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Turn and slip indicator

The turn and slip indicator is a gyroscopic flight instrument essential for aircraft navigation, combining a rate-of-turn indicator and a slip-skid indicator to display the rate and direction of an aircraft's turn as well as the quality of turn coordination by showing whether the aircraft is slipping or skidding.^[1]^[2] It operates using a gyroscope mounted in a vertical plane aligned with the aircraft's longitudinal axis, where yawing motions cause gyroscopic precession that tilts the rotor and deflects a turn needle to indicate turn rate, with full needle deflection corresponding to a standard-rate turn of 3 degrees per second.^[1]^[3] The instrument's turn needle, often marked with a "doghouse" index for standard turns, provides pilots with immediate feedback on heading change direction and speed, while the inclinometer—a liquid-filled, curved glass tube containing a steel ball—indicates coordination by remaining centered in a properly balanced turn, deflecting toward the inside of the turn in a slip (insufficient rudder, turn rate too slow for bank angle) or toward the outside in a skid (excessive rudder, turn rate too fast for bank angle).^[1]^[4] This dual functionality helps pilots maintain coordinated flight, reducing passenger discomfort and structural stress during maneuvers, and is particularly vital in instrument flight rules (IFR) conditions where visual references are unavailable.^[3]^[2] Introduced as an early gyroscopic instrument in aviation, the turn and slip indicator predates the more advanced turn coordinator and remains in use on older or simpler aircraft, powered by either vacuum systems that draw air through the gyro to spin it or electrically via a motor, with a failure flag indicating power loss.^[3]^[1] Unlike the turn coordinator, whose canted gyroscope detects both roll and yaw for broader sensitivity to initial turn initiation, the turn and slip indicator focuses solely on yaw-induced turn rate and does not respond to bank angle, making it less versatile but reliable for steady-state turns without the risk of tumbling due to built-in restraining springs.^[1]^[4] In modern cockpits, it supports safe turn management by integrating with other instruments like the attitude indicator, ensuring pilots can execute precise maneuvers even in adverse weather.^[2]

Definition and History

Purpose and Function

The turn and slip indicator is a fundamental flight instrument in aviation that integrates a gyroscopic needle for measuring turn rate with an inclinometer ball for detecting lateral acceleration, enabling pilots to monitor and achieve coordinated turns.^[1] This combination provides essential feedback on the aircraft's yaw and roll coordination, helping to ensure stable and efficient maneuvering without excessive sideslip.^[5] The primary purpose of the turn and slip indicator is to assist pilots in avoiding uncoordinated flight conditions, such as slips or skids, which increase the risk of stalls, structural stress, or loss of control, especially during instrument flight rules (IFR) operations in low-visibility environments.^[1] By promoting coordinated flight—where the aircraft's bank angle matches its rate of turn—the instrument enhances overall flight safety and serves as a reliable backup for attitude reference if primary systems like the attitude indicator fail.^[5] In operation, the needle deflects to the left or right to indicate the direction and approximate rate of yaw, typically calibrated for a standard-rate turn of 3 degrees per second, allowing a full 360-degree heading change in two minutes.^[1] The ball, housed in a curved glass tube, remains centered during coordinated flight but shifts toward the inside of a turn in a slip (indicating excess yaw relative to bank) or toward the outside in a skid (indicating insufficient yaw), prompting rudder corrections to recenter it.^[5] This instrument is essential for both visual flight rules (VFR) and IFR flights, and it is mandated for IFR operations in certified U.S. aircraft under FAA regulations (14 CFR § 91.205(d)).^[6]

