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Troglitazone

Troglitazone is an oral antidiabetic agent belonging to the thiazolidinedione class, designed to lower blood glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes by enhancing insulin sensitivity through activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ).^[1]^[2] This mechanism promotes glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue while reducing hepatic glucose production, distinguishing it from agents that primarily stimulate insulin secretion.^[3] Developed by Sankyo and marketed in the United States by Parke-Davis under the brand name Rezulin, troglitazone received FDA approval on July 24, 1997, as monotherapy or in combination with sulfonylureas or metformin for type 2 diabetes management.^[1] It demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials by reducing hemoglobin A1c levels by approximately 1-2% and improving insulin resistance, filling a gap for patients unresponsive to traditional therapies.^[4] However, post-marketing surveillance revealed an association with idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity, including elevated liver enzymes and, in rare cases, acute liver failure.^[1] In March 2000, following accumulation of safety data indicating an unacceptably high risk of severe liver injury—despite mandatory liver function monitoring—the manufacturer voluntarily withdrew troglitazone from the U.S. market at the FDA's request, with at least 63 cases of liver failure reported, many fatal.^[5]^[6] This withdrawal highlighted challenges in predicting rare adverse events from pre-approval trials and spurred enhanced regulatory scrutiny of the thiazolidinedione class, though successors like pioglitazone and rosiglitazone retained market approval with adjusted safety profiles.^[1] The episode also prompted litigation against the manufacturer, underscoring tensions between therapeutic innovation and post-approval risk management.^[1]

Pharmacology

Mechanism of Action

Troglitazone, a thiazolidinedione derivative, exerts its antidiabetic effects primarily through agonism of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), a ligand-activated transcription factor expressed predominantly in adipose tissue, with lower levels in skeletal muscle, liver, and other tissues.^[1]^[7] Upon binding to PPARγ, troglitazone forms a heterodimer with the retinoid X receptor (RXR), which then binds to specific peroxisome proliferator response elements (PPREs) in the promoter regions of target genes, thereby modulating their transcription.^[1] This activation upregulates genes involved in adipocyte differentiation (e.g., those encoding fatty acid-binding proteins and lipoprotein lipase), lipid storage, and glucose uptake transporters such as GLUT4.^[7]^[4] The enhanced PPARγ activity promotes the differentiation of preadipocytes into insulin-sensitive adipocytes, increasing subcutaneous fat deposition while reducing visceral adiposity in some models, which collectively improves systemic insulin sensitivity.^[8] By suppressing lipolysis in adipocytes, troglitazone lowers circulating free fatty acid levels, alleviating lipid-induced insulin resistance (via mechanisms like reduced diacylglycerol accumulation and protein kinase C activation in muscle and liver).^[3]^[2] This facilitates greater insulin-dependent glucose disposal in peripheral tissues, particularly skeletal muscle, where it enhances glucose transport through both insulin-dependent and -independent pathways, as evidenced by increased GLUT4 translocation and hexokinase activity.^[4] In the liver, PPARγ agonism indirectly curbs gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis by improving insulin signaling and reducing hepatic lipid content.^[3] Troglitazone's insulin-sensitizing effects are insulin-dependent, requiring endogenous insulin for maximal efficacy, distinguishing it from agents that directly stimulate insulin secretion.^[3]^[2] Although it shows weak partial agonism at PPARα (involved in fatty acid oxidation), this contributes minimally compared to its dominant PPARγ-mediated actions, and troglitazone lacks significant direct effects on insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells.^[9] Some evidence points to ancillary mechanisms, such as inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis via squalene synthase suppression (PPARγ-independent) and antioxidative properties that mitigate high-glucose-induced cellular stress, though these are secondary to PPARγ activation.^[10]^[11]

Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism

Troglitazone is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, achieving peak plasma concentrations (C_max) within 2 to 3 hours. Its absolute bioavailability ranges from 40% to 50%, with food intake enhancing absorption by 30% to 85%, necessitating administration with meals to optimize exposure.^[12]^[3] The apparent volume of distribution (V_d/F) is 10.5 to 26.5 L/kg, indicating moderate tissue distribution. Troglitazone binds extensively (>99%) to serum albumin.^[3] Hepatic metabolism predominates, involving sulfation to the major sulfate conjugate (metabolite 1, reaching 6- to 7-fold higher plasma levels than parent drug), oxidation to the quinone metabolite (metabolite 3), and glucuronidation to a minor glucuronide conjugate (metabolite 2, primarily urinary). Unchanged troglitazone constitutes negligible amounts in excreta.^[3]^[12] Elimination occurs mainly via feces (approximately 85% of dose) through biliary excretion of metabolites, with only 3% recovered in urine. The mean plasma elimination half-life is 16 to 34 hours, though reported ranges vary from 7.6 to 24 hours across studies, supporting once-daily dosing. Hepatic impairment elevates parent drug and metabolite concentrations, while renal function has minimal impact due to low urinary excretion.^[3]^[12]^[13]

