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Type site

In archaeology, a type site is an excavated location or major discovery site that serves as the defining model for a particular archaeological culture, cultural period, tradition, or artifact type, often providing the name for that entity due to its status as the first recognized, best-studied, or most representative example.^[1] These sites are crucial for establishing benchmarks in the classification of material remains, as they contain artifacts characteristic of a specific cultural stage discovered in their original context (in situ), which customarily become the standard nomenclature for similar finds elsewhere.^[2] The concept emerged in the early 20th century as part of broader efforts to organize and interpret prehistoric evidence systematically.^[2] Type sites play a foundational role in archaeological typology and chronology, enabling researchers to compare and categorize artifacts and sites across regions by referencing the prototype's attributes, such as tool styles, settlement patterns, or burial practices.^[1] For instance, Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is the type site for the Oldowan culture, named after the simple stone tools first identified there in the 1930s, representing one of the earliest known human technological traditions dating back over 2 million years.^[2] Similarly, Blackwater Draw Locality 1 in New Mexico serves as the type site for the Clovis culture, where distinctive fluted projectile points were discovered in 1929 alongside mammoth remains, defining the Paleoindian period in North America around 13,000 years ago.^[3] These exemplars not only anchor cultural sequences but also highlight the evolution of human adaptation, from early hominin behaviors to complex societies, underscoring the importance of preservation and further excavation to refine our understanding of prehistoric diversity.^[1]

Overview

Definition

In archaeology, a type site is the location where a particular artifact type, culture, or phase is first identified and described, serving as the archetypal reference for classifying similar assemblages elsewhere.^[4] This designation establishes the site as the eponymous model, although it may not always be the most representative example of the type, where the defining characteristics of the type—such as distinctive pottery forms, lithic tool kits, or cultural traits—are initially documented through excavation and analysis.^[5] Within archaeological typology, the concept of a "type" denotes a class of artifacts or features sharing a consistent cluster of attributes, enabling systematic classification and comparison across sites.^[4] Type sites anchor this process by providing the baseline description and nomenclature for such types, facilitating the recognition of cultural continuity or variation in artifact styles like incised ceramics or flaked stone implements.^[5] This foundational role ensures that subsequent finds can be attributed to the same typological category based on shared morphological or stylistic traits. Type sites are distinct from type artifacts, which are individual objects selected as exemplars of a specific type, and from stratigraphic sites, which emphasize layered deposits to reconstruct chronological sequences rather than typological definitions.^[4] While type artifacts represent singular diagnostic items, the type site encompasses the broader context of the discovery, including the full assemblage that defines the type.^[5]

Role in Archaeological Typology

Type sites serve as foundational reference points within archaeological typology, providing the original assemblages from which artifact types are defined and classified based on shared physical characteristics, such as form, decoration, and production techniques. This baseline role allows archaeologists to systematically organize diverse material remains into typological categories that reflect cultural practices, facilitating the broader analysis of past societies.^[6] In seriation and chronology, type sites integrate directly by offering standardized sequences of artifact changes that establish relative dating frameworks across regions. Archaeologists use the stratified or associated assemblages from these sites to trace stylistic evolutions, creating baselines for ordering artifacts from other locations without absolute dates; for example, ceramic seriation at the Webb site, the type site for the Middleport horizon, positions it at approximately 1350 A.D. based on vessel motifs and collars, enabling chronological placement of comparable sites in Huronia.^[7] This process extends regional chronologies, as seen in studies of Roman terra sigillata where forms defined by Dragendorff provided temporal anchors for pottery diffusion.^[6] Type sites contribute to cultural reconstruction by defining phases through their diagnostic artifact styles, which link material evidence to societal transformations such as technological advancements or economic shifts. Assemblages from these sites, like those at Uaxactun for Maya ceramics, delineate cultural horizons and infer changes in daily practices, social structures, and environmental adaptations over time.^[6] Such definitions help reconstruct the trajectory of cultures, emphasizing continuity and variation in artifact use. Methodologically, type sites act as benchmarks in comparative analysis, supporting the identification of interaction patterns like trade, migration, and diffusion by contrasting their core assemblages with those from distant locales. For instance, artifacts from the Qijiaping type site of the Qijia Culture have been compared to regional finds to trace exchange networks and population movements in the Yellow River basin, highlighting intersocietal connections.^[8] This approach underscores their utility in mapping cultural dynamics beyond local contexts.

