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Two Medicine Formation

The Two Medicine Formation is a prominent geological formation of the Late Cretaceous period, spanning the Campanian stage and deposited between approximately 82.4 and 74.4 million years ago in northwestern Montana, United States, and extending into southern Alberta, Canada.^[1]^[2] It comprises up to 2,500 feet (760 meters) of non-marine sedimentary rocks, including sandstones, shales, mudrocks, and volcanic ash deposits such as bentonites and tuffs, formed in fluvial, alluvial, and lacustrine environments along the western margin of the Western Interior Seaway.^[2]^[3] This formation is celebrated for its exceptional fossil preservation, yielding abundant remains of dinosaurs, eggs, nests, and other vertebrates that illuminate the biodiversity and paleoecology of the region during a time of active volcanism and tectonic activity in the foreland basin.^[1]^[3] Stratigraphically, the Two Medicine Formation belongs to the Montana Group and overlies the Virgelle Formation or Eagle Sandstone, while underlying the Bearpaw Shale or Judith River Formation, with lateral equivalents including the Oldman and Dinosaur Park formations in Canada.^[2] Recent revisions have divided it into four members from base to top: the Rock City Member (lacustrine-dominated), Shields Crossing Member, Hagans Crossing Member, and Flag Butte Member, reflecting a depositional shift around 76.3 million years ago from finer-grained lake settings to coarser alluvial plains, influenced by increased sediment supply and the Bearpaw Sea transgression.^[1] The formation's volcanic components, derived from the Elkhorn Mountains Volcanics to the southwest, include widespread bentonite beds that serve as markers for precise geochronology via U-Pb dating of zircon crystals.^[1]^[2] Exposed primarily in badlands along the Rocky Mountain Front in counties such as Glacier, Pondera, and Chouteau, it covers about 3,600 square miles and exhibits significant lateral thickness variations due to facies changes.^[4]^[3] The paleontological richness of the Two Medicine Formation is unparalleled among North American Campanian units, with fossils concentrated in bonebeds, nests, and trackways that reveal social behaviors and nesting strategies among dinosaurs. Recent discoveries as of 2025 include the pachycephalosaur Brontotholus harmoni from Glacier County.^[5] Notable dinosaur taxa include the hadrosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum, famous for its colonial nesting sites at "Egg Mountain" that provided early evidence of parental care; the small ornithopod Orodromeus makelai; the troodontid Troodon formosus; ceratopsians such as Einiosaurus procurvicornis and Achelousaurus horneri; and ankylosaurs such as Oohkotokia horneri.^[3]^[6] Theropods like the tyrannosaurid Daspletosaurus horneri and dromaeosaurid Bambiraptor feinbergi are also prominent, alongside non-dinosaurian vertebrates such as turtles, lizards, mammals, fish, and amphibians.^[3]^[7] Eggshell fragments and clutches, often attributable to hypacrosaurine hadrosaurs, are ubiquitous, underscoring the formation's role in advancing understandings of dinosaur reproduction and growth.^[6]^[3] This formation's integrated litho- and chronostratigraphic framework has enabled precise correlations of evolutionary events, such as the radiation of centrosaurine ceratopsians and hadrosaurid diversification, within the broader context of the Late Cretaceous Western Interior.^[1]^[3] Ongoing research, including isotopic analyses of paleoclimate proxies from leaf margins and sedimentology, further elucidates the humid, seasonal environments that supported these ecosystems amid regional volcanism and sea-level fluctuations.^[8] Sites like the Willow Creek Anticline continue to yield new discoveries, reinforcing the Two Medicine Formation's status as a cornerstone for vertebrate paleontology and stratigraphic studies in the Rocky Mountain region.^[9]^[6]

History of Research

Early Discoveries

The Two Medicine Formation was initially recognized during U.S. Geological Survey efforts in northwestern Montana in the early 1900s, with Eugene Stebinger formally naming it in 1914 based on exposures along the Two Medicine River in Glacier County. Stebinger described the unit as the uppermost formation of the Montana Group, comprising approximately 1,500 to 2,000 feet of light-gray to greenish-gray clay shales, sandstones, and occasional limestones, deposited in a continental environment and unconformably overlying the Virgelle Sandstone while underlying the Bearpaw Shale.^[10] The first reported dinosaur fossils from the formation emerged in the 1910s through expeditions targeting Cretaceous exposures in the region. In 1913, a collaborative effort by the American Museum of Natural History and the U.S. Geological Survey collected preliminary ceratopsian material, including multiple partial skeletons of a juvenile horned dinosaur from outcrops along the Milk River near the Canadian border, later named Brachyceratops montanus by Charles W. Gilmore. These finds, consisting of skulls, vertebrae, and limb bones from at least five individuals, marked the initial paleontological interest in the formation's vertebrate fauna.^[11] Early stratigraphic mapping advanced in the 1940s through work on coal resources, with C.M. Bauer delineating the formation's boundaries in the Blackfeet-Valier area of Glacier County, identifying multiple lignite horizons within its shales and sandstones and confirming its lateral extent across central northern Montana. Bauer's mapping established the basic areal limits and thickness variations, integrating the Two Medicine into broader assessments of the Montana Group's economic geology.^[12]