Clinical Applications and Efficacy

Indications and Usage

Troglitazone, marketed as Rezulin, was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration on July 24, 1997, for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) in adults to improve glycemic control as an adjunct to diet and exercise.^[1] It was specifically indicated for patients whose hyperglycemia was not adequately controlled by diet alone or by other oral antidiabetic agents such as sulfonylureas.^[2] The drug acted primarily by decreasing insulin resistance, thereby enhancing peripheral glucose utilization without stimulating insulin secretion.^[3] Initial approval included use as monotherapy for patients inadequately managed by lifestyle modifications, but clinical guidelines emphasized its role in combination therapy to minimize risks. It was approved for concurrent administration with sulfonylureas in patients failing monotherapy with those agents, with insulin in insulin-requiring type 2 patients whose control remained poor despite doses exceeding 30 units daily and HbA1c levels above 8.5%, and later with metformin in triple therapy for those inadequately controlled on dual sulfonylurea-metformin regimens.^[3]^[13] Troglitazone was not indicated for type 1 diabetes, diabetic ketoacidosis, or as initial therapy in newly diagnosed patients, given its mechanism reliant on endogenous insulin.^[3] Typical usage involved starting at 200 mg daily, titrated up to 400-600 mg based on response and tolerability, with monthly liver enzyme monitoring mandated due to emerging hepatotoxicity signals.^[14]

Evidence of Effectiveness

In randomized controlled trials, troglitazone monotherapy at doses of 400 mg or 600 mg daily significantly reduced HbA1c levels and fasting serum glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes compared to placebo, with mean HbA1c decreases observed after 6 months of treatment.^[15]^[16] One efficacy analysis of troglitazone-treated patients reported a mean HbA1c reduction of 1.3% after 24 weeks, versus a 0.1% increase in the placebo group.^[17] Combination therapy further enhanced glycemic control. When added to insulin in insulin-treated type 2 diabetes patients, troglitazone improved overall glycemic indices, including reductions in exogenous insulin requirements.^[18]^[19] In combination with metformin, troglitazone produced equal and additive effects on HbA1c lowering.^[20] Repaglinide plus troglitazone yielded a mean HbA1c reduction of 1.7% over monotherapy with either agent.^[21] Troglitazone also demonstrated preventive efficacy in high-risk populations. The TRIPOD study, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in women with prior gestational diabetes, showed troglitazone reduced the incidence of type 2 diabetes through improved insulin sensitivity and delayed disease onset.^[22]^[23] This effect persisted partially after drug discontinuation, highlighting sustained benefits on beta-cell function.^[24]

