in size compared to the forward toes, providing enhanced stability on soft mud and sand substrates typical of their habitats.^[29] Bills in the genus vary from straight to slightly upcurved, measuring 3–7 cm in length depending on the species, and are equipped with numerous Herbst's corpuscles at the tip for tactile detection of buried invertebrates during probing.^[30]^[31] Wings feature 10 primaries and exhibit a somewhat rounded shape relative to more pointed-winged calidrine sandpipers, supporting agile maneuvers during short flights over water or in dense vegetation, while the overall skeletal structure emphasizes lightweight bones for efficient energy use in migration.^[32]^[33] Sexual dimorphism is minimal across Tringa species, with sexes similar in size and structure, though females may be slightly larger than males in certain species like the common redshank (Tringa totanus).^[34] Plumage differences among species primarily involve subtle variations in spotting or barring, but do not significantly alter the underlying morphology.^[31]

Plumage variations

Species in the genus Tringa exhibit distinct plumage variations that reflect seasonal changes, age differences, and adaptations to their environments, with patterns generally involving grayish-brown upperparts, white underparts, and bold markings in flight.^[33] These shorebirds typically display two main annual plumages: alternate (breeding) and basic (non-breeding), with juveniles showing unique camouflaged features.^[35] In breeding plumage, Tringa species often feature more vibrant and patterned upperparts to enhance visibility during courtship, such as the heavily mottled brownish-gray back and breast with black-and-white markings in the lesser yellowlegs (T. flavipes), or the ash-brown head, neck, and upperparts with black streaks and spots in the common redshank (T. totanus).^[33] Non-breeding plumage, in contrast, is plainer and more subdued for camouflage in wintering habitats, with uniform brownish-gray upperparts and faintly streaked white underparts in the greater yellowlegs (T. melanoleuca), or greyer, unspotted upperparts with narrow white fringes in the common redshank.^[35] Sexes are generally similar in plumage, though females may show slightly paler upperparts in some subspecies of the common redshank. Juvenile plumages in Tringa are adapted for ground-dwelling camouflage, featuring buff-spotted or notched upperparts with warm brown tones, as seen in the dark sepia forehead and nape with buff fringes on the lesser yellowlegs, or the brownish-gray barred scapulars in the willet (T. semipalmata).^[33]^[36] These mottled patterns, often retained for 1–2 months post-fledging, provide cryptic protection on breeding grounds; for instance, juveniles of the greater yellowlegs have white-notched back feathers that wear to reveal darker bases.^[35] Species-specific traits highlight adaptive variations, such as the bold yellow legs of both yellowlegs species (T. melanoleuca and T. flavipes) contrasting their dark grayish upperparts for easier detection in open wetlands, or the willet's cryptic brownish-gray patterns blending with saltmarsh vegetation, accented by a prominent white wing stripe visible in flight.^[35]^[33]^[36] The common redshank displays rufous-cinnamon tones on the upperparts in breeding plumage for certain subspecies like robusta, paired with conspicuous white secondaries. Molt strategies in Tringa follow a complex alternate pattern, with a complete post-breeding prebasic molt to non-breeding plumage (typically July–January, often suspended during migration), and a partial pre-breeding prealternate molt (February–May) limited to body feathers.^[33] Juveniles undergo an incomplete preformative molt in fall, retaining some juvenile wing feathers into their first winter, while adults complete remigial replacement on non-breeding grounds; this timing varies slightly by species and region, as in the greater yellowlegs where molt may start earlier in South America.^[35]^[36]