Major Expeditions

In the 1970s, paleontologist Jack Horner, then a research assistant at Princeton University's Department of Geology, led expeditions to the Two Medicine Formation in Montana, building on preliminary reports from the early 20th century that hinted at the region's rich dinosaur deposits. These multi-year efforts focused on systematic prospecting in the Willow Creek Anticline area near Choteau, involving teams of university students and local volunteers. In 1978, Horner and his collaborator Robert Makela discovered the first Maiasaura peeblesorum nests at a site dubbed Egg Mountain, unearthing clutches of eggs alongside juvenile skeletons that provided groundbreaking evidence of colonial nesting and extended parental care in dinosaurs. Over the course of excavations from 1978 to the early 1980s, more than 200 Maiasaura specimens across all growth stages were recovered from this locality, including over 40 nests, revolutionizing theories on dinosaur reproduction by demonstrating that adults likely regurgitated food for hatchlings, similar to modern birds.^[13] The Princeton expeditions culminated in 1979 when undergraduate student Fran Tannenbaum, part of Horner's field team, identified the first complete dinosaur egg in North America atop Egg Mountain, sparking further digs that revealed additional clutches and embryonic material. These finds, extracted through careful stratigraphic mapping and sieving of sediments, confirmed Maiasaura's role as a "good mother lizard" and established the Two Medicine as a key site for studying dinosaur behavior. Horner's team composition typically included 5–10 members per season, emphasizing hands-on training for students in excavation techniques amid the formation's challenging badlands terrain. The discoveries directly influenced parental care hypotheses, showing that Maiasaura juveniles remained dependent on adults for months, with nest sites reused across generations to support herd-based rearing.^[7]^[14] Transitioning to the 1980s, Horner, now curator at the Museum of the Rockies (MOR) affiliated with Montana State University, directed expanded fieldwork in the Two Medicine Formation, shifting emphasis to ontogenetic series of ornithopods like Maiasaura and Hypacrosaurus, as well as maniraptoran theropods including Troodon. These MOR expeditions, conducted annually from 1980 to 1990 with teams of 10–20 paleontologists, graduate students, and technicians, targeted bonebeds and nesting horizons across a 50-square-mile area, utilizing geophysical surveys and heavy machinery for larger quarries. In 1981, the team located a significant tyrannosaurid bonebed containing multiple Daspletosaurus individuals, including an adult and juveniles, excavated over three field seasons and revealing insights into gregarious behavior among large carnivores through associated disarticulated skeletons preserved in fluvial sands. Further MOR efforts uncovered a Troodon formosus egg clutch in 1983 near Egg Mountain, with Horner leading the initial recovery of 22 eggs containing well-preserved embryos during a late-season dig hampered by early snow; full excavation in 1984 by a core team including David Varricchio and students yielded the first evidence of avian-like brooding postures in non-avian dinosaurs. These 1980s projects amassed growth series documenting rapid ontogenetic changes in ornithopod limb proportions and theropod cranial development, contributing to broader understandings of dinosaur life histories. The nest analyses from both decades solidified parental care as a widespread trait among ornithischians and theropods, with quantitative nest density data (up to 30 nests per acre at Egg Mountain) underscoring social complexity in Late Cretaceous ecosystems.

Recent Studies

In 2024, Trever J. Dooley and colleagues conducted a major lithostratigraphic revision of the Two Medicine Formation, refining the boundaries of its members and clarifying depositional sequences through integrated sedimentological, stratigraphic, and geochronological analyses. This study utilized new CA-ID-TIMS U-Pb dating of zircon grains from tuff beds to establish a precise chronostratigraphic framework, confirming that the formation spans much of the Campanian stage from approximately 82.4 Ma to 74.4 Ma and providing a calibrated timeline for its rich dinosaur fauna.^[1] A 2025 study by David J. Varricchio and coauthors reaffirmed the validity of Troodon formosus as a distinct taxon using previously undescribed troodontid specimens (MOR 553 and MOR 748) recovered from excavations between 1988 and 1993. Through detailed morphometric comparisons of cranial elements, including the maxilla and nasal process, the research distinguished T. formosus from other North American troodontids, emphasizing features such as a broadly rounded maxillary fenestra and low-angled nasal process; this work builds briefly on foundational nest discoveries from 1970s expeditions that first highlighted troodontid presence in the formation.^[15] Throughout the 2010s, paleontologists increasingly applied computed tomography (CT) scanning and geochemical techniques to investigate bonebeds within the Two Medicine Formation, uncovering taphonomic biases that influence fossil assemblages. Geochemical analyses using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on vertebrate fossils revealed diagenetic processes and elemental signatures that affect preservation, such as rare earth element uptake indicating early mineralization in bonebeds. Complementary CT scans of skeletal remains from sites like the Daspletosaurus bonebed enabled non-destructive visualization of internal structures, demonstrating size-related biases where smaller individuals were underrepresented due to hydraulic sorting and weathering. These methods collectively highlighted how depositional environments and post-burial alterations skew representations of past ecosystems.^[16]^[17] Conservation initiatives in the 2020s have intensified to mitigate climate-driven threats to Two Medicine outcrops, including accelerated erosion from altered precipitation regimes and freeze-thaw cycles. In January 2025, the International Commission on Geoheritage designated the Cretaceous Dinosaur Nesting Grounds—spanning the Two Medicine and Willow Creek formations—as a globally significant site, recognizing its paleontological value and prompting enhanced protection measures against environmental degradation. Recent 2025 publications have specifically addressed erosion at key localities like Egg Mountain, advocating for monitoring and stabilization efforts to preserve eroding exposures amid projected increases in extreme weather.^[18]