Safety Profile

Hepatotoxicity Mechanisms

Troglitazone-induced hepatotoxicity manifests as idiosyncratic liver injury, affecting fewer than 1 in 10,000 patients and characterized by hepatocellular necrosis rather than cholestasis seen with other thiazolidinediones.^[25] The precise causal pathways remain incompletely resolved, with evidence supporting multifactorial processes involving direct cellular toxicity, metabolic bioactivation, and host-specific immune responses rather than dose-dependent overload. Unlike rosiglitazone and pioglitazone, troglitazone's unique chromane ring structure contributes to its distinct toxicity profile, as metabolic differences do not fully correlate with cytotoxicity in vitro.^[26] One prominent hypothesis centers on bioactivation to electrophilic metabolites via cytochrome P450 enzymes, particularly CYP3A4, yielding quinone and sulfate conjugates from oxidation of the thiazolidinedione and chromane rings. These reactive species can form covalent adducts with hepatic proteins, potentially acting as haptens to trigger adaptive immune responses in susceptible individuals. However, inhibition of metabolizing enzymes fails to consistently mitigate toxicity, suggesting metabolites play a permissive rather than primary role.^[27] ^[26] Mitochondrial dysfunction represents another key mechanism, with troglitazone directly inducing permeability transition pore opening, uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation, and inhibiting fatty acid β-oxidation, leading to ATP depletion, reactive oxygen species accumulation, and apoptotic cell death in hepatocytes. In vitro studies demonstrate rapid declines in mitochondrial membrane potential and respiration at therapeutic concentrations, distinguishing troglitazone from safer analogs that lack this potency. This effect occurs independently of metabolism, implicating the parent compound in early cellular stress.^[27] ^[28] ^[26] Troglitazone and its sulfate metabolite also inhibit hepatobiliary transporters, notably the bile salt export pump (BSEP) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2), causing intracellular bile acid retention and exacerbating oxidative damage. While this contributes to cytotoxicity in isolated hepatocyte models, clinical presentations emphasize hepatocellular over cholestatic injury, limiting its explanatory power for idiosyncratic cases.^[27] Emerging evidence highlights immune dysregulation, where troglitazone suppresses interleukin-12 (IL-12) production in macrophages and dendritic cells, impairing protective T-cell responses and promoting idiosyncratic injury in patient-derived models. Exogenous IL-12 supplementation rescues toxicity in vitro, underscoring a non-cytotoxic, adaptive immune component tied to individual variability rather than universal mitochondrial or metabolic defects. Genetic polymorphisms in immune or detoxification pathways likely modulate susceptibility, aligning with the drug's rarity and delayed onset.^[29]

Other Adverse Effects and Risks

Troglitazone therapy was associated with mild adverse effects in clinical trials, including headache, asthenia, dizziness, back pain, and nausea, occurring at rates comparable to placebo.^[3] These effects were generally self-limiting and did not lead to discontinuation in most cases.^[30] A notable non-hepatic risk involved fluid retention, with studies in healthy volunteers demonstrating a 6-8% increase in plasma volume after 6 weeks of treatment compared to placebo.^[3] This contributed to peripheral edema and weight gain, attributed in part to reduced leptin levels and increased appetite, effects observed specifically with troglitazone use.^[31] Edema incidence rose with higher doses and combination therapy, such as with insulin, though controlled trials of troglitazone monotherapy showed no elevated risk of congestive heart failure.^[3] Post-marketing reports highlighted these issues as dose- and time-dependent, potentially exacerbating pre-existing cardiac conditions in susceptible patients.^[32] Allergic reactions, including rash, fever, and eosinophilia, were uncommon during therapy.^[1] Hemodilution from fluid retention could lead to mild anemia, though this was not a primary concern in pre-withdrawal evaluations.^[31] Overall, while these risks were less severe than hepatotoxicity, they underscored troglitazone's class effects as a thiazolidinedione, prompting caution in patients with cardiovascular comorbidities.^[33]

Development and Regulatory History

Discovery and Approval Process

Troglitazone was synthesized in 1988 by researchers at Sankyo Company (now Daiichi Sankyo) in Japan, as an advancement in thiazolidinedione compounds aimed at improving insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetes. Building on earlier prototypes like ciglitazone, it incorporated a troger ring and α-tocopherol-derived substructure to enhance potency and metabolic stability while targeting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) activation, which promotes glucose uptake in peripheral tissues. Preclinical evaluations confirmed its euglycemic effects in animal models of insulin resistance, distinguishing it from prior antidiabetic agents that primarily stimulated insulin secretion.^[34]^[35] Development proceeded through collaboration with Parke-Davis (a Warner-Lambert subsidiary), which licensed rights for markets outside Japan. Phase I trials established safety and pharmacokinetics, showing rapid absorption and hepatic metabolism, while phase II and III studies in over 2,500 patients demonstrated HbA1c reductions of 1-2% and improved insulin sensitivity without inducing hypoglycemia. These trials, conducted primarily in Japan and the US, supported its novel mechanism as the first oral agent to address insulin resistance directly, filling a therapeutic gap unmet since the 1960s. The compound, designated CS-045 during development, underwent regulatory submissions highlighting its efficacy in monotherapy and combination regimens.^[36]^[37] The US New Drug Application (NDA 20-720) received FDA priority review owing to the lack of effective insulin sensitizers. Troglitazone, branded as Rezulin, was approved by the FDA on January 29, 1997, for treating type 2 diabetes in adults as monotherapy or adjunct to diet, exercise, sulfonylureas, or metformin, based on evidence of sustained glycemic control from pivotal trials. It launched in the US in March 1997, initially prescribed to approximately 600,000 patients amid high demand for innovative diabetes therapies. Approval in Japan occurred in 1995, preceding international rollout.^[38]^[39]