Historical Development

The turn and slip indicator emerged in the early 20th century as aviation advanced beyond visual flight rules, with roots in World War I-era efforts to address pilot disorientation in poor visibility. Basic yaw detectors appeared on military aircraft during the war, but the foundational gyroscopic turn indicator was invented in 1917 by Elmer A. Sperry, an American engineer known for his pioneering work in gyroscopic stabilization. This device used an air-driven gyroscope to detect rate of turn, providing a needle deflection to indicate yaw without relying on external references, marking a shift from rudimentary compass-based navigation.^[7]^[8] By the 1920s and 1930s, as aircraft speeds and instrument flying demands increased, the turn indicator evolved into a combined instrument by integrating a simple inclinometer—a curved glass tube with a ball in liquid—to show slip or skid during banked turns. A key milestone in parallel instrument development came in 1929 when Preston R. Bassett and Elmer A. Sperry Jr. filed a patent for a flight indicator that incorporated a gyroscopic artificial horizon with a banking indicator, providing pitch, roll, and slip/skid feedback to aid blind flying.^[9]^[10] This integration addressed the limitations of separate attitude and bank instruments, while the turn and slip indicator specifically combined the turn rate needle with the inclinometer for yaw and coordination monitoring. Post-World War II advancements standardized the instrument in civil aviation through regulatory bodies like the Civil Aeronautics Administration (predecessor to the FAA, established in 1938). The turn coordinator variant, introduced in the 1950s, featured a canted gyroscope tilted 30–45 degrees to sense both yaw and initial roll rates, improving responsiveness over traditional designs. By the 1960s, the turn and slip indicator (or its coordinator form) became mandatory for light aircraft under evolving certification standards, driven by numerous accidents involving uncoordinated flight and spatial disorientation in low visibility.^[11]

Design and Components

Turn Indicator

The turn indicator is a gyroscopic instrument designed to measure an aircraft's rate of turn by detecting rotation about the yaw axis. At its core is a rate gyroscope featuring a heavy rotor that spins at high speeds, approximately 8,000 RPM, to establish gyroscopic rigidity and enable precise sensing of yaw movements.^[12] The gyroscope is oriented to rotate in a vertical plane aligned with the aircraft's longitudinal axis, allowing it to respond to changes in heading through the principle of precession.^[13] In terms of design, the instrument incorporates either an air-driven or electric gyroscope, with the rotor's precession mechanically linked to a needle pointer on the instrument face. This pointer is calibrated in degrees per second, where a standard full-scale deflection indicates a turn rate of 3° per second, equivalent to completing a 360° turn in 2 minutes for standardized rate turns.^[13] Early models relied on pneumatic power supplied by engine-driven vacuum pumps to spin the rotor, providing a reliable but maintenance-intensive system common in mid-20th-century aircraft.^[13] Modern certified aircraft increasingly use electric gyros, which offer greater dependability and eliminate the need for vacuum systems.^[13] The rotor is mounted within a single gimbal suspension that permits freedom of movement specifically in the yaw axis while constraining other rotations, ensuring the gyroscope isolates turn rate detection.^[13] Integrated springs provide damping to counteract any oscillations from precession forces, stabilizing the needle's response for accurate real-time indications.^[13] This turn indicator component is commonly paired with an inclinometer in the full turn-and-slip instrument to provide comprehensive turn coordination data.^[13]

Inclinometer

The inclinometer, also known as the slip-skid ball, is a fundamental component of the turn and slip indicator that provides pilots with a visual cue for aircraft coordination during flight.^[13] It consists of a curved glass tube filled with damping fluid and containing a steel ball, typically black for visibility against a white background.^[13]^[14] The fluid serves to dampen the ball's movement, preventing erratic oscillations and ensuring stable readings.^[13] In operation, the ball responds solely to the resultant forces of gravity and centrifugal acceleration acting on the aircraft.^[13] During straight-and-level flight or a perfectly coordinated turn, these forces balance such that the ball remains centered at the bottom of the tube.^[13] In uncoordinated flight, an imbalance occurs: if the aircraft slips toward the inside of the turn (insufficient rudder), the ball deflects to the left; if it skids outward (excessive rudder), the ball moves to the right.^[13] This deflection signals the pilot to apply corrective rudder input—commonly remembered as "step on the ball"—to restore coordination.^[13] The design of the inclinometer dates to the early days of aviation instrumentation, with the first production model featuring the steel ball in a glass tube introduced by the Sperry Company in 1918.^[14] Its low-technology construction, relying entirely on mechanical and gravitational principles, makes it highly reliable and independent of the aircraft's electrical or vacuum power systems, ensuring functionality even in the event of system failures.^[14] The curvature of the tube is calibrated to align with the dynamics of standard-rate turns, allowing the ball to accurately reflect coordination across typical flight conditions without requiring power assistance.^[13] When paired with the turn needle, the inclinometer provides a complete picture of turn quality and yaw balance.^[13]