Geology

Stratigraphy

The Two Medicine Formation consists primarily of nonmarine clastic sediments, including sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, and volcaniclastic deposits, deposited in fluvial and floodplain environments.^[2] Its thickness varies regionally, ranging from approximately 150 m in eastern exposures to over 500 m in western areas near the Rocky Mountain front, with local measurements up to 610 m in the type area.^[2] The formation's base conformably overlies the Virgelle Sandstone Member of the Eagle Formation, marking a transition from marine to terrestrial deposition, while its top is conformably overlain by the marine Bearpaw Shale in central and eastern Montana, though it passes laterally into the St. Mary River Formation to the west.^[2] The formation exhibits a tripartite lithostratigraphic division in many sections, particularly in Lewis and Clark County, comprising a lower sandstone-dominated unit, a middle mudstone-dominated unit with volcaniclastic intervals, and an upper unit characterized by interbedded sandstones and mudstones.^[2] The lower unit features coarse-grained sandstones interpreted as fluvial channel deposits, with subordinate overbank fines consisting of siltstones and mudstones that record periodic flooding on alluvial plains.^[2] The middle unit is dominated by fine-grained mudstones and shales, interspersed with volcaniclastic layers such as ash falls and bentonites derived from volcanic arcs to the west, indicating episodic ash deposition that altered local sedimentation rates and soil development.^[2] These bentonites, often light gray and weathered to bentonitic clay, reflect syn-depositional volcanic activity and are prominent in the western facies, where the formation thickens due to increased volcaniclastic input.^[19] The upper unit includes more laterally extensive mudstones and thin sandstones, suggestive of broader floodplain environments with reduced channel activity.^[2] In western exposures, the formation shows a distinct facies variation, with a lower sedimentary-dominated member transitioning upward into a thicker volcanic member rich in andesitic tuffs and flows, representing a proximal volcaniclastic apron.^[2] Overall, the lithofacies associations point to a low-gradient, meandering fluvial system influenced by tectonic subsidence in the foreland basin and intermittent volcanism, with sediment transport from western highlands.^[20] Recent lithostratigraphic revisions in 2024 have refined these divisions by formally naming four members based on distinct facies associations: the lower Rock City Member (alluvial sandstones), the middle Shields Crossing and Hagans Crossing Members (floodplain mudstones with lacustrine influences), and the upper Flag Butte Member (transitional alluvial-lacustrine deposits).^[1] These updates emphasize shifts in depositional environments from dominantly fluvial in the lower sections to more lacustrine-influenced settings upward, improving correlations across Montana exposures.^[1]

Age and Equivalents

The Two Medicine Formation is dated to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, spanning approximately 82.4 to 74.4 million years ago, based on high-precision chemical abrasion–isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass spectrometry (CA-ID-TIMS) uranium-lead (U-Pb) ages obtained from zircon crystals in volcanic ash beds throughout the unit.^[1] Earlier supporting radiometric dates include a 40Ar/39Ar age of 77.52 ± 0.19 Ma from a bentonite bed approximately 265 meters above the formation's base, as well as a 74.1 ± 0.1 Ma 40Ar/39Ar date from near the top.^[19]^[21] These dates, combined with the 2024 geochronologic framework, indicate continuous deposition with no significant hiatuses across the formation's stratigraphic interval.^[1] The formation correlates laterally and temporally with the Judith River Formation to the southeast in central Montana and the Oldman Formation in southern Alberta, Canada, based on lithostratigraphic, sedimentologic, and paleontologic similarities.^[22] Magnetostratigraphic data further support these equivalences, with much of the Two Medicine Formation falling within geomagnetic polarity chron C33r, consistent with the position of the C33r/C33n reversal in the upper Judith River Formation dated to approximately 74.1 Ma.^[23] In terms of faunal equivalences, the Two Medicine Formation aligns with the middle Judithian North American land-mammal "age," a biochronologic interval characterized by diagnostic vertebrate assemblages shared across western North American Campanian deposits. Regional correlations to marine sequences utilize index fossils such as the ammonites Baculites gregoryensis and Baculites compressus, along with inoceramid bivalves including Inoceramus (Cladoceramus) uddeni and I. (C.) waltersdorfensis, which define concurrent ammonite and inoceramid zones in the overlying Bearpaw Shale and equivalent marine units.^[24]

Taphonomy

The taphonomy of the Two Medicine Formation is characterized by predominant rapid burial in fluvial overbank and lacustrine environments, which facilitated the exceptional preservation of articulated dinosaur skeletons and nesting structures. Fine-grained silty mudstones and anoxic muds in these settings minimized post-mortem exposure to weathering, scavengers, and subaerial processes, allowing for the burial of intact individuals and clutches of eggs. This rapid entombment is evident in the formation's mud-dominated lithofacies, where low-oxygen conditions preserved delicate features such as embryonic remains within eggshells. Bonebed formation in the Two Medicine Formation often resulted from drought-induced attritional mortality, particularly in assemblages dominated by ornithopod taxa like Maiasaura. These monodominant or paucispecific concentrations of disarticulated skeletal elements accumulated near persistent water sources during seasonal dry periods in a semiarid paleoclimate, with subsequent fluvial reworking leading to parautochthonous deposits. Such mechanisms explain the prevalence of low-diversity bonebeds in overbank settings, where attritional death assemblages reflect ecological segregation and water-dependent behaviors. Diagenetic alterations in the formation include phosphatization of eggshell fragments and the formation of pyrite framboids within enclosing sediments, both indicative of prolonged low-oxygen burial environments. Phosphatization enhanced the durability of thin eggshell structures during early diagenesis, while disseminated pyrite framboids formed in anoxic microsites around decaying organic matter, preserving fine-scale taphonomic signatures. These processes highlight the role of reducing conditions in maintaining fossil integrity over geological time. Preservation biases in the Two Medicine Formation notably include the overrepresentation of juvenile ornithopods in bonebeds, attributable to high nest-site mortality and communal nesting behaviors. Nesting colonies concentrated vulnerable hatchlings in localized areas, increasing their likelihood of rapid burial and fossilization compared to adults, which dispersed more widely. This age-specific bias underscores how behavioral ecology influenced the taphonomic record, with juveniles comprising a significant portion of preserved assemblages.