Post-Marketing Surveillance and Withdrawal

Following its approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on July 24, 1997, troglitazone (marketed as Rezulin) was subject to post-marketing surveillance that included mandatory liver function monitoring, with monthly alanine aminotransferase (ALT) testing recommended for patients to detect early hepatotoxicity.^[1] The FDA's MedWatch system captured voluntary reports of adverse events, revealing an accumulation of hepatotoxicity cases beyond what was observed in pre-approval trials, where elevated liver enzymes occurred in approximately 1.9% of patients but severe outcomes were infrequent.^[40] By early 1999, the FDA had received over 560 reports of troglitazone-associated hepatotoxicity, prompting label revisions and a "Dear Doctor" letter emphasizing ALT monitoring.^[41] At the FDA's Metabolic-Endocrine Drugs Advisory Committee meeting on March 26, 1999, experts reviewed epidemiological data indicating a rate of acute liver failure of about 1 in 20,000 to 23,000 patient-years, with 83 reported cases of liver failure by that point.^[42] Despite these concerns, the committee voted 11-1 to retain troglitazone on the market, citing its efficacy in diabetes management and the potential for risk mitigation through enhanced monitoring, though a black box warning for hepatotoxicity was added to the label.^[6] However, reports continued to mount, with 85-94 cases of acute liver failure documented by February-March 2000, including 58-66 deaths and at least 10-11 liver transplants.^[43] ^[44] On March 21, 2000, the FDA requested voluntary withdrawal of troglitazone from the U.S. market, a decision influenced by the persistence of idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity despite monitoring efforts and the availability of alternative thiazolidinediones like rosiglitazone and pioglitazone, which showed lower rates of severe liver injury in comparative post-approval data.^[1] Parke-Davis, the manufacturer, complied, discontinuing U.S. distribution and sales effective shortly thereafter, though existing supplies were allowed for limited patient transition under physician supervision.^[43] In the European Union, troglitazone had been withdrawn earlier in 1997-1998 following similar post-marketing signals in initial markets, and Japan suspended sales in 1999 after 135 severe toxicity cases and six deaths.^[44] The withdrawal highlighted limitations in pre-approval detection of rare adverse events, with post-marketing data underscoring the drug's association with fatal liver failure at rates exceeding background population incidence for diabetes patients.^[45]

Legal and Economic Impact

Lawsuits and Settlements

Following the March 2000 withdrawal of troglitazone (marketed as Rezulin) from the U.S. market due to reports of severe hepatotoxicity, including liver failure and deaths, Parke-Davis—a division of Warner-Lambert—and later Pfizer (after its 2000 acquisition of Warner-Lambert) faced extensive product liability litigation.^[46] Plaintiffs alleged that the companies failed to adequately disclose risks, downplayed adverse event data during post-marketing surveillance, and prioritized sales over safety warnings, leading to claims of liver damage, transplants, and fatalities.^[47] By early 2001, nearly 400 lawsuits had been filed, with many consolidated in multidistrict litigation in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York.^[46] Early individual suits, such as one filed on April 15, 1999, by a patient who suffered liver destruction after two weeks of use, highlighted accusations of inadequate testing and promotion despite emerging safety signals.^[48] Pfizer resolved the bulk of claims through settlements rather than trials, culminating in a comprehensive agreement by April 2009 covering all but three of approximately 35,000 personal injury claims across federal, state, and local courts, at a total cost estimated at $750 million.^[49]^[50] Notable settlements included a $60 million class-action resolution in Illinois in July 2004, pending court approval, addressing claims from patients who experienced adverse effects.^[51] In December 2001, after a Texas jury awarded $43 million in compensatory damages to a plaintiff alleging Rezulin-induced liver injury, Pfizer settled the case for an undisclosed sum substantially below the verdict.^[52] Another high-profile outcome involved a $11.55 million jury verdict in 2004—$1.55 million compensatory and $10 million punitive—against Warner-Lambert/Pfizer for a patient's liver failure death, underscoring allegations of withheld risk data.^[53] While plaintiffs secured several trial wins and settlements emphasizing corporate negligence in risk communication, Pfizer prevailed in others, such as a September 2007 ruling dismissing claims for lack of sufficient causation evidence.^[54] In a December 2001 Florida case, a jury rejected liability for a patient's death, finding inadequate proof linking Rezulin to the outcome.^[55] These mixed results reflected challenges in establishing direct causation amid confounding factors like diabetes comorbidities, though the volume of settlements indicated strategic resolutions to mitigate prolonged litigation expenses rather than admissions of universal fault.^[50] No criminal charges directly stemmed from the injury suits, though separate off-label promotion probes involving Parke-Davis led to a $430 million civil-criminal settlement in unrelated fraud claims.^[56]