Historical Development

Origin of the Concept

Precursors to the type site concept appeared in early 19th-century European archaeology, rooted in stratigraphic principles adapted from contemporary geological practices. Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, a Danish antiquarian and secretary of the Royal Commission for the Preservation of Antiquities, developed the foundational Three Age System around 1816, categorizing prehistoric artifacts into Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages based on dominant materials. This classification, formalized in his 1836 guide to the National Museum of Denmark, drew on artifact assemblages from specific Danish sites, such as those in bogs and settlements, to establish reference examples for each age, effectively treating these locations as exemplars of cultural phases.^[9] Archaeologists borrowed the geological notion of a "type section"—a reference stratigraphic exposure defining a particular rock layer or formation—to apply to cultural deposits, emphasizing sites that represented ideal stratigraphic sequences for chronological ordering. This etymological and methodological influence from geology, prominent in works by figures like Charles Lyell, facilitated the shift from artifact-focused classification to site-based definitions during the 1830s and 1860s excavations across Scandinavia and northern Europe. Jens Jacob Worsaae, Thomsen's successor, further validated the system through stratigraphic observations at sites like those in Jutland, where layered deposits confirmed the sequential progression of ages.^[10]^[11] One of the earliest informal examples of a type site arose with the Hallstatt cemetery in Austria, where systematic excavations began in 1846 under Johann Georg Ramsauer. The site's extensive Iron Age burials, yielding over 2,000 graves with characteristic artifacts like iron weapons and bronze vessels, provided a stratigraphic benchmark for the transition from Bronze to Iron Ages, influencing subsequent naming conventions for cultures after their defining locales.^[12]

Evolution and Key Milestones

The concept of the type site gained formal structure in American archaeology during the early 20th century, particularly through the efforts of Alfred V. Kidder in the southwestern United States. The term "type site" itself first appeared in archaeological literature around 1930–1935. Kidder's excavations at Pecos Pueblo from 1915 to 1929 introduced stratigraphic methods and ceramic seriation to the region, establishing a detailed chronology of Ancestral Puebloan cultures based on changes in pottery styles and architectural forms.^[13] Pecos itself emerged as a foundational type site, given its continuous occupation from the 13th to 19th centuries, which provided a benchmark for dating and classifying regional assemblages.^[14] This work culminated in the Pecos Classification system, a chronological framework dividing Ancestral Puebloan history into phases such as Basketmaker and Pueblo periods, reliant on type sites to define temporal and cultural units.^[14] In August 1927, Kidder convened the inaugural Pecos Conference at the site, gathering leading archaeologists to standardize nomenclature and protocols for identifying and using type sites across the Southwest, thereby institutionalizing the approach in North American practice.^[13] Post-World War II, archaeological methods integrated American typological rigor with European traditions, promoting standardized site designations amid global reconstruction and decolonization.^[15] By the 1960s, the established typological foundation of type sites informed the rise of processual archaeology, transitioning from descriptive classification to explanatory models that employed these sites for hypothesis-driven analyses of cultural dynamics and environmental adaptations.^[16] This shift emphasized scientific testing over mere chronologies, using type sites as anchors for broader interpretations of societal processes.^[17]

Criteria for Designation

Selection and Identification Process

The selection and identification of a type site in archaeology commences with the initial excavation of a location that uncovers a distinctive assemblage of artifacts exhibiting consistent attributes, such as morphology, material, or manufacturing techniques. These artifacts are analyzed and classified to define a new typological category or cultural phase, with the site designated as the type site if it represents the first recognized, best-studied, or most representative instance where this type is formally recognized and described.^[4]^[1] Subsequent to excavation, the findings undergo rigorous documentation and publication, including detailed descriptions, measurements, and illustrations of the artifacts, alongside contextual data from the site. This step facilitates peer review and fosters consensus among archaeologists, solidifying the site's role as the typological anchor through widespread adoption in scholarly literature.^[18] For a site to qualify as a type site, it must possess essential attributes such as well-defined stratigraphy to provide chronological integrity, a comprehensive and representative artifact assemblage that exemplifies the defined type, and sufficient accessibility to enable ongoing comparative research by the archaeological community.^[19] Documentation standards require the inclusion of precise site maps delineating excavation units and features, exhaustive catalogs of artifacts with attribute-based classifications, stratigraphic profiles, and applicable absolute dating techniques like radiocarbon analysis to corroborate the temporal and cultural associations.^[18]