Biostratigraphy

The biostratigraphy of the Two Medicine Formation relies on vertebrate fossils, particularly dinosaurs, to delineate biozones and document faunal changes during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous. The formation is divided into lower and upper biozones primarily based on turnover in megaherbivorous dinosaurs, with the lower biozone characterized by dominance of the hadrosaurid Gryposaurus and the upper by Hypacrosaurus, reflecting evolutionary shifts and environmental influences across the depositional sequence.^[3] Index taxa further refine these subdivisions, with the ceratopsian Avaceratops serving as a marker for the early Campanian portion of the lower biozone, while Einiosaurus indicates the mid-Campanian interval in the upper biozone, aiding correlations with equivalent strata in the Western Interior Basin. These taxa exhibit stratigraphic succession without significant overlap, supporting high-resolution biostratigraphic frameworks for the formation. Recent revisions in 2025 to troodontid biostratigraphy have confirmed Troodon formosus as a reliable index taxon for Judithian land-mammal age equivalents, including the upper Two Medicine Formation, based on new specimens that validate its synonymy with related forms like Stenonychosaurus and enhance correlations across formations such as the Dinosaur Park and Judith River.^[25] Integration of this biotic framework with magnetostratigraphy and radiometric dating resolves intra-formation age discrepancies, calibrating the lower biozone to approximately 80–77 Ma and the upper to 77–75 Ma within chron C33r to C32n, and confirming overall deposition from ca. 82.4 Ma to 74.4 Ma.^[1]

Paleoenvironment

Climate

The Two Medicine Formation records a semi-arid to subhumid paleoclimate with pronounced seasonal wet-dry cycles, as evidenced by the presence of paleosols and caliche horizons that formed under conditions of limited moisture availability and periodic evaporation.^[26] These features, particularly the extensive caliche development in the upper formation, suggest at least seasonal aridity, with dry periods interrupted by brief episodes of higher precipitation.^[27] Oxygen isotope analyses of dinosaur teeth from the formation indicate mean annual temperatures ranging from 20–25°C, reflecting a warm greenhouse climate consistent with Late Cretaceous global conditions.^[28] Recent clumped isotope studies of paleosol carbonates corroborate this, estimating mean annual temperatures of 21–27°C.^[29] Intra-tooth variability in δ¹⁸O values further supports significant seasonality, with body temperatures of large ornithischians maintaining near-constant levels around 35–37°C despite environmental fluctuations.^[28] Leaf physiognomy analyses of fossil floras provide additional proxies for paleoclimate, indicating warm, seasonal conditions with moderate precipitation.^[8] Sedimentary structures such as cross-bedded sands and carbonaceous shales provide evidence of monsoonal rainfall patterns, where intense seasonal precipitation led to episodic flooding and sediment transport from nearby highlands.^[30] Oxygen isotope gradients in paleosol carbonates and bivalve shells corroborate this, showing moisture derived from easterly air masses influenced by the Western Interior Seaway and Sevier orogeny, resulting in wet summers and drier winters.^[30] This climate regime bears resemblance to modern semi-arid regions of the Great Plains, characterized by seasonal convective storms without the extreme day-night cycles of higher latitudes, though warmer overall due to elevated atmospheric CO₂ levels. Local microclimates may have been modulated by elevational gradients near the rising Cordilleran highlands.^[30]

Elevation and Topography

The Two Medicine Formation was deposited in a coastal plain environment within the retroarc foreland basin of the Western Interior of North America.^[31] This setting was characterized by a broad, low-relief landscape influenced by flexural responses to orogenic loading from the west.^[32] The depositional topography primarily consisted of alluvial fans and expansive floodplains, where sediment was supplied from western volcanic highlands and transported via fluvial systems with eastward gradients toward the Western Interior Seaway.^[1] These systems featured meandering rivers incised into the plain, as evidenced by facies associations of channel sandstones interbedded with overbank mudstones and paleosol horizons, alongside localized lacustrine deposits indicating intermittent ponding in low-lying areas. Tectonic activity during deposition was dominated by compressional forces from the Sevier orogeny, which generated fault-block highs along the western margin and subsiding basins to the east, promoting differential uplift and subsidence that shaped the regional relief.^[33] This orogenic compression contributed to the development of a dynamic landscape where proximal alluvial fans transitioned distally into floodplain-dominated terrains, with fluvial gradients facilitating sediment dispersal from igneous and sedimentary sources in the evolving Cordilleran thrust belt.^[34] Reconstructions from sedimentological mapping reveal sinuous river channels with point bars and crevasse splays, interspersed with shallow lakes formed in abandoned meanders or tectonic depressions, reflecting a varied paleo-relief with local relief on the order of hundreds of meters across the plain.^[35] Climatic influences, such as seasonal precipitation, likely modulated erosion rates on these slopes, enhancing sediment flux to the depositional sites.^[36]