Influence on Pharmaceutical Industry Practices

The withdrawal of troglitazone (marketed as Rezulin) from the U.S. market on March 21, 2000, following reports of 63 deaths from liver failure, exposed deficiencies in post-approval risk detection and management, compelling pharmaceutical manufacturers to prioritize enhanced pharmacovigilance frameworks. Pre-approval trials had underestimated the drug's idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity risk, which manifested rarely but severely in real-world use, generating over $2.1 billion in revenue before withdrawal. This prompted industry-wide adoption of more proactive adverse event reporting systems, including real-time data analytics and mandatory internal safety reviews, to identify signals earlier and avert similar market removals.^[49]^[6] The case directly informed regulatory expectations for liver safety, influencing the FDA's 2009 Guidance for Industry on Drug-Induced Liver Injury, which cited troglitazone as a key example of monitoring failures and recommended manufacturers integrate advanced preclinical metabolism assessments and structured clinical follow-up protocols into drug development. Subsequent thiazolidinediones, such as rosiglitazone and pioglitazone, incorporated stricter labeling for monthly liver enzyme tests—escalated from initial biennial checks for troglitazone—driving companies to design compliance tools like patient registries and physician education programs to boost adherence rates, which studies showed remained suboptimal without enforcement.^[57]^[14] Economically, troglitazone's fallout, including billions in litigation settlements, shifted corporate practices toward conservative risk-benefit disclosures during approvals, reducing tendencies to minimize early safety signals as alleged in internal Warner-Lambert communications. Manufacturers increasingly balanced blockbuster pursuits with contingency planning for withdrawals, fostering collaborations with regulators on risk minimization strategies that prefigure modern Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS), thereby elevating overall accountability in safety governance across the sector.^[46]^[58]

Scientific Legacy and Research

Post-Withdrawal Studies on Toxicity

Following the withdrawal of troglitazone from the U.S. market in March 2000 due to cases of acute liver failure, subsequent research emphasized the idiosyncratic nature of its hepatotoxicity, which proved challenging to replicate in conventional preclinical models. Studies highlighted that troglitazone's toxicity often manifested as hepatocellular injury with markedly elevated aminotransferases, progressing in some instances to fibrosis or cirrhosis even after discontinuation, suggesting persistent cellular damage rather than acute hypersensitivity. This prompted investigations into metabolic idiosyncrasies, with pharmacovigilance data confirming over 5,700 liver-related adverse drug reactions associated with troglitazone between 1997 and 2001, far exceeding those for successor thiazolidinediones like rosiglitazone.^[1]^[59]^[60] A central mechanism identified in post-withdrawal analyses involved mitochondrial dysfunction, where troglitazone inhibited respiratory chain complexes, elevating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and disrupting energy homeostasis in hepatocytes. In a 2013 toxicoproteomics study using Sod2+/- mice (heterozygous for manganese superoxide dismutase deficiency to mimic human oxidative vulnerability), 28 days of troglitazone exposure at human-equivalent doses led to impaired mitochondrial glutathione import via downregulation of the dicarboxylate carrier, triggering oxidative stress pathways such as ASK1-JNK and FOXO3a, culminating in lipid peroxidation and necrosis. Complementary case series documented delayed hepatotoxicity, with onset from 4 days to over 2 years and progression to portal hypertension 1.5–3 years post-exposure, linked to microvesicular steatosis and chronic mitochondrial impairment persisting beyond drug clearance.^[61]^[62] Efforts to model troglitazone toxicity post-2000 revealed species-specific limitations, as standard rodents and non-human primates exhibited inconsistent signals like mild ALT elevations or liver weight increases, yielding low predictive confidence for human idiosyncratic reactions. Specialized models, including chimeric mice with humanized livers and heterozygous knockout strains, better recapitulated injury; for instance, a 2006 study in Sod2+/- mice demonstrated overt necrosis with twofold ALT rises after 28 days at high doses, implicating oxidative stress amplification. In vitro assays, such as those using donor-specific human hepatocytes, showed variable cytotoxicity tied to CYP3A4-mediated quinone metabolite formation, underscoring metabolic bioactivation as a contributor absent in many animal paradigms.^[59]^[63] These investigations, including the establishment of the Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network (DILIN) in 2004 to genotype affected patients, informed broader DILI research but affirmed troglitazone's profile as a benchmark for unpredictable, non-dose-dependent toxicity driven by off-target mitochondrial effects rather than primary PPARγ agonism. Recent microphysiological systems integrating liver-immune interactions have further implicated adaptive immunity in amplifying troglitazone's effects, though causality remains correlative without universal replication across models.^[60]^[64]