Challenges and Modern Perspectives

The type site approach in archaeology has faced significant criticism for its potential to engender circular reasoning in dating and classification processes. By defining artifact types based on assemblages from a designated type site and then using those types to date other sites, archaeologists risk reinforcing initial assumptions without independent verification, leading to self-perpetuating chronologies that overlook alternative interpretations.^[20]^[21] Additionally, the designation of type sites often exhibits bias toward well-excavated locations in accessible regions, such as areas near modern infrastructure or colonial-era research centers, which skews typological frameworks by underrepresenting remote or marginalized landscapes.^[20]^[22] Assumptions of cultural continuity inherent in type site designations further complicate matters, as they impose static boundaries on fluid social practices, ignoring evidence of hybridity or disruption in artifact distributions.^[23] Since the 1990s, archaeologists have increasingly integrated scientific methods to address these limitations, incorporating ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) mapping to refine typological interpretations beyond reliance on single sites. aDNA studies have challenged traditional cultural continuity by revealing population movements and genetic admixture that do not align with artifact-based typologies, such as the replacement of Neolithic populations in Britain around 2500 BCE.^[23]^[24] Similarly, GIS tools enable predictive modeling of site distributions, mitigating accessibility biases and facilitating the analysis of broader regional patterns through spatial data integration. This shift has promoted a focus on "type assemblages"—distributed collections of artifacts across multiple contexts—over isolated type sites, allowing for more dynamic understandings of cultural variability.^[20] Postcolonial critiques have prompted a re-evaluation of Eurocentric designations in type site typologies, particularly in non-Western contexts, emphasizing the need to decolonize frameworks shaped by colonial epistemologies. Scholars argue that such typologies often perpetuate biases by prioritizing European analytical categories, marginalizing indigenous knowledge systems in regions like the Americas and Asia.^[20] In the 2010s, efforts to decolonize typologies gained momentum through collaborative approaches that incorporate indigenous perspectives, as seen in critiques of rigid cultural boundaries in North American mound-building traditions, fostering more inclusive and relational interpretations.^[20]^[25]

Notable Type Sites

Africa

In Africa, type sites play a crucial role in delineating prehistoric cultures, particularly within the Middle Stone Age (MSA), where they illustrate technological and behavioral innovations linked to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens.^[26] These sites, concentrated in southern Africa, highlight transitions from earlier MSA industries to more complex toolkits and symbolic practices, providing benchmarks for regional chronologies and cultural definitions.^[27] The Howiesons Poort Shelter in South Africa serves as the type site for the Howiesons Poort techno-complex, a key MSA industry dated to approximately 65,000–59,000 years ago.^[26]^[28] First identified through excavations in the late 1920s by researchers including P. Stapleton, J. Hewitt, and A.J.H. Goodwin, the site yielded assemblages of small blades and bladelets produced via direct marginal percussion with stone hammers, marking an early innovation in blade technology distinct from contemporaneous Eurasian methods.^[29] These bladelets were often retouched into backed tools, such as geometric segments and points used as insets in composite hunting implements, reflecting increased technological efficiency and potential socio-cultural norms across southern Africa.^[27] The site's artifacts underscore the Howiesons Poort's association with MSA transitions, including evidence of long-distance raw material transport and behavioral complexity tied to Homo sapiens origins.^[26] Blombos Cave, also in South Africa, exemplifies a type locality for early symbolic behavior within the MSA, with deposits dating to around 100,000 years ago.^[30] Excavations began in 1991 under Christopher S. Henshilwood, revealing layers with engraved red ochre pieces—abstract incisions on slabs from ~77,000 years ago—that represent some of the earliest known deliberate symbolic expressions by modern humans.^[31] These artifacts, alongside shell beads and ochre processing kits, indicate planned use of pigments and abstract design, linking the site to broader MSA innovations in cognition and culture.^[32] Blombos's significance lies in its documentation of behavioral modernity, including Still Bay points shaped through pressure flaking, which further ties it to Homo sapiens evolutionary contexts in southern Africa.^[33]