Fossil Sites

Egg Mountain

Egg Mountain is a prominent fossil locality in Teton County, Montana, exposed within the upper mudstone units of the Two Medicine Formation and encompassing an outcrop area of approximately 2-3 square kilometers.^[37]^[7] The site was discovered in 1978 by local collector Marion Brandvold, who recovered small dinosaur bones from the outcrop and shared them with paleontologist Jack Horner, then working with the Princeton University team, prompting systematic excavations that summer.^[37]^[38] These efforts uncovered over 15 nests attributed to the ornithopod dinosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum, including well-preserved embryos, fragmented eggshells, and hatchling remains, providing key evidence of colonial nesting behavior in dinosaurs.^[38]^[6] Stratigraphically, the Egg Mountain deposits consist of multiple bonebeds interbedded within overbank sediments of the upper Two Medicine Formation, representing floodplain environments periodically influenced by volcanic ash falls from the west.^[6]^[7] The nests themselves exhibit a characteristic architecture, formed as mounded depressions excavated into the substrate, with diameters typically ranging from 2 to 7 meters and containing up to 25 eggs arranged in a spiral or circular pattern.^[39]^[40] These structures were likely lined with decaying plant material to regulate incubation temperature, as inferred from associated organic traces and the nest's thermal properties.^[37] The taphonomic conditions at Egg Mountain are exceptional, preserving numerous nests in situ and capturing a full spectrum of Maiasaura ontogenetic stages, from 0.85-meter-long hatchlings weighing less than 1 kilogram to fully grown adults reaching 9 meters in length and over 2 metric tons.^[38]^[41] This vertical and horizontal distribution of age classes across stacked horizons indicates repeated use of the site over multiple breeding seasons, with rapid burial in fine-grained muds and silts protecting the remains from erosion and scavengers.^[6] Such preservation highlights Egg Mountain's role as a primary nesting ground, offering unparalleled insights into dinosaur reproductive ecology and growth dynamics within a Late Cretaceous floodplain setting.^[42]^[37]

Other Localities

In the Choteau area of central Montana, bonebeds within the Two Medicine Formation have preserved remains of the tyrannosaurid Daspletosaurus horneri, including a multi-individual assemblage that suggests gregarious behavior among subadult and adult individuals of this apex predator.^[17] Nearby deposits contain ceratopsian remains, such as partial skeletons of Einiosaurus procurvicornis, often in close association with theropod elements, indicating potential predator-prey dynamics in floodplain environments. These sites, dating to approximately 76 Ma, highlight the formation's role in documenting Late Campanian trophic interactions.^[1] A maniraptoran egg clutch attributed to a caenagnathid or dromaeosaurid theropod, providing early evidence of reproductive behaviors in North American non-avian dinosaurs, was discovered in the middle Two Medicine Formation on the Blackfeet Reservation near Cut Bank, Montana, during excavations in the late 2000s.^[43] The same general region has yielded isolated ankylosaur armor osteoderms from Oohkotokia horneri, preserved in mudstone layers that reflect seasonal flooding events.^[44] These discoveries, from the middle portion of the formation around 79–77 Ma, contributed to understanding armored dinosaur distribution and nesting strategies in semi-arid paleoenvironments.^[44] A significant 2025 discovery in Glacier County produced five partial skulls from dome-headed pachycephalosaur individuals, formally described as the new species Brontotholus harmoni, representing the first definitive pachycephalosaurid from the Two Medicine Formation.^[45] The specimens, recovered from green mudstone approximately 35–40 m above a volcanic ash datum dated to ca. 75 Ma, exhibit robust frontoparietal domes and suggest sexual dimorphism or agonistic behavior among these bipedal herbivores.^[45] This locality underscores the formation's upper biostratigraphic equivalence to the upper Judith River Formation, enriching the record of ornithischian diversity.^[45] Microvertebrate assemblages, including teeth and bones of small theropods, squamates, mammals, and crocodylomorphs, have been recovered from sites like Sevenmile Hill in the lower Two Medicine Formation (ca. 80–78 Ma), concentrated in channel lag deposits that indicate high-energy fluvial transport.^[46]^[47] These microfossil-rich horizons reveal a broader faunal spectrum beyond macrofossils, including early multituberculates, and provide critical data on trophic levels and ecological complexity in the Two Medicine paleocommunity.^[47]