Distribution and habitat

Global range

The genus Tringa is characterized by a strong Holarctic dominance in its breeding range, with the majority of species nesting across northern Eurasia and North America in boreal and subarctic zones. For instance, the Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia) breeds from northern Scotland eastward across the Palearctic to eastern Siberia and Kamchatka, favoring taiga wetlands and moorlands.^[16] Similarly, the Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) occupies breeding grounds from Iceland and the British Isles eastward to central Siberia, including coastal saltmarshes and inland wet grasslands in countries such as Finland, Russia, and Kazakhstan.^[37] These northern distributions reflect adaptations to seasonal abundance in high-latitude wetlands during the brief Arctic summer. Wintering ranges for most Tringa species shift to the southern hemisphere, encompassing tropical and subtropical regions for foraging during the non-breeding season. The Common Greenshank, for example, migrates from its Arctic breeding areas to winter in southern Africa, South Asia, the Philippines, and Australasia, including Australia and New Zealand.^[38] The Common Redshank winters primarily in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and southern Asia, utilizing coastal mudflats, estuaries, and lagoons in areas like South Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and India.^[37] This hemispheric separation underscores the genus's migratory strategy, linking northern breeding productivity with southern winter refugia. Certain Tringa species are New World endemics, with distributions confined to the Americas and no established presence in Eurasia. The Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria) breeds exclusively in North American boreal forests from Alaska to Nova Scotia, wintering in Central America and throughout South America, where it is common on larger Caribbean islands like Cuba but rare elsewhere.^[39] Likewise, the Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) and Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) nest in a band across central Canada and Alaska, from Newfoundland to western Alaska, and winter along the coasts of southern North America, Central America, and South America.^[40]^[13] The Willet (Tringa semipalmata), recently classified within Tringa, follows a similar pattern, breeding in North American coastal and inland marshes and wintering in Central and northern South America.^[41] Overlap zones occur during migration, where multiple Tringa species co-occur in Africa and South America, facilitating shared use of stopover wetlands. In Africa, Eurasian migrants like the Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus) and Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis) join resident and other wintering Tringa taxa in tropical floodplains and coastal sites. In South America, New World species such as the yellowlegs overlap with vagrant Eurasian forms along riverine and estuarine habitats. Vagrancy records highlight occasional extralimital occurrences, such as the Spotted Redshank in Australia and New Zealand, with a confirmed sighting at Lake Grassmere, Marlborough, in 2007.^[42]^[43] Historical range shifts in Tringa include post-glacial expansions following the Last Glacial Maximum, as evidenced by genetic analyses showing reduced differentiation and high gene flow in subspecies like the tundra-breeding Common Redshank, indicative of rapid recolonization from refugia.^[44] Banding data collected since the 1950s have further documented contemporary movements supporting these expansions.^[45] These shifts emphasize the genus's responsiveness to climatic fluctuations over millennia.

Habitat preferences

Species of the genus Tringa exhibit a strong specialization for wetland environments, favoring areas with soft, probeable substrates such as marshes, mudflats, and river edges that provide access to invertebrate prey. These birds typically select habitats with shallow water or exposed mud, including sedge meadows, bogs, and grassy stream banks, where they can forage effectively in moist conditions. For instance, the Green Sandpiper (Tringa ochropus) shows a particular affinity for forested wetlands, breeding in damp wooded areas like swampy pine or alder forests near rivers and streams, while migrants prefer muddy shores of inland lakes and small ponds.^[46]^[47] Distinctions in habitat use occur between tidal and inland settings across the genus, with shanks like the Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) predominantly occupying coastal tidal zones such as saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats during non-breeding periods, whereas many sandpipers favor inland freshwater systems. Species such as the Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria) and Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola) are more oriented toward inland wetlands, including wooded swamps, boreal forest clearings with marshes, and freshwater reservoirs or paddy fields. The yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca and T. flavipes) demonstrate broader tolerance, utilizing both tidal coastal habitats like brackish lagoons and inland freshwater marshes, with adaptability to varying salinity levels in ponds, stream margins, and salinas.^[48]^[39]^[29]^[49] Tringa species generally prefer lowland to mid-elevation wetlands influenced by temperate to boreal climates, but some occur at higher altitudes, particularly as non-breeding visitors or vagrants in montane regions. For example, Lesser Yellowlegs (T. flavipes) and Greater Yellowlegs (T. melanoleuca) have been recorded in high-elevation Andean wetlands up to approximately 3,000 m, such as alpine lakes and moist puna grasslands, where soft substrates persist in glacial-fed systems. This elevational range reflects their preference for cool, moist environments with friable soils suitable for bill-probing, though breeding is largely confined to lower boreal forests.^[50]^[51] Many Tringa species have adapted to human-modified habitats, expanding their use of anthropogenic wetlands amid urbanization and agriculture. They frequently exploit rice fields, reservoirs, sewage lagoons, and flooded agricultural lands, which mimic natural soft-substrate environments; for instance, Wood Sandpipers and yellowlegs commonly forage in wet paddy fields and irrigation channels during migration. This adaptability has allowed populations to persist or even increase in altered landscapes, though it exposes them to associated disturbances.^[52]^[49]^[29]

