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Bentonite

Bentonite is a naturally occurring absorbent aluminium phyllosilicate clay, primarily composed of montmorillonite, a smectite-group mineral with the general formula (Na,Ca)_{0.33}(Al,Mg)2(Si_4O{10})(OH)_2 \cdot nH_2O, formed through the in-situ alteration and devitrification of volcanic ash or tuff deposits over geological time.^[1]^[2] This rock exhibits exceptional colloidal and plastic properties due to its layered structure, which allows interlayer water molecules and exchangeable cations like sodium or calcium to facilitate significant swelling—up to 10–15 times its dry volume upon hydration—making it highly versatile for industrial applications.^[3]^[4] The mineral's key physical properties include high cation exchange capacity (typically 70–100 meq/100g), low permeability when compacted, and strong adsorptive abilities, which stem from its fine particle size (often <2 μm) and negative surface charge.^[5] Chemically, bentonite is stable across a wide pH range and resistant to many environmental conditions, though its swelling behavior varies by type: sodium bentonite (Na-bentonite) swells more dramatically than calcium bentonite (Ca-bentonite).^[6] Geologically, major deposits occur in regions with ancient volcanic activity, such as the Cretaceous formations in Wyoming, USA, which host about 70% of the world's known supply, underscoring its economic importance as a non-metallic mineral resource.^[7] Bentonite's applications span multiple industries, leveraging its binding, sealing, and purifying capabilities; it serves as a key component in drilling muds for oil and gas exploration to stabilize boreholes and remove cuttings, as a bonding agent in foundry sands for metal casting, and in pelletizing iron ore to improve handling and smelting efficiency.^[8]^[5] Additionally, it is used in civil engineering for slurry trench walls and landfill liners due to its low hydraulic conductivity (<10^{-9} m/s when hydrated), in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals as a thickener and absorbent, and in agriculture for animal feed pelleting and soil amendment to enhance water retention.^[9]^[10] Its role in environmental remediation, such as adsorbing heavy metals and toxins, further highlights its biomedical and ecological value.^[6]

Composition and Properties

Chemical Composition

Bentonite is an impure clay material that consists predominantly of montmorillonite, a key member of the smectite group of clay minerals.^[5] This composition gives bentonite its characteristic absorbent and swelling properties, with montmorillonite forming the primary structural component in natural deposits.^[11] The general chemical formula for montmorillonite in bentonite is (\ce{Na,Ca})_{0.33}(\ce{Al,Mg})_2(\ce{Si_4O_{10}})(\ce{OH})_2 \cdot n\ce{H_2O}, where variations occur depending on the dominant interlayer cations such as sodium or calcium.^[11] Key elemental constituents include silicon and aluminum as the primary framework elements, along with magnesium, sodium, calcium, and iron substituting in the octahedral and tetrahedral sheets, while water molecules occupy interlayer spaces, contributing up to 15-20% by weight in the natural state.^[12] These elements form a layered silicate structure that defines bentonite's mineralogical identity.^[5] Natural bentonite deposits typically contain 50-90% montmorillonite, with the remainder comprising impurities such as quartz, feldspar, gypsum, cristobalite, calcite, and iron oxides that influence the material's overall purity and processing requirements.^[13] These accessory minerals can vary by deposit but generally do not exceed 50% in high-quality bentonite sources.^[5] In contrast, fuller's earth, sometimes referred to as non-swelling bentonite, differs in composition by primarily consisting of palygorskite (attapulgite) or non-plastic calcium-rich montmorillonite variants, often with higher quartz content and lacking the high-swelling smectite dominance of true bentonite.^[14] This distinction arises from fuller's earth's formation in different sedimentary environments, resulting in lower montmorillonite purity and reduced interlayer cation exchange potential.^[5]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Bentonite, primarily composed of montmorillonite, exhibits distinctive physical and chemical properties arising from its layered silicate structure with negatively charged surfaces. These properties, including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, and adsorption affinity, stem from the mineral's ability to interact with water and ions in its interlayer spaces.^[15] One of the key chemical properties of bentonite is its high cation exchange capacity (CEC), typically ranging from 70 to 100 meq/100 g, which results from the negatively charged aluminosilicate layers that attract and exchange cations such as sodium, calcium, and magnesium.^[16] This capacity enables bentonite to bind and release ions, influencing its behavior in aqueous environments. Bentonite demonstrates remarkable swelling properties, capable of absorbing up to 10–15 times its dry volume in water to form thixotropic gels that exhibit shear-thinning behavior under stress.^[3] The mechanism involves the hydration of interlayer cations, which expand the lattice spacing and allow water molecules to diffuse between the layers, creating a viscous, gel-like suspension.^[17] In its wet state, bentonite displays high plasticity and viscosity, making it moldable and suitable for forming cohesive masses, while in the dry state, it achieves low permeability due to its compact structure and minimal void spaces.^[18]^[19] Bentonite maintains structural stability up to approximately 500–600 °C, with dehydroxylation of montmorillonite occurring around 600–750 °C, leading to irreversible structural changes in the lattice.^[20] Suspensions of sodium-type bentonite typically have a pH in the range of 8 to 10, reflecting the alkaline nature of the exchangeable sodium ions.^[21] Additionally, bentonite possesses significant adsorption capacity for organic compounds and heavy metals, facilitated by its high surface area and ion exchange sites, allowing it to sequester pollutants such as lead, cadmium, and organic dyes from solutions.^[22]^[23]