Dinosaurs

Ankylosaurs

Euoplocephalus tutus represents one of the primary ankylosaurid taxa from the Two Medicine Formation, known from multiple partial skeletons that include osteoderms and tail clubs. Other notable ankylosaurids include Oohkotokia horneri, distinguished by its robust skull and extensive armor, and Talarurus plicatus, based on a partial skeleton with distinctive osteoderm patterns.^[48] These remains, such as the partial crushed skull USNM 11892 and associated postcranial elements of E. tutus, document heavily armored thyreophorans adapted to the Late Cretaceous landscape. The osteoderms vary in shape and size, forming a mosaic of polygonal and keeled plates that covered the body, neck, and flanks, providing comprehensive dermal protection. Tail clubs, composed of fused osteoderms forming a rounded or knob-like handle and caput, are preserved in several specimens, indicating a weaponized caudal structure up to 30 cm wide.^[49] Individuals of E. tutus attained body lengths of 6–7 m and masses exceeding 2 metric tons, characterized by a low-slung, barrel-shaped torso supported by robust limbs that maintained a posture close to the ground. This morphology facilitated quadrupedal locomotion and efficient browsing of low-lying vegetation, consistent with its herbivorous diet processed via a beak-like predentary and simple dental battery of leaf-shaped teeth with vertical wear facets suggesting fore-aft jaw motion. The skull, though incompletely preserved in most Two Medicine specimens, features a broad rostrum and shearing dentition suited for grinding tough plant matter in a floodplain setting dominated by ferns, cycads, and conifers. The distribution of armor, with dense osteoderm coverage over the dorsum and thinner plating ventrally, along with the enlarged tail club, implies a defensive strategy against large predators such as tyrannosauroids. Biomechanical analyses indicate that tail swings could generate forces sufficient to fracture theropod limb bones, underscoring the role of these features in deterring attacks in shared habitats. Some partial skeletons occur in bonebeds with other megaherbivores, suggesting social or depositional associations within the formation's riparian ecosystems.

Ceratopsians

The Two Medicine Formation preserves a diverse assemblage of centrosaurine ceratopsians, characterized by their elaborate cranial ornamentation, including low, broad frills adorned with spikes, hooks, and epiossifications likely serving functions in display, species recognition, and intraspecific signaling. Einiosaurus procurvicornis, a medium-sized herbivore reaching up to 6 meters in length, exemplifies this diversity with its distinctive forward-curving nasal horn and paired supraorbital bosses in adults, features that evolved through sexual selection to enhance visual signaling within herds.^[50] Achelousaurus horneri represents another key taxon, distinguished by its reduced nasal horn and rugose bosses on the frill, further highlighting the rapid morphological evolution among centrosaurines in this formation during the late Campanian.^[50] Fossil evidence from the formation documents a well-preserved growth series for Einiosaurus procurvicornis, spanning juvenile to adult stages and revealing significant ontogenetic changes in cranial morphology. Juveniles exhibit simple, erect nasal horncores and triangular supraorbital horns, which in subadults begin to recurved and flatten into platforms, culminating in adults with strongly procurved nasal horns up to 26.6 cm long and spheroid supraorbital masses measuring 8.7 cm.^[51] These transformations, observed in specimens from the type locality bonebed (TM-046) in the upper portion of the formation, indicate that frill development preceded major horn modifications, potentially allowing early maturation of display structures.^[51] For instance, the adult holotype skull (MOR 456 0-8-9-6-1) displays the iconic forward-curving nasal horn and robust frill, recovered from sediments corresponding to the upper biozone and dated to approximately 74.5 million years ago.^[50] Herding behavior in Einiosaurus is inferred from two monospecific bonebeds in the upper Two Medicine Formation, each containing over 15 individuals of varying ages and suggesting gregarious social structures similar to modern ungulate herds, with mortality likely linked to drought events that concentrated animals around diminishing water sources.^[52] These assemblages, including dense concentrations of up to 40 bones per square meter, provide evidence of coordinated group living and migration, with taphonomic features such as articulated skeletons and minimal transport indicating rapid burial in floodplain settings.^[52] Such findings underscore the ecological role of these frilled herbivores in the formation's riparian paleoenvironments.^[50]

Ornithopods

The ornithopod assemblage of the Two Medicine Formation is dominated by hadrosaurids, large herbivorous dinosaurs adapted for browsing in a forested floodplain environment. These duck-billed dinosaurs featured complex dental batteries capable of grinding tough vegetation, reflecting their role as primary consumers in the Campanian ecosystem.^[53] Smaller non-hadrosaurid ornithopods are represented by Orodromeus makelai, a bipedal herbivore about 2.5 meters long, known from multiple skeletons including juveniles. This agile dinosaur, with its slender build and cursorial adaptations, likely foraged on low vegetation and may have exhibited nesting behaviors evidenced by associated eggshells.^[3] Maiasaura peeblesorum, a non-crested saurolophine hadrosaurid, is the most abundant ornithopod in the formation and exemplifies evidence of parental care. Named "good mother lizard" based on discoveries of juveniles near adult remains and nest sites, adults reached lengths of 7–9 m and masses up to 2 metric tons. Key specimens from the Egg Mountain locality, including an ontogenetic series of over 50 individuals, document rapid early growth through bone histology analysis of long bones like the tibia.^[54] These reveal fibrolamellar bone tissue with high vascularity in juveniles, indicating sustained rapid growth rates comparable to modern birds, with individuals achieving subadult sizes of approximately 3.5 m within the first 1–2 years. Nest-based evidence from Egg Mountain further supports colonial nesting and post-hatching care, with juveniles remaining dependent on adults for extended periods. Other hadrosaurids include Gryposaurus latidens from the lower Two Medicine Formation, a saurolophine with a prominent nasal arch and robust build similar to Maiasaura. This species possessed a dental battery of densely packed teeth, enabling efficient grinding of fibrous plants such as ferns prevalent in the formation's paleoflora.^[55] Similarly, Hypacrosaurus stebingeri, a lambeosaurine known from the middle to upper parts of the formation, featured a tall hollow crest possibly used for vocalization and a sophisticated dental battery for processing vegetation.^[56] Specimens from bonebeds indicate gregarious behavior, with age-segregated groups suggesting social structure among subadults.^[56] Dietary inferences for these ornithopods derive from coprolites containing fragmented woody material, primarily from conifers like those in the Taxodiaceae family dominant in the Two Medicine paleoenvironment. These fossils, up to 7 liters in volume, show recurring ingestion of partially decayed conifer wood, likely for its associated fungi and invertebrates rather than nutrition from the wood itself.^[27] No gastroliths are directly associated with hadrosaur remains in the formation, but the coprolite evidence underscores opportunistic feeding strategies amid seasonal resource scarcity.^[27]