Behavior and ecology

Foraging habits

Tringa species employ a variety of foraging techniques adapted to their wetland and coastal habitats, primarily involving probe-and-peck methods on mudflats and in shallow water. They typically walk rapidly through water or along soft substrates, using their bills to peck at visible prey on the surface or probe into sediment to locate buried items. For instance, the lesser yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) forages in water depths averaging 2.7 cm, occasionally up to 5 cm, where it may submerge its head for shallow dives to capture elusive prey like small fish.^[53]^[54] These techniques allow efficient exploitation of dynamic environments, with birds often stirring the water or substrate to flush out hidden food sources. The diet of Tringa birds is dominated by invertebrates, particularly worms, crustaceans, and mollusks, which can comprise 60–80% of their intake depending on availability and season. Small fish, insects, and occasional plant matter such as seeds supplement this, with crustaceans like amphipods forming a major component in estuarine settings for species like the common redshank (Tringa totanus). During winter, diets shift to include more berries and seeds when invertebrate abundance declines, as observed in the greater yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca), which consumes these alongside aquatic prey to meet energetic needs.^[55]^[56] Foraging in Tringa often occurs solitarily or in loose flocks, enabling individuals to cover larger areas while minimizing interference. Birds defend high-quality feeding patches aggressively, using displays such as erect postures and calls to deter intruders, as seen in the willet (Tringa semipalmata). Daily food intake can reach 15–30% of body weight during high-demand periods like premigratory fattening to support energy needs and fat storage for migration and winter, with lower levels during maintenance.^[57]^[58]^[59] Specialized adaptations enhance prey detection, particularly the bill-tip organs equipped with Herbst corpuscles that sense vibrations from buried or submerged invertebrates. These mechanoreceptors allow probe-foraging Tringa species, similar to other shorebirds, to locate prey in opaque sediments without visual cues, improving efficiency in murky conditions.^[60]^[61]

Breeding biology

Tringa species typically form seasonal monogamous pairs, with males arriving first at breeding grounds to establish territories before females select mates. Courtship involves elaborate displays, such as aerial chases, rapid wingbeats while rising a few meters into the air, and distinctive calls to attract partners.^[62]^[63]^[64] Most Tringa species construct nests as simple ground scrapes lined with vegetation, often hidden in dense tundra, moorland, or wetland areas. These are typically placed near water but sheltered from direct exposure. A clutch of 3–4 eggs is laid, with incubation lasting 22–28 days and shared by both parents; for example, the Solitary Sandpiper (Tringa solitaria) uniquely uses abandoned tree nests of songbirds, such as those of robins or kingbirds, rather than ground sites. Clutch sizes tend to be larger in northern latitudes, reflecting higher resource availability in boreal and Arctic breeding areas.^[65]^[25]^[66]^[67]^[68] Hatchlings are precocial, covered in downy feathers, and leave the nest immediately after hatching to follow parents, who provide food and protection for 25–35 days until fledging. In undisturbed sites, breeding success rates range from 40–60%, with higher nest survival in habitats offering cover from predators. Breeding plumage in males often features brighter, more spotted patterns to enhance displays, contrasting with non-breeding appearances.^[66]^[69]^[70]^[63]