Formation and Occurrence

Geological Formation

Bentonite originates from the devitrification and weathering of volcanic ash or tuff, processes that transform unstable volcanic glass into clay minerals primarily in marine or freshwater environments.^[5] This alteration commonly involves glassy volcanic materials, such as rhyolitic ash, which undergo hydrolysis and ion exchange reactions over millions of years, breaking down the silica-rich structure into layered silicates.^[24] A key mechanism in bentonite formation is the development of smectite minerals, the dominant component including montmorillonite, through the interaction of volcanic glass with magnesium-rich waters that facilitate hydrolysis of aluminosilicates and incorporation of interlayer cations.^[25] These conditions promote the swelling properties characteristic of bentonite by allowing expandable layers in the crystal structure.^[26] Many bentonite deposits are associated with geological formations from the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, reflecting widespread volcanic activity during these eras that supplied the precursor ash.^[5] In deeper burial settings, smectite in bentonite can experience illitisation, a diagenetic process involving the gradual fixation of potassium ions into the interlayer sites, converting expandable smectite layers to non-expandable illite and forming K-bentonite under elevated temperatures and pressures.^[27] This transformation reduces the clay's swelling capacity and is driven by the availability of potassium from surrounding sediments or fluids.^[28]

Global Deposits and Mining

Bentonite deposits occur globally in regions associated with ancient volcanic activity, where layers of volcanic ash have weathered into clay. The largest concentrations are found in the United States, particularly in Wyoming's Black Hills and other sedimentary formations, which host extensive beds formed from Cretaceous-age ash falls. Other significant deposits exist in Greece's Aegean region, India's Rajasthan and Gujarat states, China's Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia provinces, and Turkey's Aegean and Central Anatolian areas. These locations account for the majority of commercial production, with deposits typically consisting of lenticular beds ranging from a few meters to tens of meters thick.^[29]^[30] The United States dominates global bentonite production, outputting 4.36 million metric tons in 2023 (estimated at 4.8 million metric tons in 2024), with Wyoming contributing approximately 95% of the national total through operations in three primary geologic districts.^[31]^[32] India follows as the second-largest producer at around 3.7 million metric tons, followed by China (2.1 million metric tons), Turkey (2.49 million metric tons), and Greece (1.11 million metric tons). Worldwide production reached about 20.3 million metric tons in 2023 (estimated at 21 million metric tons in 2024), reflecting steady demand for industrial applications, with estimates suggesting global reserves exceed several billion tons due to the abundance of untapped volcanic-derived deposits.^[31]^[33]^[34]^[35] Bentonite is predominantly extracted via open-pit surface mining, as deposits are generally shallow, lying 10 to 30 meters below the surface in accessible sedimentary layers. Operations involve removing overburden with bulldozers and scrapers, followed by selective mining of the clay beds, which are often 1 to 4 meters thick, using front-end loaders and haul trucks for transport to processing sites. This method is efficient for the large, near-surface extents of most deposits, minimizing the need for underground techniques.^[29]^[36]^[37] Environmental management in bentonite mining emphasizes dust suppression and site reclamation to mitigate impacts from dry clay handling and land disturbance. Dust control measures include applying water via trucks or chemical suppressants like magnesium chloride on haul roads and stockpiles, while enclosures and wetting agents reduce airborne particulates during loading. Reclamation efforts restore mined lands to equal or better pre-mining conditions through reseeding native vegetation and reshaping topography, in compliance with federal and state regulations such as the U.S. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act. Post-2020 updates to Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) rules have strengthened dust monitoring requirements, mandating more frequent sampling and lower exposure limits for workers, alongside enhanced water management protocols to limit usage in arid regions like Wyoming.^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41] In terms of trade, the United States serves as the leading exporter, shipping 800,000 tons in 2023 (estimated at 700,000 tons in 2024), primarily to Canada, Japan, and Mexico, with export values reaching $197 million in 2023. Demand in Asia has surged, driven by industrial growth in construction and oil drilling, with regional imports increasing by 8.4% in 2022 and the Asia-Pacific market projected to expand at a 5.9% CAGR through 2035. This trend underscores shifting global supply dynamics, with Asian producers like India and China balancing local consumption and exports.^[31]^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]

History

Discovery and Naming

Bentonite was first identified in 1890 near Rock River in Albany County, Wyoming, within the Cretaceous Benton Shale formation.^[46] This initial discovery highlighted the material as a distinctive clay occurring in outcrops associated with volcanic ash alterations, marking the beginning of scientific interest in its unique properties.^[5] The term "bentonite" was formally proposed in 1898 by Wyoming state geologist Wilbur C. Knight, who named it after the Fort Benton Shale near Rock River, Wyoming, drawing from similar geological exposures around Fort Benton, Montana.^[7] Knight initially considered naming the clay "taylorite" after rancher William Taylor, whose property hosted a key deposit, but changed it upon learning the name was already in use for another mineral.^[5] This nomenclature emphasized the clay's association with the Benton Formation, a widespread Cretaceous stratigraphic unit.^[7] Early observations distinguished bentonite from other clays like kaolin due to its remarkable swelling capacity, expanding several times its dry volume upon water absorption.^[5] Knight described it as an "unusual clay" with high plasticity and colloidal behavior, unlike the non-swelling, less absorbent kaolin, which set bentonite apart as a novel material suitable for specialized applications.^[47] In the late 19th century, initial scientific classifications began linking bentonite to the mineral montmorillonite, a smectite-group clay named in 1847 after deposits near Montmorillon, France.^[48] This connection recognized bentonite's predominant composition as montmorillonite, highlighting shared structural and swelling characteristics derived from volcanic origins.^[49]