Pachycephalosaurs

Pachycephalosaurs, a group of bipedal ornithischian dinosaurs characterized by their thickened cranial domes, are represented in the Two Medicine Formation primarily by fragmentary cranial material.^[57] Previously referred specimens, such as those assigned to Stegoceras validum, indicate small-bodied (2–3 m long) herbivores adapted for agile terrestrial locomotion in a Late Campanian environment.^[45] These early finds, often limited to partial domes and squamosals, highlight the group's presence but underscore their overall scarcity compared to more abundant herbivores like hadrosaurs. A significant addition came in 2025 with the description of Brontotholus harmoni, the first named pachycephalosaurid species from the formation, based on five specimens collected from Glacier County localities. These include partial frontoparietal domes exhibiting robust thickening up to 20 cm, suggesting a body length of approximately 3 m and a mature morphology distinct from smaller congeners.^[45] The species shares a marginocephalian biozone with contemporaneous ceratopsians, reflecting regional diversity in dome-headed ornithischians. Histological analysis of pachycephalosaur domes from the Two Medicine Formation, including subadult specimens like MOR 453, reveals a dynamic bone structure with three distinct zones: an external compact layer, a vascularized internal zone, and a transitional middle layer. Vascular grooves on the dome surface likely served display functions during intraspecific combat, rather than supporting direct head-butting, as the tissue shows rapid remodeling inconsistent with high-impact trauma.^[58] The rarity of pachycephalosaur fossils in the Two Medicine Formation may stem from their preference for upland habitats, which offered poorer preservation potential than lowland fluvial or coastal settings elsewhere in the Western Interior. This ecological niche, characterized by terrestrial deposits away from marine influences, aligns with broader patterns of pachycephalosaurid distribution during the Campanian.^[59]

Oviraptorosaurs

Oviraptorosaurs in the Two Medicine Formation are known primarily from fragmentary skeletal elements and prolific reproductive fossils, providing insights into their omnivorous ecology and advanced parental care behaviors. A notable skeletal specimen is the partial lower jaw (MOR 1107), referred to Caenagnathus sp., which displays an edentulous structure with a deep, robust symphysis forming a parrot-like beak suited for crushing tough vegetation or seizing small prey. Abundant egg clutches attributed to oviraptorosaurs comparable to Citipati or related caenagnathids, classified within the oogenus Elongatoolithus, characterize the formation's reproductive record, featuring spiral or ring arrangements of 15–30 paired eggs partially buried in substrate mounds.^[60] These elongatoolithid eggs measure up to 20 cm in length, with some preserving embryonic remains that reveal early developmental stages of the hatchlings.^[60] Such clutches, often discovered at localities like Egg Mountain, indicate communal nesting strategies in floodplain environments conducive to moisture retention and vegetation cover.^[61] Additional partial skeletons, including elements of the forelimb and pelvic girdle, exhibit adaptations for brooding, such as robust arms with evidence of feathering for thermal insulation, paralleling the posture of modern birds incubating eggs in open, riverine settings.^[60] These features underscore the oviraptorosaurs' role as small- to medium-sized, crested theropods that likely foraged opportunistically while investing heavily in nest protection.

Tyrannosauroids

The Two Medicine Formation has yielded remains of tyrannosauroids, with Daspletosaurus horneri representing the primary large-bodied taxon in its upper levels. This species, described from multiple specimens including a subadult skull and skeleton, reached lengths of up to 9 meters and exhibited a robust build adapted for powerful predation.^[62] Its skull featured tall proportions, prominent cornual processes on the lacrimal and postorbital bones, and a coarse subcutaneous texture suggestive of flat scales and possible armor-like integument, enhancements that supported bone-crushing bite mechanics typical of advanced tyrannosaurines.^[62] A notable discovery is a multi-individual bonebed from a locality near Choteau in Teton County, containing at least four partial skeletons of tyrannosaurids referable to Daspletosaurus horneri, indicating gregarious behavior and potential pack-hunting strategies among these apex predators. The assemblage includes elements from individuals of varying sizes, preserved in a fluvial sandstone deposit that suggests rapid burial and minimal transport, preserving evidence of social aggregation in life. Juvenile specimens of D. horneri, such as a small dentary with a tooth row measuring 221.5 mm, reveal ontogenetic changes from slender, lightly built forms to more massive adults, including shifts in tooth count (from 15 in juveniles to 17 in subadults, then back to 15 in adults) and reduction in facial texture coarseness with maturity.^[62] These growth patterns highlight developmental plasticity in tyrannosauroids, enabling adaptation to diverse predatory roles. Predation is evidenced by large theropod bite marks on ceratopsian bones from contemporaneous Western Interior formations, consistent with attacks by Daspletosaurus-sized predators on armored herbivores.^[63]