Migration and movements

Migration patterns

Species in the genus Tringa exhibit diverse migration patterns, with many undertaking long-distance seasonal movements between high-latitude breeding grounds and tropical or subtropical wintering areas. For instance, the Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) populations breeding in Europe migrate southward to sub-Saharan Africa, covering distances of approximately 5,000–10,000 km along broad fronts that include both coastal and inland routes.^[37] Fall migration typically occurs from August to October, with adults departing first in July–August followed by juveniles, while spring return migration takes place from March to May, again with adults arriving ahead of young.^[37] Some western European and Icelandic populations show partial residency or shorter movements, remaining near breeding sites year-round.^[37] Leap-frog migration is evident in several Tringa species, particularly the yellowlegs, where northern breeding populations travel farther south to wintering grounds than their southern counterparts. In the Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca), birds breeding in Alaska and northern Canada migrate to southern South America, including Patagonia, overshooting more southerly breeders that winter in the southern United States or Central America.^[67]^[71] This pattern allows northern populations to exploit distant resources while minimizing competition. Similarly, the Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) demonstrates weak migratory connectivity, with Alaskan breeders using midcontinental routes to non-breeding sites in the Argentine Pampas, spanning thousands of kilometers.^[72] Intra-continental migrations characterize species like the Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola), which breeds across Siberia and migrates to wintering areas in Southeast Asia and southern Asia, with some individuals making shorter shifts within the region.^[73] Adults depart breeding grounds in late June, followed by juveniles in late August, arriving in tropical wintering sites from late July onward; northward migration resumes in late March to early April.^[73] Portions of the population are resident or partially migratory in tropical areas, remaining year-round in suitable habitats across Africa and Asia.^[73] Recent satellite tracking studies from 2015–2025 have illuminated these patterns, revealing average daily migration speeds of 50–80 km for Tringa species, incorporating flight and stopover periods, with speeds influenced by weather conditions and individual mass.^[72] For example, GPS-tagged Lesser Yellowlegs achieved flight velocities around 54 km/h during transoceanic legs but overall progressed at slower rates due to refueling stops, highlighting the role of environmental factors in pacing movements.^[72] Tringa species, like other shorebirds, rely on a combination of celestial, geomagnetic, and olfactory cues for orientation during long-distance migrations. Celestial navigation involves using the position of the sun during the day and stars at night as compasses, with birds calibrating their internal clocks to interpret these positions accurately. Geomagnetic fields provide a map-sense through detection of Earth's magnetic inclination and intensity, allowing extrapolation beyond familiar areas, as demonstrated in displacement experiments with migratory birds. Olfactory cues, such as tidal scents from coastal wetlands, further aid in fine-scale navigation near stopover sites, helping birds locate food-rich habitats over short distances. Multiple navigational cues provide redundancy, allowing oriented migrants to maintain accuracy even when one system is disrupted. During migrations, Tringa birds typically stay at stopover sites for 3–10 days to replenish energy reserves, primarily through fat deposition in wetlands that offer abundant invertebrate prey. These periods allow for significant weight gain, often up to 50% of lean body mass, enabling non-stop flights between distant sites; for instance, common redshanks (Tringa totanus) in the Wadden Sea accumulate fat rapidly during autumn staging, with daily gains supporting subsequent sea crossings. Stopover ecology emphasizes the role of these sites in balancing predation risks with foraging efficiency, as birds select mudflats exposed at low tide for probing while retreating to safer roosts during high tides. Stopover sites present notable risks, including predation by raptors and mammals, as well as habitat loss at key bottlenecks that funnel millions of migrants. In the Yellow Sea flyway, a critical corridor for East Asian-Australasian Tringa populations, tidal flat reclamation for development has led to sharp declines, with studies documenting a 35-50% reduction in suitable habitat since 2000 and corresponding drops in shorebird abundance by up to 8% per decade. As of November 2025, while the rate of wetland loss has slowed, migratory shorebird populations have declined by 81% overall due to persistent habitat degradation.^[74] Recent 2024 assessments highlight ongoing threats from coastal urbanization and sea-level rise, exacerbating bottlenecks and increasing mortality during refueling. Individual variation in Tringa migration includes strategies where some birds, particularly after post-breeding molt, bypass traditional breeding grounds en route to wintering areas, relying on endogenous circannual rhythms to time departures and arrivals. These internal clocks, entrained by photoperiod, ensure synchronized fat deposition and flight readiness even without external zeitgebers, as observed in spotted redshanks (Tringa erythropus) maintaining consistent annual cycles under constant conditions.