Historical Uses and Development

The utilization of bentonite in industrial applications began to expand in the early 20th century, particularly following the 1901 Spindletop oil well discovery in Texas, which underscored the need for effective viscosifiers in drilling operations.^[50] Although initial drilling fluids relied on natural clays, bentonite's swelling properties soon made it a preferred additive for stabilizing boreholes and removing cuttings, with commercial shipments from Wyoming deposits starting as early as 1888 and gaining traction in oil and gas exploration by the 1920s.^[37] This period marked bentonite's transition from minor uses, such as by teamsters for horse care, to a key component in the burgeoning petroleum industry.^[37] In the 1920s and 1930s, bentonite's applications diversified into metallurgy, driven by the steel industry's growth. It was adopted as a bonding agent in foundry sands for casting iron and steel, with production facilities like those in Upton and Newcastle, Wyoming, established in 1926 to meet demand.^[37] Concurrently, bentonite facilitated the pelletizing of iron ore, particularly taconite, by acting as a binder to form durable pellets for blast furnaces, enhancing efficiency in ore processing and contributing to the expansion of global steel output.^[5] During World War II, bentonite found strategic roles in military applications due to its absorbent and sealing capabilities. It was incorporated into desiccant packets to protect equipment and supplies from moisture, adhering to military specifications like MIL-D-3464E for reliable performance in harsh conditions.^[51] Postwar developments from the late 1940s onward broadened bentonite's consumer and industrial footprint. In 1947, Edward Lowe inadvertently pioneered modern cat litter by suggesting granulated clay—such as Fuller's earth—for a neighbor's cat box, leading to the commercialization of absorbent litters that revolutionized pet care.^[52] By the 1950s, bentonite became a standard fining agent in winemaking, particularly for clarifying white wines and stabilizing proteins to prevent haze, with sodium varieties from U.S. deposits proving most effective in adsorbing unstable compounds.^[53] Since 2000, bentonite has seen innovative applications in nanotechnology, where it serves as a base for composites used in wastewater treatment and environmental remediation. These advancements involve modifying bentonite with nanomaterials to enhance adsorption of pollutants, with reviews highlighting improved efficiency in removing heavy metals and dyes through layered structures.^[54] Such developments underscore bentonite's evolving role in high-tech materials, building on its historical versatility.

Types

Sodium Bentonite

Sodium bentonite is characterized by a predominance of sodium cations (Na⁺) over calcium cations (Ca²⁺) in the interlayer positions of its montmorillonite structure, distinguishing it from other bentonite variants through enhanced osmotic swelling behavior.^[55] This high sodium content facilitates greater hydration and dispersion in water compared to calcium-dominant forms, primarily due to the larger hydrated radius and lower charge density of Na⁺ ions.^[3] Upon contact with water, sodium bentonite exhibits remarkable swelling, expanding 5 to 15 times its original dry volume as interlayer water layers form and osmotic pressures drive layer separation.^[3] This property arises from the weak electrostatic forces between the negatively charged silicate layers and the exchangeable interlayer cations, allowing extensive interlayer expansion.^[56] The primary deposits of sodium bentonite are located in the Western United States, with Wyoming serving as the leading production region, accounting for the majority of global supply. A significant portion of produced sodium bentonite, estimated at around 40% as of 2023, originates from these U.S. sources and is directed toward industrial fluid formulations.^[30] Key properties of sodium bentonite include its ability to form high-viscosity gels with low permeability when dispersed in aqueous systems, making it suitable for sealing and suspension roles.^[57] These rheological characteristics stem from the clay's high cation exchange capacity (CEC), which typically ranges from 80 to 150 meq/100 g, enabling strong interactions with surrounding electrolytes and polymers.^[58] The CEC reflects the total negative charge on the montmorillonite surfaces available for cation substitution, directly influencing swelling and gelation efficiency.^[13] Calcium bentonite can be transformed into sodium bentonite through a process known as sodium activation, involving treatment with sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) to facilitate ion exchange.^[59] This activation typically entails mixing the clay with 2-5% Na₂CO₃ by weight, followed by heating and rehydration to replace interlayer Ca²⁺ with Na⁺, thereby enhancing swelling capacity.^[60] The resulting material exhibits properties akin to naturally occurring sodium bentonite, broadening supply options for high-swelling applications.^[61] Sodium bentonite holds a dominant position in the global market, comprising approximately 65-70% of total bentonite production due to its versatile swelling and rheological attributes.^[62] This market leadership is driven by abundant reserves in key regions like Wyoming and increasing demand for specialized clay products.^[63]

Calcium Bentonite

Calcium bentonite is characterized by a predominance of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) over sodium ions in the exchangeable cation positions of its montmorillonite structure, distinguishing it from the sodium-dominant variant. This composition imparts low-swelling properties, with the clay typically expanding only 2-3 times its dry volume upon hydration, compared to 5-15 times for sodium bentonite. The reduced swelling arises from weaker hydration of calcium ions, leading to less interlayer expansion while maintaining high adsorptive capacity for applications focused on absorption rather than sealing.^[64] The material exhibits superior bonding in dry conditions and greater dry tensile strength, making it suitable for processes requiring structural integrity without excessive moisture sensitivity. Its cation exchange capacity (CEC) generally falls in the range of 70-90 meq/100 g, lower than that of sodium bentonite due to differences in mineral purity and associated impurities, and it demonstrates minimal gelling in aqueous suspensions. These properties stem from the tighter interlayer structure and higher iron content often present in calcium varieties.^[65]^[66] Calcium bentonite occurs naturally in non-marine deposits, primarily resulting from the devitrification of volcanic ash in terrestrial or freshwater settings, as opposed to the marine origins typical of sodium types. Major global deposits are found in Europe, notably in Greece's Milos Island, where extensive mining operations extract high-purity calcium bentonite from Miocene volcaniclastic rocks. These deposits can be ion-exchanged to produce sodium bentonite for broader industrial use.^[67]^[68] Commonly referred to as fuller's earth in its absorbent form, calcium bentonite is widely utilized for decolorizing and refining oils and fats by adsorbing colorants and impurities during processing. Its high purity and gentle adsorptive nature also support specialized applications, such as additives in animal feed to bind mycotoxins like aflatoxins, thereby reducing toxicity in livestock diets, and in cosmetics as a mild absorbent in facial masks and powders for skin detoxification.^[5]^[69]