Turn Coordinator Variant

The turn coordinator represents an advanced variant of the turn and slip indicator, designed to provide pilots with more immediate feedback on aircraft turning motions by incorporating sensitivity to both yaw and roll rates. Unlike the traditional turn and slip indicator, which relies on a gyroscope aligned horizontally to detect only yaw-induced turn rates, the turn coordinator features a gyroscope mounted on a canted gimbal, typically tilted approximately 30 degrees upward from the aircraft's longitudinal axis.^[13]^[2] This tilt allows the instrument to initially sense roll rate during the onset of a turn, offering an earlier indication of turn initiation before the aircraft fully establishes a coordinated yaw.^[3] Developed in the 1960s and introduced in the early 1970s, the turn coordinator evolved as an improvement over earlier yaw-only designs to enhance pilot awareness in dynamic flight conditions.^[15]^[11] Its display innovates by replacing the simple needle of the basic model with a symbolic miniature airplane or wing representation that banks in the direction of the roll, providing a more intuitive visual cue for turn rate and coordination.^[13] The instrument marks a standard-rate turn (3 degrees per second) on its scale, aiding precise maneuvering.^[3] This variant proves particularly responsive in steep turns or turbulent conditions, where the basic turn and slip indicator's yaw-only sensitivity may lag behind rapid attitude changes.^[2] By the 1970s, the turn coordinator had become a standard instrument in many general aviation aircraft, especially training models, due to its dual-rate detection and improved utility for instrument flight.^[11]

Principles of Operation

Turn Rate Measurement

The turn rate measurement in a turn and slip indicator operates on the principle of gyroscopic precession, where an applied torque from the aircraft's yaw rotation causes the gyroscope rotor to tilt perpendicular to the input axis. The gyroscope maintains rigidity in space through its high spin rate, typically around 10,000 RPM, generating significant angular momentum that resists changes in orientation. When the aircraft yaws, this torque induces precession—a secondary rotation 90 degrees displaced from the applied force in the direction of the rotor's spin—resulting in a tilt of the gyro assembly. Springs attached to the gimbal restrain this tilt, producing a steady-state deflection of the turn needle that is proportional to the yaw rate, allowing the instrument to quantify angular velocity in yaw.^[13] In a rate gyroscope, such as that used in the turn indicator, the precession angle θ balances the input torque against the spring force, yielding a turn rate ω approximately equal to θ / τ, where τ represents the instrument's time constant, influenced by the gyro's moment of inertia and the spring constant. The instrument face features markings for standard turn rates corresponding to completing 360° in ½, 1, 2, or 4 minutes, with full needle deflection calibrated to a standard rate of 3° per second, equivalent to a 2-minute turn used in instrument flight procedures.^[13]^[3] This design distinguishes rate gyroscopes from attitude gyroscopes; the former detect and display the rate of angular change via precession deflection without integrating to absolute position, providing quick response to yaw inputs but requiring periodic realignment for prolonged accuracy, while the latter maintain a fixed reference frame for pitch and roll orientation. Limitations arise from the single-gimbal configuration, which can introduce errors in high-rate turns due to gimbal constraints and spring limits, though restraining springs prevent tumbling.^[16]^[17]

Slip and Skid Indication

The slip and skid indication in a turn and slip indicator is provided by the inclinometer, a simple device consisting of a curved glass tube partially filled with a fluid such as kerosene, containing a small metal ball that moves freely under the influence of unbalanced lateral forces.^[1] This component detects deviations from coordinated flight by responding to the net lateral acceleration experienced by the aircraft during a turn, where the ball's position relative to the tube's centerline indicates whether the aircraft is slipping inward or skidding outward.^[1] In a banked turn, the physics governing the ball's deflection arises from the balance—or imbalance—between the centrifugal force acting outward on the aircraft and the horizontal component of the lift vector acting inward toward the turn's center. The centrifugal force, generated by the aircraft's circular path, pushes the aircraft away from the turn's center, while the horizontal lift component, resulting from the bank angle, provides the necessary centripetal force to maintain the turn. If the rudder input does not properly coordinate with the bank angle, these forces become unbalanced, causing the ball to deflect from center: for instance, insufficient rudder into the turn results in excess horizontal lift pulling the aircraft inward, while excessive rudder creates an overabundance of centrifugal force pushing it outward.^[18] A slip occurs when the aircraft is overbanked relative to the turn rate, meaning the horizontal lift component exceeds the centrifugal force; in this case, the ball deflects toward the inside (low wing) of the turn, indicating the need for additional rudder into the turn to increase the turn rate or reduce the bank angle to center the ball. Conversely, a skid happens when the aircraft is underbanked for the turn rate, with centrifugal force overpowering the horizontal lift; here, the ball moves to the outside (high wing) of the turn, signaling the need for rudder opposite to the turn to decrease the turn rate or increase the bank angle to center the ball.^[1]^[18] The ball's position is proportional to the net lateral acceleration, which can be expressed as:

a_{\text{net}} = \frac{V^2}{R} \cos \phi - g \sin \phi

where V is the true airspeed, R is the turn radius, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and \phi is the bank angle; a positive value indicates a skid (outward deflection), a negative value a slip (inward deflection), and zero corresponds to coordinated flight.^[19] Maintaining zero ball deflection is critical for coordinated flight, as uncoordinated slips or skids can induce adverse yaw, increase the risk of a stall on the inside wing due to higher angle of attack, or lead to loss of control, particularly at low speeds or high angles of attack.^[18]

Usage and Interpretation

In Flight Maneuvers

Pilots utilize the turn and slip indicator to maintain coordinated flight during standard rate turns, which are defined as a constant turn rate of 3 degrees per second, allowing a complete 360-degree heading change in two minutes.^[1] To achieve this, the needle is aligned with the standard rate marking on the instrument, while the inclinometer ball is kept centered through rudder inputs or trim adjustments, ensuring no slip or skid occurs.^[5] In steep turns exceeding 45 degrees of bank, pilots must apply increased rudder pressure to counteract adverse yaw and torque effects, keeping the ball centered for coordination and preventing overbanking or skidding tendencies.^[20] During stalls, particularly accelerated stalls in steep turns, continuous monitoring of the instrument is essential to detect and correct any slip, as an uncoordinated condition can lead to a spin entry; rudder is used to neutralize the ball's deflection promptly.^[20] In instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), the turn and slip indicator serves as a backup for attitude awareness, cross-checked frequently with the heading indicator to confirm turn rate and direction while establishing a wings-level attitude.^[1] However, the instrument exhibits limitations in turbulence, where the needle may lag behind actual aircraft motion due to gyroscopic inertia and rough air disturbances, potentially leading to erratic or delayed indications.^[1] A key technique for correction is the "step on the ball" rule, where pilots apply rudder pedal pressure toward the direction of the ball's deflection to recenter it, effectively steering into a slip or away from a skid during any maneuver.^[21] This method promotes efficient, coordinated flight and enhances safety by minimizing lateral acceleration forces on the aircraft.^[1]

Training Applications

The turn and slip indicator plays a central role in primary pilot training by teaching coordinated flight, where students learn to use ailerons and rudder inputs to keep the inclinometer ball centered, preventing slips and skids during turns.^[1] Instructors often demonstrate Dutch roll—a coupled lateral-directional oscillation—by applying rudder inputs to induce yaw, allowing trainees to observe the ball's deflection and practice corrective actions to restore coordination, thereby illustrating the effects of uncoordinated flight on aircraft stability.^[18] This hands-on approach builds foundational skills in maintaining balanced forces, as uncoordinated maneuvers can lead to increased drag and potential stalls.^[22] In instrument training, the turn and slip indicator supports partial panel scenarios, where the attitude indicator is covered or failed, forcing pilots to rely on it as a backup for monitoring bank angle and turn quality to maintain situational awareness.^[1] During hood flying—simulated instrument conditions with a view-limiting device—it aids in building scan discipline by requiring cross-checks with other instruments to ensure coordinated turns while referencing solely to the panel.^[1] According to the FAA Private Pilot Airplane Airman Certification Standards (ACS), applicants must demonstrate proficiency in interpreting the turn and slip indicator during VFR basic instrument maneuvers, such as turns to headings, to maintain coordinated flight within specified tolerances like heading ±10° and coordinated ball.^[23] For instrument flight rules (IFR) training, the standards extend this to timed standard-rate turns at 3° per second, using the indicator to achieve and hold the rate while keeping the ball centered.^[1] The instrument is commonly featured in simulator sessions for upset recovery training, where pilots practice recognizing and correcting sideslip by centering the ball, serving as a yaw coordinator to enhance control effectiveness during high-stress recoveries from unusual attitudes.^[24]