Conservation

Population trends

The populations of Tringa species exhibit considerable variation, with some maintaining substantial numbers while others show marked declines driven by habitat loss and other pressures. The Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) has a global population estimated at 1,100,000–1,800,000 individuals, considered overall stable but with regional fluctuations.^[37] Similarly, the Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola) supports a large global population of 4,530,000–6,930,000 individuals, reflecting its wide breeding range across boreal wetlands.^[73] In North America, the Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) has an estimated 650,000 mature individuals (range 527,000–7,600,000; as of 2020), classified as Vulnerable with a decreasing trend,^[50] while the Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) has a global population estimated at 137,000–6,860,000 mature individuals (as of 2023), classified as Near Threatened with a decreasing trend.^[49]^[67] Monitoring data from Wetlands International censuses between 2000 and 2025 reveal declines in Eurasian populations of several Tringa species, particularly in wetland habitats affected by drainage and agricultural intensification. For example, the Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis) shows an overall declining trend based on these census data, with its global population estimated at 497,000–753,000 individuals.^[75] In Britain, the Common Redshank breeding population has decreased by 45% from 1995 to 2023, with saltmarsh densities falling at a rate of about 1 pair per km² per year since the 1980s.^[48] The European breeding population of the Common Redshank exceeds 280,000 pairs, but short-term trends indicate ongoing reductions in many regions.^[76] Breeding densities for Tringa species in marsh and saltmarsh habitats generally range from 1 to 10 pairs per km², though the Common Redshank can reach up to 50 pairs per km² in optimal machair grasslands or ungrazed saltmarshes.^[77] During winter, non-breeding aggregations form large flocks, with the Lesser Yellowlegs observed in concentrations of thousands at migration stopover sites and the Common Redshank gathering in flocks of several thousand on coastal mudflats.^[13] Certain Tringa species show positive trends in protected areas, where habitat management has supported recovery. For the Endangered Nordmann's Greenshank (Tringa guttifer), recent surveys have revised the global population estimate upward to 1,500–2,000 individuals from prior figures of 900–1,200, suggesting stabilization or modest gains in key breeding and stopover sites under conservation oversight.^[78]

Threats and protection

Tringa species, like many shorebirds, face significant threats from habitat loss, primarily due to the drainage and conversion of wetlands for agriculture, urbanization, and development; globally, an estimated 64% of wetlands have disappeared since 1900.^[79] For instance, species such as the Nordmann's Greenshank (Tringa guttifer) experience ongoing habitat degradation in breeding and stopover areas along the East Asian-Australasian Flyway, where coastal reclamation has reduced intertidal flats critical for foraging.^[80] Similarly, the Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) is impacted by wetland loss and degradation in North American breeding grounds, exacerbating vulnerability during migration.^[27] Hunting remains a direct mortality factor for several Tringa species, particularly in Europe and Asia. The Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) is legally hunted in limited areas, with an estimated annual bag of 5,000–8,000 individuals in France alone, though illegal hunting and trapping across the flyways affect thousands more migratory shorebirds annually.^[76] In the East Asian-Australasian Flyway, hunting and trapping pressure on waders, including Nordmann's Greenshank, is estimated at 250,000–1.5 million birds per year, contributing to population declines.^[81] Climate change poses additional risks by altering migration timing and breeding conditions for Tringa species. Warmer temperatures have advanced spring migration in Tringa sandpipers, potentially leading to mismatches between arrival and peak food availability on breeding grounds.^[82] Earlier springs disrupt breeding phenology, reducing the time available for reproduction and potentially lowering productivity, while sea-level rise threatens intertidal habitats with projected losses of 20–70% globally, affecting foraging sites before full inundation occurs.^[83] These changes compound habitat pressures, with models indicating accelerated declines in shorebird populations due to nest flooding and altered wetland hydrology by mid-century.^[84] Conservation efforts for Tringa species emphasize habitat protection and international cooperation. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands designates sites covering approximately 13–18% of global terrestrial and coastal wetlands, providing safeguards for key shorebird areas used by species like the Common Redshank and Wandering Tattler (Tringa incana).^[85] For the Endangered Nordmann's Greenshank, targeted programs since the 2010s include nest monitoring in the Russian Far East, where the first nests in over 40 years were documented in 2019–2021, and flyway-wide conservation plans developed by sub-groups to address habitat loss and hunting.^[86]^[87] The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA), established in the 1990s, covers numerous Tringa species and promotes flyway-scale actions to mitigate threats like bycatch in fishing gear and unsustainable hunting.^[88] AEWA initiatives have facilitated bycatch reduction through data collection and mitigation measures across the African-Eurasian flyways, with the ninth Meeting of the Parties in November 2025 updating strategies to enhance monitoring and habitat management for declining waterbird populations.^[89]^[90]