K-Bentonite and Other Variants

K-bentonite, also known as potassium bentonite, is a diagenetically altered form of volcanic ash characterized by illite/smectite (I/S) mixed-layer clays resulting from the fixation of potassium ions (K+).^[70] This alteration transforms the original smectite structure into a more stable, potassium-rich illitic clay, distinguishing it from sodium or calcium bentonites by its reduced expandability.^[71] The formation of K-bentonite occurs through burial diagenesis, where smectite converts to illite at depths exceeding 1 km and temperatures typically below 100°C, with K+ sourced from interstitial fluids in non-marine or marine environments.^[72] This illitization process collapses the interlayer spacing and diminishes swelling capacity, often progressing in thin tephra beds within sedimentary sequences.^[73] As part of the broader illitisation seen in bentonite evolution, it preserves volcanic signatures useful for stratigraphic correlation.^[27] Significant occurrences of K-bentonite are found in Devonian strata of the Appalachian foreland basin, featuring up to 80 thin layers in clusters of 8–15 beds within marine carbonates.^[74] Similar deposits appear in Late Devonian limestones of northwestern Turkey.^[75] Due to its thermal stability and fine particle size, K-bentonite from deposits like Dolná Ves in Slovakia is used in ceramics for manufacturing floor and wall tiles.^[76] Other variants include sulfur bentonite, a granular composite of 90% elemental sulfur and 10% bentonite, designed for slow-release sulfur fertilizers to address soil deficiencies and lower pH for nutrient uptake.^[77] The bentonite acts as a binder, enabling controlled degradation and sulfate conversion in agricultural soils.^[78] Polymer-modified bentonite enhances mechanical and hydraulic stability by incorporating polymers that bond clay particles, improving resistance to wet-dry cycles and aggressive leachates in geosynthetic clay liners for waste containment.^[79] This modification extends chemical compatibility, reducing permeability in high-pH or saline environments.^[80] Recent acid-activated variants of bentonite, treated with sulfuric or nitric acid to increase surface area and porosity, serve as heterogeneous catalysts in organic synthesis, such as esterification of fatty acids for biodiesel and hydrogenation of hydrocarbons.^[81] These modifications yield Brønsted and Lewis acid sites, boosting activity in reactions like nitrobenzene production under microwave conditions.^[82]

Production and Processing

Extraction Methods

Bentonite is primarily extracted through open-pit surface mining methods, which are well-suited to its occurrence in shallow, unconsolidated deposits typically no deeper than 50 feet. This approach involves the removal of overlying overburden using heavy equipment such as excavators, bulldozers, and scrapers to access the soft clay layers. In major producing regions like Wyoming, operations employ a back-casting technique where mined pits are progressively filled with overburden from adjacent areas to facilitate simultaneous reclamation.^[38]^[83]^[5] In stratified deposits, selective mining techniques are applied to target specific layers and minimize dilution, particularly to separate sodium-rich and calcium-rich bentonite seams that may occur in alternating beds. For instance, in deposits with well-defined seams, operators use controlled excavation to isolate high-grade sodium montmorillonite zones, which predominate in Wyoming, from calcium variants found elsewhere like Alabama. This method enhances product quality by reducing intermixing with lower-grade material. Drilling and blasting are employed for harder overburden in areas where the covering material is more consolidated, allowing efficient removal before excavating the underlying bentonite.^[5]^[84]^[32] Overburden-to-ore ratios vary by site but commonly fall between 1:1 and 3:1 in favorable shallow deposits, such as those in Wyoming's Northern Black Hills district, where overburden thicknesses of 1-4.5 meters overlie 2-3 meter bentonite beds.^[5]^[85] Safety and environmental considerations in bentonite extraction emphasize dust control to mitigate respirable crystalline silica exposure, a hazard present due to the mineral's volcanic origins. Water sprays are routinely applied during overburden removal and clay loading to suppress airborne dust, aligning with standard mining practices. Post-2020 regulations, including the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration's 2024 final rule, have lowered the permissible exposure limit for respirable crystalline silica to 50 micrograms per cubic meter over an 8-hour shift, prompting enhanced monitoring and engineering controls in operations across North America.^[5]^[86]^[87]

Beneficiation and Activation

Bentonite ore, as extracted, typically contains 25-35% moisture, which must be reduced to 5-12% for storage, transport, and further processing to prevent degradation and facilitate handling.^[88] This drying is commonly achieved using rotary drum dryers operating at temperatures between 100°C and 200°C, where hot air or direct heating evaporates water while minimizing structural alterations to the clay minerals.^[89] The process ensures uniform moisture content below 10%, enhancing the material's stability and preparing it for subsequent refinement steps.^[88] Beneficiation refines raw bentonite by removing impurities such as sand, quartz, and other non-clay minerals to achieve a target purity exceeding 85%, improving its performance in industrial applications.^[90] This involves initial crushing to reduce particle size, followed by screening to separate coarser impurities, and in some cases, wet methods like hydrocyclone classification or flotation to isolate high-quality montmorillonite fractions from gangue materials.^[91] Dry beneficiation techniques, such as attrition scrubbing, are also employed for less contaminated deposits, yielding concentrates suitable for activation without excessive water usage.^[92] Activation enhances bentonite's swelling capacity, cation exchange, and surface properties by modifying its interlayer cations or structure, often converting calcium-rich variants to more versatile sodium types. Sodium activation, a common process, involves treating calcium bentonite with 2-2.5 wt.% sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃, or soda ash) in an aqueous slurry at around 100°C for 30-60 minutes, facilitating ion exchange where Na⁺ replaces Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions to boost hydration and rheological properties.^[59] This results in a material with improved dispersibility in water, essential for applications requiring high viscosity. Acid activation, typically using sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) concentrations of 10-40% at elevated temperatures, protonates the clay lattice, dissolving impurities and expanding the interlayer space to yield high-surface-area products up to 200 m²/g, ideal for catalytic and adsorptive uses.^[93] The process increases porosity and acidity while preserving the smectite framework, though excessive treatment can lead to partial dealumination.^[23] Quality control in beneficiation and activation ensures consistency through standardized tests tailored to end-use specifications, such as API bleed or filter loss tests for drilling-grade bentonite, which measure water separation under pressure to verify low fluid loss (typically <15 mL/30 min) and stability.^[94] Recent advancements include organic modifications, such as intercalation with quaternary ammonium surfactants, to produce organobentonites for nanocomposites, enhancing compatibility with polymers and improving mechanical reinforcement in advanced materials like gels and coatings.^[95] These modifications, often involving cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, increase basal spacing and hydrophobicity, enabling tailored properties for environmental and industrial composites.^[96]