Other Theropods

The Two Medicine Formation has yielded remains of several small theropods classified as other maniraptorans, distinct from the larger tyrannosauroids and oviraptorosaurs found in the same deposits. These include troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and avialans, representing agile, feathered predators and early birds adapted to diverse ecological niches in the Late Cretaceous floodplain and lakeside environments.^[64] Troodon formosus, a troodontid theropod, is prominently represented by multiple specimens from the formation, including partial skeletons and isolated cranial elements that highlight its advanced sensory adaptations. This species possessed an exceptionally large brain relative to body size—estimated at up to three times that of comparably sized theropods—enabling complex behaviors such as pack hunting or problem-solving. Its forward-facing eyes provided stereoscopic vision, enhancing depth perception for precise strikes on prey.^[65] Analysis of scleral rings from troodontid fossils, including those akin to Troodon, indicates nocturnal or crepuscular activity patterns, with large eye structures suited for low-light conditions. A 2025 study utilizing Museum of the Rockies (MOR) specimens from the Two Medicine Formation confirmed the validity of Troodon formosus as a distinct taxon, resolving prior synonymies and revealing greater troodontid diversity through detailed comparisons of dental and postcranial morphology. Non-avialan eumaniraptorans, particularly dromaeosaurids such as Saurornitholestes langstoni and Bambiraptor feinbergi, are known from isolated teeth, vertebrae, and limb bones in the formation, indicating body lengths of up to 2 meters and a cursorial lifestyle. B. feinbergi, known from a nearly complete juvenile skeleton, exhibits bird-like features including a furcula and quill knobs, suggesting advanced feathering and possible gliding capabilities. These sickle-clawed predators featured recurved, serrated teeth for tearing flesh and a rigid tail for balance during agile pursuits, suggesting they targeted small vertebrates and possibly juveniles of larger herbivores.^[66] Feathers likely covered much of their bodies, aiding in insulation and display, though their primary locomotion was terrestrial rather than aerial. Avialans in the Two Medicine Formation include tentative referrals to Avisaurus (cf. Avisaurus), represented by partial wing elements such as carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges that preserve quill knobs indicative of flight feathers. These structures suggest capabilities for powered flight or gliding, aligning with the enantiornithine affinities of Avisaurus gloriae, a related taxon from the same formation known for robust wing architecture approaching that of modern birds. Such adaptations imply these small avialans occupied aerial niches, potentially foraging for insects or small prey in the forested margins of ancient river systems.^[67]

Other Fauna

Crocodylomorphs

The Two Medicine Formation preserves evidence of several crocodylomorphs adapted to the semi-aquatic environments of the Campanian Western Interior, including river systems and wetlands that supported a mix of predatory and opportunistic feeding strategies. These reptiles, ranging from small alligatoroids to larger forms, contributed to the trophic structure alongside dominant dinosaurian herbivores and carnivores, occasionally interacting through predation on juveniles or scavenging.^[68] A key representative is Brachychampsa montana, a small-bodied alligatoroid estimated to reach 3–4 m in total length based on partial cranial material. This taxon is characterized by anterior ziphodont teeth suited for slicing into fish and small vertebrate prey, complemented by more robust posterior dentition for processing tougher items. Partial skulls from the formation reveal a broad, short rostrum indicative of ambush predation tactics in shallow river channels, where the animal could lie in wait for passing prey.^[69]^[70]^[71] Fossils of B. montana, primarily isolated teeth and osteoderms, occur abundantly in overbank fine-grained sediments, pointing to a strong association with low-energy wetland habitats rather than high-flow channels.^[72]^[3]

Mammals and Other Vertebrates

The Two Medicine Formation preserves a diverse assemblage of small mammals, primarily multituberculates such as Cimexomys judithae, a shrew-sized species approximately 10-15 cm in length with specialized grinding molars adapted for processing seeds and other tough plant material, indicating an omnivorous to herbivorous diet. These mammals are rare but significant, with exceptional specimens including near-complete dentitions and partial skeletons recovered from dinosaur nesting horizons, suggesting they inhabited terrestrial environments near fluvial and lacustrine settings.^[73] Squamates, particularly lizards, are represented by isolated cranial and postcranial elements, including those of the basal iguanomorph Magnuviator ovimonsensis, a small-bodied form likely adapted to forested or riparian habitats based on its phylogenetic position within early iguanians. Testudines are known from fragmentary shells, notably Basilemys sp., with costal plates and plastron elements preserved in lacustrine mudstones and carbonates, pointing to aquatic or semi-aquatic lifestyles in freshwater lakes.^[74] Fish remains, dominated by teleosts like the gonorynchiform Notogoneus (e.g., N. parvus), occur in channel sandstones and overbank deposits, comprising articulated skeletons that reflect diverse freshwater systems with low-energy depositional environments conducive to preservation.^[75] These assemblages indicate a fluvial-lacustrine paleoenvironment supporting amiid-like and gar-like (lepisosteid) forms, though specific taxa remain poorly documented.^[76] Amphibians are rare, consisting mainly of anurans represented by isolated and partially articulated skeletal elements, including an undescribed metamorphosed individual from mid-formation mudstones, preserved in fine-grained overbank sediments that favored the fossilization of small, delicate vertebrates.^[77] These small ectotherms likely occupied wetland margins, contributing to the biostratigraphic correlation of the Judithian land-vertebrate faunachron across western North American formations.^[77]

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[75]
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