References

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Systematics - Greater Yellowlegs - Tringa melanoleuca
Acta Vertebratica 1:1–84. Close ) placed Greater Yellowlegs in a group with Common Greenshank, Spotted Greenshank (Tringa guttifer), and Marsh Sandpiper (T. ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes - à www.publications.gc.ca
Lesser Yellowlegs is one of 13 species in the genus Tringa, five of which breed in. North America (Pereira and Baker 2005; Gibson and Baker 2012). Although ...
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Systematics - Lesser Yellowlegs - Tringa flavipes - Birds of the World
Genus Tringa is nestled firmly within the sandpiper family Scolopacidae. The tringine sandpipers-the "shanks", tribe Tringini-apparently are sister to a ...
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Scolopacidae - Sandpipers and Allies - Birds of the World
Mar 4, 2020 · Scolopacids generally prefer to breed in wet, open, grassy habitats, and a large number of species nest on Arctic or subarctic tundra.
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Tringa nebularia (Common Greenshank) - Avibase
The common greenshank is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae, the typical waders. The genus name Tringa is the New Latin name given to the green sandpiper.
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[PDF] Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names
This new Dictionary owes much to R. D. Macleod's Key to the Names of British Birds. (1954) and to my well-received A Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names (1991).
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Tringa 13 species · Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus · Solitary Sandpiper Tringa solitaria · Gray-tailed Tattler Tringa brevipes · Wandering Tattler Tringa incana ...
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This Website provides: · HTML lists of 11,250 species (including 164 extinct) of birds of the world (Version 15.1), with subspecies (19,774) and annotations.Diary · Species · IOC Lists · Species Updates
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Green Sandpiper - Tringa ochropus - Birds of the World
Mar 4, 2020 · This account summarizes the life history of the Green Sandpiper, including information relating to its identification, systematics, distribution ...
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Wandering Tattler - Tringa incana - Birds of the World
... genus Heteroscelus is embedded within Tringa and should be merged into it. Thus the 47th Supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union's Checklist of ...
[13]
Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia - Birds of the World
Largest Tringa (10–15% larger than T. totanus) with long, robust, slightly uptilted bill and dull green legs; upperparts spotted and streaked black-brown.
[14]
Willet - Tringa semipalmata - Birds of the World
... genus Catoptrophorus is embedded within Tringa and should be merged into it. Thus the 47th Supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union's Checklist of ...
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Lesser Yellowlegs - Tringa flavipes - Birds of the World
This common, medium-sized shorebird is usually recognized by its long, bright-yellow legs, long neck, graceful stride, and distinctive tu tu call.
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Greater Yellowlegs Tringa melanoleuca - Birds of the World
The Greater Yellowlegs is a shorebird with bright yellow legs, breeding in muskeg habitats, and has a distinctive call. It eats invertebrates and small fish.
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We present the most comprehensive non-supertree phylogeny of shorebirds to date, based on a total-evidence dataset comprising 353 ingroup taxa.
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Multiple gene sequences resolve phylogenetic relationships in the ...
We show that Tringa, Gallinago, and Calidris are paraphyletic assemblages, and thus are in need of taxonomic revision. The clade of Calidridine sandpipers has ...
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This first Supplement since publication of the 7th edition (1998) of the AOU Check-list of North American. Birds summarizes changes made by the Committee.
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No information is available for this page. · Learn whyMissing: Tringa revisions 2022
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Tringa flavipes (lesser yellowlegs) - Animal Diversity Web
They breed between 51 and 69 degrees north latitude in suitable habitat. They breed farther north than their close relative, greater yellowlegs ( Tringa ...
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Tringa glareola (wood sandpiper) - Animal Diversity Web
Wood sandpipers ( Tringa glareola ) are one of the most abundant and far-reaching avian species. Their range extends from Siberia to Scotland. Their migration ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
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Jan 1, 1996 · The presence of many touch-sensitive nerve endings (e.g. Herbst's corpuscles) in the bill tip favours touch feeding by many scolopacid species.
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They are a large and heavily built wader with a long and slightly upturned bill. The species shows no sexual dimorphism but does exhibit some seasonal variation ...