Applications

Drilling Fluids and Construction

Bentonite is a key component in drilling fluids for oil and gas exploration, typically incorporated at concentrations of 2-5% by weight to impart viscosity and lubricity to the mud. This formulation achieves a Marsh funnel viscosity of 30-50 seconds per quart, which supports efficient heat dissipation from the drill bit, reduces friction on the borehole wall, and maintains sufficient hydrostatic pressure to prevent blowouts by counterbalancing formation pressures.^[97] The gel strength provided by bentonite, ranging from 10-20 lb/100 ft², is essential for suspending and removing drill cuttings during circulation and ensuring borehole stability during downtime by forming a supportive filter cake that minimizes fluid invasion into the formation.^[98] In civil engineering, bentonite slurries are employed to construct impermeable barriers such as slurry walls for dams and landfills, where the mixture is prepared at 20-30% solids content to achieve hydraulic conductivity below 10^{-7} cm/s upon backfilling and consolidation. These walls effectively contain groundwater flow and prevent contaminant migration by leveraging bentonite's swelling properties to form low-permeability seals.^[99] Post-2015 developments have focused on integrating eco-friendly biodegradable additives with bentonite to enhance drilling fluid sustainability, reducing environmental discharge by promoting rapid degradation of spent mud while maintaining rheological performance. For example, sugarcane bagasse-derived additives have been shown to improve filtration control without compromising viscosity or gel strength.^[100] A practical application in Thailand involves using local bentonite to seal sandy soils in farming regions for improved irrigation efficiency, where incorporation at low rates enhanced water retention and supported early growth of teak seedlings by reducing seepage losses in arid conditions.^[101]

Binders, Fillers, and Catalysts

Bentonite serves as a critical binder in foundry applications, where it is incorporated at 5-10% by weight into silica sand to form green sand molds for metal casting.^[102] This addition provides essential green strength, enabling the mold to maintain integrity during the casting process without collapsing under the weight of molten metal.^[103] The clay's swelling properties upon hydration create cohesive bonds between sand grains, facilitating reusable molds in high-volume production of ferrous and nonferrous castings.^[104] In iron ore pelletizing, bentonite acts as an effective binder at dosages of 0.5-1% of the moist concentrate weight, agglomerating fine taconite particles into strong pellets suitable for blast furnace feed.^[105] This low addition level ensures pellet stability during handling and firing, while also enhancing reducibility by promoting a porous structure that allows better gas penetration during reduction.^[106] The binding mechanism relies on the clay's ability to form hydrated bridges between ore particles, improving overall pellet quality without excessive gangue introduction.^[107] As a filler, bentonite reinforces rubber and plastics composites, with loadings up to 20% enhancing mechanical properties such as tensile strength and modulus through its platelet structure that distributes stress evenly.^[108] In rubber formulations, it acts as a cost-effective extender, improving abrasion resistance and processability.^[109] For plastics like polypropylene, similar loadings provide dimensional stability and reduced permeability. In paper coatings, bentonite contributes to opacity by aiding filler retention and creating a uniform surface that scatters light effectively.^[110]^[111] Acid-activated bentonite functions as a catalyst in petroleum refining, particularly for hydrocarbon cracking, where its modified structure facilitates the breakdown of heavy fractions into lighter products.^[112] Activation with sulfuric acid increases the surface area to 150-300 m²/g, exposing more active sites for acid-catalyzed reactions and improving selectivity in fluid catalytic cracking units.^[113] This process, briefly referencing beneficiation techniques like acid treatment, enhances the clay's acidity and porosity for industrial-scale refining efficiency.^[114] In ceramics, bentonite is employed as a suspending agent in glazes at 1-3% addition, preventing pigment and frit settling to ensure even application and firing results.^[115] Its colloidal nature forms a thixotropic slurry that flows under brushing shear but stabilizes at rest, maintaining glaze homogeneity without excessive viscosity.^[116] This role supports consistent glaze performance across production batches.

Absorbents and Purifiers

Bentonite serves as an effective absorbent and purifier due to its high surface area and swelling capacity, which facilitate the adsorption of liquids and impurities in various industrial and consumer applications. Calcium bentonite, in particular, is widely used in clumping cat litters, where it absorbs urine by expanding up to 15 times its volume and forms solid clumps that trap moisture and control odors through ion exchange and bacterial inhibition.^[117] This property makes it a dominant material in the U.S. pet products market, with clumping clay-based litters accounting for over 75% of the cat litter segment.^[118] In water purification, bentonite removes contaminants such as dyes and heavy metals via cation exchange and surface adsorption. For instance, natural bentonite exhibits an adsorption capacity of 20-50 mg/g for Pb²⁺ ions, enabling efficient removal from wastewater at dosages of 1-5 g/L.^[119] Acid-activated variants enhance this capacity to up to 92.9 mg/g, making bentonite a cost-effective alternative to synthetic adsorbents in treating industrial effluents.^[120] Bentonite functions as a bleaching earth in the fining of edible oils and wines, adsorbing pigments and impurities to improve clarity and stability. In edible oil refining, dosages of 0.5-2% bentonite reduce chlorophyll content by 35-62%, effectively decolorizing crude oils like sunflower and hempseed while removing trace metals and soaps.^[121] For wine fining, additions of 0.1-1.5 g/L target haze-forming proteins and contribute to decolorization by adsorbing polyphenolic compounds, with activated forms showing higher efficiency in red varietals.^[122] In spill cleanup, bentonite absorbs oils and hydrocarbons from water surfaces, with organo-modified forms achieving adsorption capacities exceeding 10 g/g for petroleum emulsions.^[123] Recent advancements incorporate nanobentonite composites, which enhance efficiency by increasing porosity and selectivity, allowing up to 90% recovery of spilled hydrocarbons in marine environments.^[124] Emerging research in the 2020s highlights bentonite's potential for microplastic removal from wastewater, leveraging its sorption properties to achieve over 90% efficiency in pilot-scale systems using modified bentonite columns.^[125] These applications underscore bentonite's versatility in addressing liquid and particulate pollutants without generating secondary waste.^[126]

Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Uses

Bentonite, particularly in its dioctahedral smectite form known as diosmectite, is utilized in pharmaceuticals as an antidiarrheal agent due to its ability to adsorb toxins, bacteria, and excess fluids in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby reducing the duration and frequency of acute diarrhea episodes in children and adults.^[127]^[128] It also serves as an antacid by neutralizing gastric acidity and protecting the intestinal mucosa, with modified bentonite formulations showing potential to control pH without interfering with digestive enzymes.^[129] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration recognizes bentonite as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for direct human food use, with typical internal dosages ranging from 1.5 to 3 grams per day for therapeutic applications like detoxification or digestive support, though lead contamination risks in some products necessitate caution.^[130]^[131] In wound care, bentonite complexes promote skin regeneration in burn wounds by enhancing collagen synthesis, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis while exhibiting anti-inflammatory effects.^[132] Calcium bentonite, noted for its low toxicity profile, is preferred in pharmaceutical formulations for internal applications due to reduced heavy metal content compared to sodium variants.^[10] In cosmetics, bentonite functions as an absorbent in face masks, effectively drawing out excess oil, impurities, and toxins from the skin to improve texture and reduce sebum production, particularly benefiting oily or acne-prone skin types.^[133] It also acts as a thickener in toothpaste formulations, providing viscoelasticity, preventing ingredient separation, and aiding in dispersion and foaming during use.^[134] Agriculturally, bentonite serves as a soil amendment to enhance water retention in sandy or low-fertility soils, with applications increasing available water capacity by 10-67% depending on dosage and soil type, thereby mitigating drought stress for crops like rice.^[135] In Thailand's northeast sandy paddy fields, bentonite additions improve soil structure and water-holding properties, supporting flood and drought resilience in rice cultivation by reducing seepage and enhancing overall field stability.^[136] As an animal feed binder, it adsorbs mycotoxins such as aflatoxins in the gastrointestinal tract of livestock, preventing absorption and reducing toxicity without affecting nutrient bioavailability.^[69] In fertilizers, sulfur bentonite granules slowly release sulfate ions (SO_4^{2-}) through microbial oxidation upon soil moisture contact, providing season-long sulfur nutrition to crops while improving granule distribution and efficacy.^[137]

Environmental and Specialized Applications

Bentonite plays a critical role in environmental protection through its use in landfill liners, where compacted forms achieve hydraulic conductivities below $10^{-9} m/s, effectively preventing leachate migration into groundwater.^[138] Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) incorporating bentonite, typically sodium-based, swell upon hydration to form a self-sealing barrier with permeabilities as low as $10^{-9} to $10^{-12} cm/s when saturated, outperforming traditional compacted clay liners in installation efficiency and longevity.^[138] This low permeability stems from bentonite's montmorillonite structure, which expands to fill voids, as demonstrated in field applications at sites like the Broad Acre Landfill, where no leachate releases have been observed over decades.^[138] In emergency response scenarios, bentonite serves as an absorbent for chemical and oil spills due to its high swelling capacity and ability to form stable emulsions with hydrocarbons.^[139] Composite foams filled with bentonite, for instance, exhibit enhanced sorption for oil recovery, absorbing up to several times their weight in contaminants while maintaining structural integrity for easy removal.^[139] Similarly, bentonite-based materials are deployed in nuclear waste management as engineered barriers, providing low permeability (around $10^{-12} m/s) and chemical stability to isolate radioactive materials from the geosphere.^[140] Compacted bentonite buffers in repositories like those proposed for high-level waste ensure thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical containment, with self-healing properties mitigating potential fractures.^[141] Bentonite functions as a carrier in pesticide delivery systems, enabling controlled release to minimize environmental leaching and enhance efficacy.^[142] In alginate-bentonite formulations, the clay's interlayer structure intercalates active ingredients like atrazine or chloridazon, regulating diffusion over weeks to months and reducing initial burst release by up to 50% compared to conventional granules.^[143] This approach sustains pesticide concentrations at target levels while limiting groundwater contamination. As a sealant in geosynthetic clay liners for dams and reservoirs, bentonite provides impermeable barriers against seepage, with hydration-induced swelling achieving hydraulic conductivities below $10^{-9} m/s under load.^[144] These liners, consisting of bentonite encapsulated between geotextiles, are needle-punched for shear resistance and used in high-load applications like embankment dams, where they outperform geomembranes in puncture self-repair.^[145] Recent advancements highlight organo-bentonite as a sorbent for carbon capture, leveraging organic modifications to boost CO_2 adsorption capacities in post-combustion scenarios. Post-2022 studies demonstrate that surfactant-intercalated organo-bentonites achieve uptake rates of 1-2 mmol/g at ambient conditions, attributed to enhanced surface area and amine functionalization for chemisorption.^[146] These materials address gaps in scalable, low-cost climate technologies by integrating with existing flue gas systems, showing regenerability over multiple cycles with minimal degradation.^[147]