East Asia

In East Asia, type sites have been instrumental in elucidating the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled rice agriculture and the emergence of early complex states, particularly along the Yellow and Yangtze River basins. These sites provide defining artifact assemblages that characterize major cultural phases, from the early Neolithic to the Bronze Age, revealing advancements in domestication, ritual practices, and urbanization. Key examples include Jiahu in Henan Province, China, dating to approximately 7000–5700 BCE, which exemplifies the Peiligang culture and marks the onset of intensive rice cultivation in the region.^[34] Excavations at Jiahu uncovered evidence of domesticated rice alongside millet, indicating a mixed farming economy that supported semi-permanent villages.^[34] The site's artifact repertoire, including bone flutes crafted from crane wing bones—among the world's oldest playable musical instruments—and incised symbols on tortoise shells suggestive of proto-writing, underscores early symbolic and ceremonial behaviors.^[35]^[36] Pottery at Jiahu consists primarily of plain and cord-marked wares, reflecting technological innovations in firing and vessel forms for storage and cooking.^[34] As a type site, Jiahu defines the material culture of this formative period, contributing to understandings of how agricultural surpluses from rice and other crops facilitated population growth and social organization in prehistoric East Asia.^[37] Further north, the Yangshao culture (ca. 5000–3000 BCE), typified by the Yangshao Village site in Henan, represents a maturation of Neolithic traditions with its distinctive painted pottery featuring geometric motifs in black and red.^[38] This site, discovered in 1921, yields assemblages of fine ceramics, stone tools, and millet-based agriculture, serving as a benchmark for village life and early craft specialization.^[39] Transitioning into the late Neolithic, the Longshan culture (ca. 3000–1900 BCE), defined by the Chengziya site in Shandong Province, introduces evidence of proto-urbanization through rammed-earth walls, elite burials, and black-burnished pottery.^[40] These features at Chengziya highlight social stratification and conflict, possibly linked to resource competition in expanding rice-millet economies, paving the way for state formation.^[41] In the Bronze Age, the Anyang (Yinxu) site in Henan, serving as the type site for the late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1300–1046 BCE), illustrates the consolidation of early states through monumental architecture and ritual economies.^[42] Oracle bones inscribed with the earliest mature Chinese script, used in divination rituals, were unearthed here, providing direct evidence of royal decision-making and ancestor worship.^[42] Accompanying these are elaborate bronze ritual vessels, cast via piece-mold techniques for sacrificial ceremonies involving food, wine, and human offerings, which symbolize the dynasty's centralized power and ideological control.^[43] As a marker for Shang material culture, Anyang demonstrates how agricultural foundations from earlier Neolithic type sites evolved into urban centers supporting metallurgy, writing, and governance.^[44]

Europe

In Europe, type sites have played a pivotal role in establishing chronological frameworks for prehistoric cultures, particularly through the Three Age System developed in the 19th century, which categorized artifacts into Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages based on materials found at key locations. These sites provide foundational evidence for understanding technological and cultural transitions, including the spread of Neolithic farming and the emergence of Iron Age societies linked to Celtic expansions. One of the most prominent European type sites is Hallstatt in Upper Austria, dating to approximately 800 BCE and serving as the namesake for the Hallstatt culture, which defines the early Iron Age in Central Europe.^[45] The site's significance stems from its extensive cemetery, containing over 2,000 burials with rich grave goods such as weapons, jewelry, and pottery, which illustrate social hierarchies and trade networks across the continent.^[46] Additionally, Hallstatt's prehistoric salt mines, exploited from around 2100 BCE onward, have yielded well-preserved artifacts including leather backpacks, wooden tools, and even human remains like the "Man in Salt," highlighting the economic importance of salt production in Bronze and Iron Age economies.^[47] These findings underpin the chronology of the Hallstatt period (c. 800–450 BCE), bridging Late Bronze Age traditions and the subsequent La Tène culture associated with Celtic migrations.^[48] Another key example is the Starčevo site near the Danube River in present-day Serbia, established around 6200 BCE as the type site for the Starčevo culture, marking the arrival and spread of early farming communities in Southeastern Europe during the Neolithic.^[49] Excavations in the mid-20th century by archaeologists Milutin and Draga Garašanin uncovered pit houses, pottery, and terracotta figurines that characterize the culture's material repertoire, with distinctive incised and painted ceramics indicating connections to Anatolian influences and the broader dissemination of agriculture from the Near East.^[50] These artifacts, including anthropomorphic figurines often depicting female forms, reflect ritual practices and sedentary lifestyles that laid the groundwork for later Neolithic developments in the Balkans, contributing to the foundational chronology of Europe's prehistoric farming expansions.