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Primaries and secondaries as in Definitive Basic Plumage but narrower and with pointed, rather than rounded, tips. Underparts mostly white; breast gray-brown ...
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Birds in their first nonbreeding season can be distinguished by (1) absence of remigial molt, causing more worn feathers (until midwinter), with large white ...Missing: strategy | Show results with:strategy
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Willets have similar plumages for both sexes. Hatchlings are dull grayish white, and juvenile plumage is similar to basic plumage with brownish gray areas. ...Missing: strategy | Show results with:strategy
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1996), departing the breeding grounds from June to October, and returning from the wintering grounds again between February and April (Hayman et al. 1986).
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In the USA, breeding is rare with only a historical record in central Oregon. The species' winter range spans Central America and throughout much of South ...
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Distribution - Greater Yellowlegs - Tringa melanoleuca
Breeding Range. Figure 1. Breeds throughout central Canada in band extending from Newfoundland, Labrador, and e. Nova Scotia, south of Hudson Bay to e.
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This species has a large geographic range size (extent of occurrence >16 million km 2 in both the breeding and non-breeding seasons), and so does not approach ...
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Year of sighting. Location. Status. First NZ Record. Reference. Export as CSV ... Spotted redshank, 0, Live, November 3, 2007, "Lake Grassmere, Marlborough", Not ...
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The shorebird species Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) has been relatively well studied during migration through North America and, to a lesser extent, on ...
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Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus - eBird
Breeds in clearings and marshes in wet forest and woodland; migrants occur in fresh and brackish wetland habitats, especially on muddy shores of lakes and small ...
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Green Sandpiper | BTO
Very small numbers of Green Sandpipers breed in northern Scotland, using habitats similar to the tundra more typically used further north.
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On migration and in the non-breeding season occurs in a variety of wetland habitats, fresh, brackish and saltwater, including human-made habitats such as salt ...
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A High Altitude Bird Sanctuary - Sibinacocha Watershed Project
– Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca);. – Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes);. – Slender-billed Miner (Geositta tenuirostris); and the,. – Great Horned Owl ...
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Lesser Yellowlegs Life History - All About Birds
During migration and throughout the winter, Lesser Yellowlegs use a wide variety of fresh and brackish wetlands, including mudflats, marshes, lake and pond ...
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Diet and Foraging - Lesser Yellowlegs - Tringa flavipes
Mean (± SE) water depth for Lesser Yellowlegs (n = 13) using flooded impoundments in Missouri was 2.7 ± 0.5 cm and individuals generally stayed within 15 cm ...
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Tringa flavipes (lesser yellowlegs) - Animal Diversity Web
Range mass: 67 to 94 g: 2.36 to 3.31 oz. Range length: 23 to 25 cm: 9.06 to 9.84 in. Range wingspan: 59 to 64 cm: 23.23 to 25.20 in. Reproduction. Lesser ...
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Diet and Foraging - Wandering Tattler - Tringa incana
On nonbreeding grounds, most frequently forages in rocky intertidal habitats (including coral reefs in the tropical Pacific), with or without dense cover of ...
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Diet and Foraging - Greater Yellowlegs - Tringa melanoleuca
Main Foods Taken: Small aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, small fish, frogs, and occasionally seeds or berries.
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Behavior - Willet - Tringa semipalmata - Birds of the World
Threatening and aggressive behaviors accompanied by: (1) erect posture with neck outstretched, head held high, and bill angle slightly below the horizontal; (2) ...
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Red Knots - Texas Saltwater Fishing Magazine
Jan 1, 2015 · Specialized sensory organs on their bill tips, called the Herbst' corpuscles, enable the knots to detect buried prey by discerning water ...
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Behavior - Solitary Sandpiper - Tringa solitaria - Birds of the World
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Solitary Sandpiper Life History - All About Birds
Males display over their territory (more intensely when a female appears) by rising slowly a few yards into the air on quivering wings, spreading the tail, ...Habitat · Nesting · Behavior<|control11|><|separator|>