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[PDF] Mineral Status and Future Opportunity BENTONITE
World Reserves of Bentonite. Figure (5) and table (12) show the producers and produced amounts of bentonite world wide. Figure (5): World Mine Production ...<|separator|>
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Origin of the Bentonite Deposits of Eastern Milos, Aegean, Greece
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Effects of a Calcium Bentonite Clay in Diets Containing Aflatoxin ...
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K-bentonites, volcanic ash preservation, and implications for Early to ...
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Mineralogy, Chemistry, and Thermal and Surface Properties of ...
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Tiger 90CR Sulphur Bentonite
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[PDF] MAJOR 90 – Sulfur Bentonite - Tessenderlo Kerley
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Lowering Miners' Exposure to Respirable Crystalline Silica and ...
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Dataset on the beneficiation of a Nigerian bentonite clay mineral for ...
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The separation efficiency of Na-bentonite by hydrocyclone and ...
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(PDF) Beneficiation and Characterisation of a Bentonite from North ...
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[PDF] Evaluation of causes of bleeding of free water from a bentonite slurry
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Modification Method of High-Efficiency Organic Bentonite for Drilling ...
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Development of Cationic Cellulose-Modified Bentonite–Alginate ...
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[PDF] TECHNICAL INFORMATION - Wyo-Ben
HYDROGEL ® is a sodium bentonite meeting all API Spec. ... Gel Strength (10 second):. 15 ± 5. Gel Strength (10 Minute):. 25 ± 5. Marsh Funnel Viscosity (sec):.
[101]
[PDF] PREMIUM GEL®
PREMIUM GEL is a 200-mesh, high-purity, natural sodium bentonite that meets API 13A Section 9 specifications. PREMIUM GEL is designed to produce viscous ...
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Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil-Bentonite Slurry Walls - ResearchGate
Desiccation cracks increase the hydraulic conductivity and reduce the strength of the soil substantially. This can be a setback when expansive clays are used as ...
[103]
Utilizing a new eco-friendly drilling mud additive generated from ...
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(PDF) Effect of Bentonite on the Early Growth Characteristics of Teak ...
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[105]
UG-Mat Foundry Sand | Recycled Materials Resource Center
Green sand consists of high-quality silica sand, about 5-10 percent bentonite clay (as the binder), 2 to 5 percent water and about 5 percent sea coal (a ...
[106]
Foundry Sand - Material Description - FHWA-RD-97-148
Green sand consists of high-quality silica sand, about 10 percent bentonite clay (as the binder), 2 to 5 percent water and about 5 percent sea coal (a ...
[107]
[PDF] Bentonite-Bonded Rammed Olivine and Zircon Molds ... - CDC Stacks
A water slurry of western bentonite had a pH of 9.5, and a water slurry of southern bentonite had a pH of 8.1. This was normal, since western bentonite ...<|separator|>
[108]
Bentonite binder effective strength (BESt) test for unfired iron ore ...
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[109]
Metallurgical Properties of Iron Ore Pellet when Using Bentonite ...
Jul 15, 2023 · ... bentonite without affecting to the structure of bentonite but also helps increase the degree of reducibility of iron ore pellets. This ...
[110]
Reducing bentonite usage in iron ore pelletization through a novel ...
Utilizing 0.5 wt% Y and 1.2 wt% bentonite resulted in the preparation of high-quality green pellets with a drop number of 7.8 times/0.5 m and a burst ...
[111]
Bentonite as an active natural filler for silicone leading to ...
Raw sodium bentonite (Bent) without preliminary treatments is incorporated as a filler in a silicone matrix, from 5 to 100 parts per hundred (pph), by weight.
[112]
Tensile, Swelling and Morphological Properties of Bentonite
The slightly increased of swelling percentage on 120 phr of bentonite loading occurred due to the agglomeration of bentonite at higher filler loading.Missing: plastics | Show results with:plastics
[113]
Preliminary Study on Application of Bentonite as a Filler in ...
The effect of filler loading on mechanical, thermal, water absorption, and morphological properties of bentonite-filled polypropylene has been studied.
[114]
Paper making retention system of bentonite and a cationic ...
The changes in structure of the aggregates of fillers on draining affect the level of retention of these fillers as well as the opacity of the paper obtained.
[115]
[PDF] A Study on Role of Catalyst used in Catalytic Cracking process in ...
Abstract : Catalytic cracking has emerged as the most widely used petroleum refining process ... It was Houdry, who were the first used acid-activated bentonite.
[116]
(PDF) The Influence of Acid Activation on Surface Characteristics of ...
Sep 18, 2024 · Acid activation of raw bentonite (RB) significantly enhanced its specific surface area, increasing from 32.80 m 2 ·g⁻ 1 to 61.18 m 2 ·g⁻ 1 .
[117]
Surface properties of pillared acid-activated bentonite as catalyst for ...
It was found that acid-activation of clays prior to pillaring increased the porosity, total specific surface area, total pore volume and surface acidity of the ...Missing: refining | Show results with:refining
[118]
Bentonite - Digitalfire
Bentonite can make a clay body instantly plastic, only 2-3% can have a big effect. It also suspends slurries so they don't settle out and slows down drying.
[119]
Effect of bentonite content on the suspension stability of a glaze ...
Mar 15, 2023 · Bentonite is used as an enameling clay to reduce the amount of raw materials required to add frit and improve the suspension of the glaze slurry ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[120]
What is Cat Litter Made Of? - Arm & Hammer
The most common clays used in cat litters are bentonites, such as sodium bentonite or calcium bentonite, that can swell up to 15 times their original volume.
[121]
Cat Litter Products Market Size, Share | Industry Report, 2030
By product, the clumping segment accounted for a market share of around 75.0% in 2024. By raw material, the clay segment accounted for a market share of 81.7% ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[122]
[PDF] Purified Bentonite and Aliquat 336-Bentonite for Removal of Lead ...