Contributions to Thiazolidinedione Class and Diabetes Treatment

Troglitazone, approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration on January 29, 1997, was the first thiazolidinedione (TZD) introduced for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus, marking a shift toward insulin-sensitizing therapies that targeted peripheral insulin resistance rather than solely insulin secretion or absorption.^[1]^[65] As a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) agonist, it improved glycemic control by enhancing insulin sensitivity in adipose and muscle tissues, reducing fasting plasma glucose by approximately 50–70 mg/dL and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) by 1–2% in clinical trials when used as monotherapy or in combination with sulfonylureas or insulin.^[18]^[23] Its efficacy in the Diabetes Prevention Program demonstrated a 75% relative reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes among high-risk individuals with impaired glucose tolerance over an average of 2.8 years, underscoring TZDs' potential for delaying disease onset through insulin sensitization, though the arm was halted following the drug's withdrawal.^[23] This validation of the PPARγ pathway spurred rapid development of second-generation TZDs, with rosiglitazone and pioglitazone approved in 1999 as structurally modified analogs exhibiting similar glucose-lowering effects but lower hepatotoxicity risk, enabling the class's continuation in clinical practice.^[66]^[37] Post-withdrawal in March 2000 due to idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity, troglitazone's legacy persisted in establishing TZDs as a cornerstone for managing insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes, influencing combination regimens and research into PPAR agonists for metabolic disorders beyond glycemia, such as dyslipidemia and cardiovascular risk modulation.^[1]^[8] Subsequent agents like pioglitazone retained benefits in preserving beta-cell function and reducing macrovascular events in select populations, building directly on troglitazone's mechanistic proof-of-concept while addressing its safety limitations.^[67]