Mesoamerica

In Mesoamerica, type sites play a crucial role in defining the archaeological phases and cultural traits of early civilizations, particularly the Olmec and Maya, by providing baseline examples of monumental art, architecture, and social organization. San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, located in Veracruz, Mexico, serves as the type site for the Olmec culture and its San Lorenzo phase, dating to approximately 1200–900 BCE, where the earliest expressions of Olmec complexity emerged.^[51] This site exemplifies the transition to chiefdom-level societies, evidenced by centralized planning, elite control over resources, and ritual practices that influenced subsequent Mesoamerican developments.^[51] Archaeological excavations at San Lorenzo, conducted primarily in the mid-20th century by Michael D. Coe and Richard A. Diehl, uncovered over 80 monumental sculptures, including ten colossal basalt heads weighing 6–50 metric tons, quarried from distant sources and symbolizing rulership and authority.^[51] These heads, along with jadeite artifacts such as celts and beads found in offerings, highlight the site's role in early elite wealth accumulation and ritual deposition, establishing typological standards for Olmec iconography and material culture.^[51] The presence of jade, sourced from highland regions, underscores San Lorenzo's integration into broader exchange networks that supported emerging social hierarchies.^[51] For the Maya, Tikal in Guatemala's Petén region stands as a defining type site for Classic period architecture and urbanism, with significant occupation beginning around 400 BCE and peaking from 250–900 CE.^[52] Mid-20th-century excavations by the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project (1956–1970), led by William R. Coe, revealed temple pyramids like Temple I and IV, which set architectural precedents for corbelled vaults, stelae placements, and multi-level complexes that embodied divine kingship and cosmic order.^[52] Tikal's hieroglyphic inscriptions on stelae and altars provide baselines for Maya script decipherment, recording dynastic histories and Long Count dates that anchor the Classic Maya chronological framework.^[52] The site's five ball courts, integral to ritual and political life, exemplify Mesoamerican ballgame traditions adapted in Maya contexts, with evidence from excavations linking them to elite competitions and symbolic renewal rites.^[53] Tikal's layout, including the Great Plaza and North Acropolis, demonstrates the evolution from early chiefdoms to complex kingdoms, with burials and residential groups indicating stratified societies supported by intensive agriculture and trade.^[52]

Near East

In the Near East, type sites such as Jericho and Çatalhöyük exemplify the foundational developments of the Neolithic Revolution, marking the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities around 10,000 BCE. These sites, located in the Levant and Anatolia, provide critical evidence for the domestication of emmer wheat and einkorn wheat, as well as early herding of goats and sheep, which supported population growth and the emergence of proto-urban settlements.^[54] Jericho, in modern-day Palestine, serves as the type site for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) periods, dating to approximately 9600–7000 BCE, where archaeological layers reveal one of the earliest examples of permanent architecture and communal defense structures.^[55] At Jericho, excavations uncovered a massive stone wall, up to 3.6 meters high and 1.8 kilometers long, encircling the settlement, along with an adjacent 8.5-meter-tall tower constructed from over 20,000 undressed stones, representing a significant communal effort estimated at thousands of labor hours.^[56] These features, dated to around 9000 BCE, suggest responses to environmental threats like flooding from the nearby Jordan River or ritualistic purposes, while the site's plastered floors and storage facilities indicate reliance on cultivated cereals and managed animal resources.^[55] A distinctive cultural practice at Jericho during the PPNB phase involved the removal and modeling of human skulls with layers of gypsum plaster, inlaid with cowrie shells for eyes and sometimes painted with red ochre, as evidenced by at least ten such artifacts found beneath house floors, symbolizing ancestor veneration or social memory in early farming societies.^[57] Çatalhöyük, situated in southern Turkey, stands as a type site for Pottery Neolithic settled farming communities, occupied from approximately 7400 to 6200 BCE and housing up to 8,000 inhabitants in a densely packed proto-city of mud-brick houses accessed via rooftops.^[58] This settlement highlights the intensification of agriculture, with botanical remains confirming the cultivation of domesticated wheat, barley, and legumes, alongside evidence of cattle herding that contributed to economic surplus and social complexity.^[59] Excavations led by James Mellaart in the 1960s revealed vibrant wall paintings on interior plaster surfaces, depicting hunting scenes, geometric patterns, and vultures with headless human figures, which illuminate Neolithic symbolism related to death, fertility, and community rituals in agrarian life. These artistic elements, preserved in over 150 structures, underscore Çatalhöyük's role as a marker for the shift toward urbanism without centralized authority, influencing subsequent Near Eastern civilizations.