Maximum adsorption capacities (qm) for purified bentonite were 29.35 mg/g ... [13] Xu M., McKay G., Removal of Heavy Metals, Lead, · Cadmium, and Zinc, using ...
[123]
Removal of lead ions (Pb2+) from water and wastewater: a review ...
Jun 22, 2022 · The natural bentonite clay and acid-activated bentonite clay were reported to have the maximum adsorption capacity of 83.0 and 92.9 mg/g of lead ...
[124]
Comparison Between Emerging and Conventional Methods for ...
Oct 29, 2025 · ... bentonite and acid‐activated earth at 80°C. Bleaching with 4% natural bentonite at 80°C reduced 35% chlorophyll content of linseed oil.Missing: wine fining dosage
[125]
Summary of Fining Agent Use - Wine Business
Fining agent, Dose range, Purpose to be used. Bentonite, 0.1 - 1.5 g/L, * Protein stabilization and clarification of white wine.<|separator|>
[126]
(PDF) Modified Activated Carbon and Bentonite Used to Adsorb ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The modified bentonite is an excellent alternative in the adsorption of hydrocarbon from oil-water emulsion removal with the highest adsorption ...Missing: nanobentonite | Show results with:nanobentonite
[127]
Preparation and characterization of nano porous bentonite for ...
Jan 15, 2015 · The present investigation studies the regeneration of waste engine oil by active Ca-bentonite powder. The porous adsorbents were prepared by acidification.Missing: cleanup | Show results with:cleanup
[128]
An Innovative Sorption Technology for Removing Microplastics from ...
Feb 25, 2023 · (a) Photo of a column for hydrodynamic treatment of Bentonite Branany EXTRA; (b) photo of developed pilot plant sorption unit for microplastics ...
[129]
An Innovative Sorption Technology for Removing Microplastics from ...
Oct 13, 2025 · This study is focused on technology development for microplastic removal from wastewater using a sorption process, which would be suitable ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[130]
Anti-Diarrheal Effects of Diosmectite in the Treatment of Acute ...
Diosmectite reduces the duration of diarrhea and decreases the frequency of bowel motions after 2 days of treatment in children with mild-to-moderate acute ...Missing: antacid FDA approval
[131]
Long-term diosmectite use does not alter the gut microbiota in adults ...
Feb 12, 2022 · Introduction. Diosmectite (also called Bentonite or Montmorillonite) is a natural colloidal clay, belonging to the dioctahedral smectite family ...
[132]
Modified bentonite with Na2CO3 as possible antacid medicament
... bentonites could be used as support of sodium carbonate for its dispersions and effectiveness as antacid. Previous chapter in volume; Next chapter in volume.
[133]
21 CFR 184.1155 -- Bentonite. - eCFR
The affirmation of this ingredient as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) as a direct human food ingredient is based upon the following current good ...Missing: dosage 2g/ day
[134]
What is Bentonite Clay? + Dangers & How to Use - SelfDecode ...
Apr 5, 2023 · Bentonite clay (1.5-3 g/day) is relatively safe and only caused mild digestive symptoms (flatulence, stomach pain, bloating, constipation, ...
[135]
Regenerative and anti‐inflammatory effect of a novel bentonite ... - NIH
This study identified the therapeutic effect of a novel bentonite complex in burn wounds by inducing skin regeneration and anti‐inflammatory responses.
[136]
Comprehensive assessment of the efficacy and safety of a clay mask ...
Nov 5, 2023 · Kaolin and bentonite are known for their strong oil‐absorbing and impurity‐extracting abilities, which may be particularly beneficial for ...
[137]
FORMULATION INGREDIENTS FOR TOOTHPASTES AND ... - NIH
It is used as an emulsifying, suspending and thickening agent in formulations of toothpastes, creams and emulsions. Carrageenans are galactans or polymers of D- ...
[138]
Feasibility assessment of bentonite drilling mud to improve the ...
The results showed that DM positively influenced soil physical qualities. The water retention increased (from 10 to 67%) with increasing DM.
[139]
Soil Organic Carbon in Sandy Paddy Fields of Northeast Thailand
Jul 22, 2020 · The application of bentonite, volcanic ash locally quarried and used commercially in prawn farming, to significantly improve the structural ...
[140]
Understanding the Distinction Between Sulphur Forms
Jun 9, 2023 · Sulfur bentonite provides a more consistent release of sulphur into the soil than elemental sulphur, ensuring a steady supply of plant-available ...
[141]
[PDF] Geosynthetic Clay Liners Used in Municipal Solid Waste Landfills
GCLs, for example, are fast and easy to install, have low hydraulic conductivity (i.e., low permeability), and have the ability to self-repair any rips or ...
[142]
Bentonite‐PDMS composite foams for oil spill recovery
Aug 12, 2022 · The aim of this article is the synthesis and characterization of bentonite-filled siloxane foams for oil spills recovery.Missing: hydrocarbons nanobentonite
[143]
Bentonite as an engineered barrier material for nuclear waste ...
Bentonite has a unique layered structure, the ability to absorb cations, high swelling pressure, low permeability, and good water retention capacity. Those ...
[144]
Discover bentonites, the heroes of radioactive waste repositories
Mar 24, 2025 · Compacted bentonites are used as a geotechnical barrier in nuclear waste repositories to provide good thermal, hydraulic, mechanical, and ...
[145]
Use of Activated Bentonites in Controlled-Release Formulations of ...
The herbicide atrazine (6-chloro-N2-ethyl-N4-isopropyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine) was incorporated in alginate-based granules to obtain controlled-release ...
[146]
Controlled‐release alginate‐bentonite polymer gel granules of ...
Sep 26, 2022 · An alginate-bentonite formulation can reduce the mobility of pesticide ... controlled pesticide release regulated by coordination bonding. Chem ...
[147]
Application of Geosynthetic Clay Liner in irrigation channels ...
Apr 16, 2025 · Discover how Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL) enhance waterproofing in irrigation channels, reservoir dams & landscape lakes.<|control11|><|separator|>
[148]
Geosynthetic Clay Liners - Titan Environmental
Bentonite is a natural sealant, and when in contact with water, swells to form a low permeability clay liner. Geosynthetic clay liners have a long-lasting ...
[149]
Recent advances of application of bentonite-based composites in ...
This review highlights the effect of different functionalization of bentonite-based composites on their adsorption capacity and interaction mechanismMissing: advancements | Show results with:advancements
[150]
The Contribution of Clay-Based Adsorbents to Carbon Dioxide (CO ...
Apr 22, 2025 · This review explores the potential of clay minerals as adsorbents for CO 2 capture, providing an in-depth analysis of their inherent properties.Missing: organo- | Show results with:organo-