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The natty Solitary Sandpiper, with its olive-gray wings, black-and-white tail, and bold eyering, is a distinctive exception among the many lookalike sandpipers.
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Greater Yellowlegs Life History - All About Birds
Nesting Facts ; Egg Length: 1.7-2.1 in (4.4-5.4 cm) ; Egg Width: 1.2-1.4 in (3.1-3.5 cm) ; Incubation Period: 23 days ; Egg Description: Gray to brown with dark ...
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[PDF] Breeding biology of the Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola in eastern ...
Particularly poorly documented is its habit of occasionally breeding in the nests of other species, as is regularly done by the Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus ...
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Solitary Sandpiper - NH Audubon
The 3-5 eggs are incubated for a little over three weeks, and the newly hatched young jump to the ground to begin foraging almost immediately, albeit under ...
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Breeding success and adult survival of Redshank Tringa totanus on ...
Two periods with different breeding success could be detected. In 1997–1999, nest success varied between 43 and 64%.
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Navigating the roof of the world | The Straits Times
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Wood Sandpiper Tringa Glareola Species Factsheet
Diet Breeding Whilst on the breeding grounds this species is chiefly carnivorous, taking small insects (up to 2 cm long), especially the aquatic forms such ...
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Demography and Populations - Lesser Yellowlegs - Tringa flavipes
The secretive breeding behavior and cryptic nests of this species have made it difficult to ascertain the nature and extent of its breeding territoriality.
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Marsh Sandpiper Tringa Stagnatilis Species Factsheet
The global population size is estimated at 497,000-753,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2023), which equates to 331,000-502,000 mature individuals. The ...
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[PDF] SPECIES INFORMATION SHEET Tringa totanus - HELCOM Red List
The redshank is a widespread breeder across much of Europe. The European breeding population counts >280 000 bp, of which about 10–15% are breeding in the ...
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The abundance and conservation status of redshank Tringa totanus ...
Elsewhere, the highest breeding densities have been found on machair habitats in the Western Isles of Scotland with up to 50 pairs km−2 in some areas (Galbraith ...
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Global population estimate and conservation gap analysis for the ...
Nordmann's Greenshank (Tringa guttifer) is a globally endangered species that has received little research attention. It is threatened by rapid habitat loss ...
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[PDF] Wetlands: a global disappearing act - Ramsar.org
Scientific estimates show that 64 % of the world's wetlands have disappeared since 1900. In some regions, notably Asia, the loss is even higher. Inland wetlands ...
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Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa guttifer - Birds of the World
Feb 19, 2021 · The species faces a multitude of threats throughout the EAAF including habitat loss (due to development, reclamation, climate change ...
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[PDF] UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA THESIS OR DISSERTATION ...
Sexes are alike in plumage. Similar Species. The bill shape and foraging behavior of Nordmann's Greenshank may resemble a distant Terek Sandpiper (Xenus ...
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A green wave of saltmarsh productivity predicts the timing of ... - Nature
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(PDF) Global Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Potential Losses ...
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[PDF] Sea-level rise causes shorebird population collapse before habitats ...
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[PDF] GLOBAL WETLAND OUTLOOK
Ramsar Sites likely cover 13-18% of the global area of terrestrial and coastal wetlands, demonstrating considerable commitment from Contracting Parties. ( ...<|separator|>
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First nests of Endangered Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa guttifer ...
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[PDF] NORDMANN'S GREENSHANK CONSERVATION SUB-GROUP
The species faces various threats along the flyway, such as habitat loss, degradation, nest predation, disturbance on high-tide roost sites, and hunting etc ...
[84]
AEWA | Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian ...
The African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) is an intergovernmental treaty dedicated to the conservation of migratory waterbirds and their ...About · Species · AEWA News · How is AEWA financed?
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Oct 28, 2025 · AEWA waterbird populations are being impacted by three main threats: biological resource use – including unsustainable hunting and bycatch in ...
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