Regulatory and Practical Considerations

Legal Requirements

In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) mandates a slip-skid indicator as part of the required instrumentation for instrument flight rules (IFR) operations in powered civil aircraft with standard airworthiness certificates, per 14 CFR § 91.205(d)(4). This requirement ensures pilots can maintain coordinated flight during instrument conditions, and it applies regardless of altitude. Additionally, a gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator is required under § 91.205(d)(3), unless the aircraft is equipped with a third attitude indicator approved for use through 360 degrees of pitch and roll, in which case the rate-of-turn function may be omitted. A turn coordinator, which integrates both rate-of-turn and slip-skid indications, serves as an FAA-approved equivalent for these functions.^[6] For visual flight rules (VFR) operations under 14 CFR Part 91, no turn and slip indicator or equivalent is required for day or night flights in powered civil aircraft. However, under Part 135 for commuter and on-demand operations, both a gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator and a slip-skid indicator are mandatory when carrying passengers on VFR over-the-top flights, unless the aircraft has specific attitude instrumentation exemptions (with additional exceptions for certain helicopters). Ultralight vehicles operating under Part 103 and most experimental aircraft under Part 91 for VFR are exempt from these instrument requirements, as they fall outside standard certification categories for powered civil aircraft.^[25] Internationally, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex 6, Part I, requires a turn and slip indicator for aeroplanes engaged in international commercial air transport operations under IFR, as part of the basic flight instruments to monitor turn rate and coordination. Similar provisions apply in Annex 6, Part II, for general aviation aeroplanes, with allowances for combined instruments meeting the turn, slip, attitude, and heading requirements. Exceptions mirror FAA categories, excluding ultralights and experimental aircraft from these mandates for non-commercial, non-IFR flights. Post-2000 FAA updates have permitted electronic equivalents to traditional mechanical turn and slip indicators, provided they comply with Technical Standard Order (TSO) C3e for turn and slip functions or relevant TSOs for integrated systems like electronic flight instrument systems (EFIS). These approvals, facilitated by advisory circulars and policy statements, allow TSO-certified digital displays to substitute for gyroscopic instruments in certified aircraft, enhancing reliability while maintaining regulatory compliance for both VFR and IFR operations.^[26]

Installation and Limitations

The installation of a turn and slip indicator requires careful placement within the aircraft instrument panel to ensure accessibility and minimal interference with other avionics, typically positioning the unit in the lower portion of the panel for pilot visibility during coordinated turns.^[13] Vacuum-driven models rely on a pneumatic system providing 2 inches of mercury suction specifically for the gyroscopic turn sensor, while electric variants connect to the aircraft's 14- or 28-volt DC bus with appropriate circuit protection.^[27] Alignment is critical, with the gyro rotor mounted to rotate in the vertical plane parallel to the aircraft's longitudinal axis, necessitating leveling of the airframe during installation to calibrate the inclinometer ball for accurate slip-skid indication under straight-and-level flight conditions.^[13] Calibration follows guidelines in FAA Advisory Circular 43.13-1B, including functional checks of gyro spin-up time (typically 3-5 minutes) and verification of standard-rate turn markings (3° per second) against known flight dynamics, often performed by certified avionics technicians.^[27] Operational limitations of the turn and slip indicator stem primarily from its gyroscopic design, which experiences gradual drift due to internal friction and precession over extended use without realignment, rendering it unsuitable for precise navigation tasks beyond basic rate-of-turn monitoring.^[28] Failure modes include gyro tumble or erratic indications from vacuum system loss (below 4.5 inches Hg suction), often signaled by a low-pressure warning light, or electrical faults in powered units leading to total instrument failure; the single-gimbal restraint prevents full tumbling but not inaccuracy under extreme maneuvers.^[13] Maintenance is mandated every 100 hours of operation for aircraft used in commercial service, encompassing visual inspections for fluid leaks in the inclinometer, gyro bearing smoothness, and suction/electrical continuity, with more frequent preflight checks recommended to detect anomalies early. Common issues differ between certified and experimental aircraft: certified models adhere to strict Type Certificate Data Sheet schedules, while experimental ones rely on annual condition inspections under 14 CFR Part 91.411, potentially allowing deferred maintenance if airworthiness is demonstrated. In modern glass cockpits equipped with electronic flight instrument systems, the turn and slip indicator serves as a reliable backup, providing independent mechanical or vacuum/electric redundancy against primary display failures, often retained in the panel alongside attitude and heading reference systems for enhanced safety. Environmental constraints limit operation to temperatures between -20°C and +50°C, beyond which gyro sensitivity and inclinometer fluid viscosity may degrade, as specified in technical standard orders like TSO-C3e for turn indicators.^[29]