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Hepatotoxicity due to troglitazone: report of two cases and review of ...
Troglitazone is a useful new oral antihyperglycemic agent, but in about 1.9% of patients hepatotoxicity has occurred, which may be severe and even fatal.
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Testimony Advising the FDA to Withdraw Troglitazone (Rezulin)
Treatment was discontinued in 20 of the 48 Rezulin patients because of these abnormal liver tests but in none of the patients getting a placebo. Two patients ...
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Troglitazone (Rezulin) and hepatic injury - Faich - Wiley Online Library
Dec 10, 2001 · Reports of 83 cases of liver failure associated with troglitazone were received (1 in 23 000 patients or 1 in 20 000 person-years). Of the ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
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F.D.A. Withdraws Drug for Diabetics, Citing Health Risks
Mar 22, 2000 · Since its introduction in March 1997, Rezulin has been linked to 90 cases of liver failure, resulting in 63 deaths and necessitating 10 liver ...
[44]
Troglitazone: the lesson that nobody learned? | Diabetologia
Dec 16, 2005 · By March of that year, 94 cases of acute liver failure had been voluntarily reported to the FDA, resulting in 66 deaths, 11 liver transplants ( ...
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Troglitazone-induced liver failure: a case study - PubMed
Troglitazone was removed from the US market because its use was associated with an increased risk of liver failure.
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Company played down drug's risks, report says - PMC - NIH
The FDA initially approved troglitazone, marketed as Rezulin, in January 1997 for treatment of type 2 diabetes. The drug was pulled from the market in March ...Missing: exact | Show results with:exact
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Class-Action Suit Filed Against Rezulin Maker - Los Angeles Times
Apr 18, 2000 · The lawsuit alleges that Rezulin remained on the market too ... Parke-Davis withheld information about its adverse effects. Guide to ...
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April 15, 1999-Rezulin Target of Lawsuit by Liver Failure Victim
A woman whose liver was destroyed just two weeks after she started taking the controversial diabetes drug Rezulin (troglitazone) today filed suit against the ...Missing: settlements | Show results with:settlements
[49]
Rezulin Liver Damage Settlement - Seeger Weiss LLP
Jul 28, 2025 · Originally rejected due to concerns about liver damage, the drug was approved for the market in March 1997, only to be withdrawn in March 2000 ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
[50]
Pfizer settles Rezulin product liability litigation
Apr 6, 2009 · Pfizer has settled thousands of personal injury claims alleging the diabetes drug Rezulin (troglitazone) caused liver damage.
[51]
Pfizer to settle Illinois Rezulin suit - Law Offices of Robert Dourian
Jul 2, 2004 · Pfizer Inc. has reached a $60 million settlement of a class action lawsuit over its Rezulin diabetes drug, pending upon final approval of the ...
[52]
Pfizer Agrees to Settle Suit Over Diabetes Drug Rezulin
Dec 22, 2001 · Pfizer Inc. agreed Friday to settle a lawsuit over the diabetes drug Rezulin after a jury earlier in the day awarded $43 million to a Texas woman who said it ...
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$$11.55 Million Rezulin Lawsuit - Medical Negligence
After awarding Wakefield's family $1.55 million in compensatory damages, the jury voted to order Pfizer to pay $10 million in punitive damages over Warner- ...
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Pfizer scores a win in Rezulin battle - PharmaTimes
Sep 27, 2007 · Pfizer has won the latest round in the protracted liability battle over injures related to the shelved diabetes drug Rezulin (troglitazone).Missing: settlements | Show results with:settlements
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Rezulin Wars - The Daily Record
Mar 5, 2002 · The Harris County jurors said there wasn't enough evidence to link the drug to her death. On Dec. 21, Pfizer settled Sanchez v. Parke-Davis et ...
[56]
In Re Rezulin Products Liability Litigation, 168 F. Supp. 2d 136 ...
In Polehouse v. Parke-Davis, defendants argue that the home health care provider was joined fraudulently and, in any case, that plaintiffs who do ...
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[PDF] Guidance for Industry Drug-Induced Liver Injury - FDA
Herrine, SK and C Choudary, 1999, Severe Hepatotoxicity Associated with Troglitazone, Ann. Intern Med, 130(2):163-4. Hunter, EB, PE Johnston, G Tanner, CW ...
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The Potential Return on Public Investment in Detecting Adverse ...
We found that earlier drug withdrawal made possible by active safety surveillance would most likely have resulted in savings in direct medical costs of $773 to ...
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Performance of preclinical models in predicting drug-induced liver ...
Mar 18, 2021 · We applied evidence-based methods to investigate the role of preclinical studies in predicting human DILI using two anti-diabetic drugs from the same class.
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Insight into hepatotoxicity: The troglitazone experience† : Hepatology
### Summary of Insights on Troglitazone and Idiosyncratic Hepatotoxicity
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Integrative Toxicoproteomics Implicates Impaired Mitochondrial ...
Despite intensive research, the underlying mechanism of troglitazone-induced liver toxicity remains unknown. Here we report the use of the Sod2+/– mouse model ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
Mitochondrial dysfunction and delayed hepatotoxicity
Aug 23, 2008 · Since troglitazone was withdrawn, much has been learned about the potential mechanisms of its hepatotoxicity. There is rapidly accumulating ...
[63]
Troglitazone-Induced Hepatic Necrosis in an Animal Model of Silent ...
The aim of this study was to analyze the toxic response in the liver of Sod2+/− mice treated for 28 days with troglitazone at doses comparable to previously ...
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Assessing immune hepatotoxicity of troglitazone with a versatile liver ...
May 30, 2024 · 4 The effect of the co-presence of THP-1 and dHL-60 cells on the hepatotoxicity due to TGZ. We conducted a study to examine the hepatotoxic ...
[65]
History of current non-insulin medications for diabetes mellitus
In 1997, troglitazone became the first thiazolidinedione to be approved for clinical use. Though effective, it was withdrawn in 2000 after it was found to ...
[66]
Troglitazone: The discovery and development of a novel therapy for ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Prior to the introduction of troglitazone, it had been more than 30 years since the last significant improvement in antidiabetic therapy.Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
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Management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Role of thiazolidinediones
Level I evidence clearly and consistently demonstrates that TZDs are effective in controlling hyperglycemia in patients with DM2. They significantly reduce ...