References

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[PDF] Chapter 8 (Flight Instruments) - Federal Aviation Administration
The turn indicator takes a slightly different form than the traditional instrumentation. A sliding bar moves left and right below the triangle to indicate ...
[2]
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Jan 1, 2019 · The turn coordinator is essentially two instruments in one. It senses rolling, yawing, and turning movements, and it displays those movements via two ...
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Jan 22, 2025 · The turn coordinator combines a rate of turn and slip/skid indicator, displaying turn rate, roll, and coordination, using a gyroscope.What Is a Turn Coordinator? · Turn Coordinator Construction
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Turn and Slip Indicator vs. Turn Coordinator Compared
The Turn and Slip Indicator shows the rate of heading change, and the Turn Coordinator indicates both the rate of heading change as well as the rate of roll.
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[Figure 12-2] Another part of the turn-and-slip indicator is the inclinometer. The position of the ball defines whether the turn is coordinated or not.
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For VFR flight during the day, the following instruments and equipment are required: (1) Airspeed indicator. (2) Altimeter.
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In 1917, Elmer Sperry invented the gyroscopic turn indicator, based on a similar device he had invented for ships. The indicator joined Sperry's gyroscopic ...
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Elmer Ambrose Sperry Sr. Designed and built the first gyrostabilizer to help the pilot control the airplane's yaw, pitch and roll.
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US1939825A 1933-12-19 Gyroscopic horizon indicator. US1856436A 1932-05-03 Bank, turn, and climb indicator for aircraft. US2409659A 1946-10-22 Gyro vertical.Missing: slip | Show results with:slip
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Turn-and-Slip Indicator. The gyro in the turn-and-slip indicator rotates in the vertical plane corresponding to the aircraft's longitudinal axis. A single ...
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Feb 23, 1999 · Thus, the gyros in aircraft instruments are constructed of heavy materials and designed to spin rapidly (approximately 15,000 rpm for the ...
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Sep 4, 2021 · A turn coordinator can sense both roll rate and turn rate due to the gyro being tilted 30 degrees. However, why does tilting it do this, vs a turn and bank ...May turn rate indicators (and turn coordinators) be calibrated to be ...During "partial panel" flying, in what ways is a turn rate indicator ...More results from aviation.stackexchange.com
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[17]
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When examining the equation, lift (L) is determined through the relationship of the air density (ρ), the airfoil velocity (V), the surface area of the wing (S) ...<|separator|>
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For example, if an airplane stalls in level flight at 50 knots, it will stall at 60 knots in a 45° steep turn while maintaining altitude. It will stall at 70 ...
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Feb 13, 2024 · To center the ball and coordinate the turn, you “step on the ball” by applying right rudder. Or, when the ball strays to the left, you apply left rudder.Missing: technique | Show results with:technique
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The vertical fin's purpose is to keep the aft end of the airplane behind the front end. ⦁ The throttle provides thrust, which may be used for airspeed control ...Missing: function | Show results with:function
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ASIs conducting the practical test may assess an applicant's English language proficiency in accordance with FAA Order 8900.1. In either case, the evaluator ...
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Oct 21, 2008 · Another way is to examine the slip-skid indicator and keep the ball in the center. Pilots should de- velop a feel for the particular ...
[24]
14 CFR 135.159 -- Equipment requirements: Carrying ... - eCFR
... VFR over-the-top, unless it is equipped with—. (a) A gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator except on the following aircraft: (1) Airplanes with a third attitude ...
[25]
https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-G/part-135/subpart-C/section-135.159
[26]
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Sep 8, 1998 · AC 43.13-1B contains acceptable methods for inspecting and repairing nonpressurized areas of civil aircraft when no manufacturer instructions ...
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Precession is caused by both friction within the gyro and by aircraft manoeuvring inclusive of turns, acceleration and deceleration.
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