Northern America

In Northern America, type sites provide foundational evidence for indigenous cultural sequences spanning the Archaic to Mississippian periods, illustrating adaptations to diverse environments from the humid Southeast to the arid Southwest. These sites, formalized under the Americanist archaeological tradition, define key phases through characteristic artifacts, architecture, and subsistence patterns without relying on written records. Poverty Point in Louisiana exemplifies Late Archaic complexity, while Cahokia in Illinois anchors the Mississippian era's urban mound-building societies. In the Southwest, sites associated with Basketmaker and Pueblo traditions establish baselines for early agricultural communities transitioning from foraging to settled village life.^[60] Poverty Point, located in northeastern Louisiana, serves as the type site for the Poverty Point culture, dating to approximately 1700–1100 BCE during the Late Archaic period. This site features monumental earthworks, including six concentric C-shaped ridges enclosing a central plaza and massive mounds like Mound A (also known as the Bird Mound), which rises 72 feet and spans over 700 feet in length. These structures, constructed by hunter-gatherers without agriculture, supported a population of up to 9,000 and facilitated extensive trade networks extending 800 miles, importing materials such as soapstone from the Appalachians and chert from the Ohio River valley. Artifacts like baked clay objects—known as Poverty Point Objects (PPOs), small hand-molded balls used for boiling food in earth ovens—highlight innovative subsistence techniques and are found in millions across the site, underscoring the culture's technological ingenuity.^[61]^[60]^[62] In the American Southwest, type sites for the Basketmaker tradition, such as White Dog Cave in Utah, define the Basketmaker II phase (ca. 1000 BCE–500 CE), marking the introduction of maize agriculture and basketry among semi-nomadic groups in the Colorado Plateau region. These sites reveal pithouse dwellings, atlatl hunting tools, and perishable artifacts like coiled baskets and sandals, establishing a baseline for the shift from Archaic foraging to early farming without pottery. This tradition evolved into the Pueblo sequence, with sites like those in the Chaco Canyon system serving as type locations for Pueblo I–III periods (ca. 700–1300 CE), where above-ground masonry pueblos, kivas, and irrigation systems reflect increasingly complex social organization and regional trade in turquoise and macaw feathers. These Southwestern baselines contrast with eastern mound cultures by emphasizing aridity-adapted agriculture and communal architecture.^[63]^[64] Cahokia, near present-day Collinsville, Illinois, stands as the type site for the Mississippian culture, flourishing from ca. 1050–1350 CE as the largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico, with a peak population of 15,000–20,000. Centered on over 100 earthen mounds, including the iconic Monks Mound—a flat-topped platform 100 feet high and 955 feet long— the site demonstrates advanced urbanism, maize-based economy, and hierarchical chiefdoms linked by riverine trade routes. Archaeological surveys in the 1960s, including core sampling, revealed Monks Mound's construction in multiple stages using basket-loaded earth, initially estimated at 14 phases over 250 years, though later analyses suggest a more rapid build in decades. Cahokia's significance lies in defining Mississippian traits like palisaded plazas and shell-tempered pottery, influencing regional sequences across the Midwest and Southeast.^[65]^[66]^[67]

Oceania

In Oceania, type sites play a crucial role in establishing chronologies for ancient human migrations and cultural developments across isolated island chains and the Australian continent. These sites provide evidence of early seafaring and adaptation to diverse environments, from volcanic islands to arid inland basins. Key examples include the Lapita sites in the Solomon Islands and Lake Mungo in Australia, which anchor understandings of Austronesian expansion and Pleistocene human presence, respectively.^[68]^[69] The Lapita culture, named after its type site in New Caledonia and exemplified by early sites in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands such as those in the Reef/Santa Cruz Islands, dates to approximately 1500 BCE and is renowned for its dentate-stamped pottery, a hallmark artifact type that signifies the rapid dispersal of Austronesian-speaking peoples into Remote Oceania.^[70] These sites represent the initial phase of Lapita occupation in Melanesia, with pottery featuring intricate geometric designs created using toothed implements, alongside shell tools and adzes. Obsidian tools, sourced from regional volcanic outcrops and used for cutting and scraping, are commonly found at these locations, indicating established exchange networks across island groups. The cultural significance of Lapita sites lies in their role as markers for the Austronesian expansion, which facilitated the peopling of the Pacific through sophisticated voyaging technologies.^[71]^[68]^[72] Further west, Lake Mungo in southeastern Australia stands as a pivotal type site for early human activity, with burials dating back around 40,000 years to the Pleistocene epoch, providing the earliest evidence of Homo sapiens presence on the continent. Discovered in the late 1960s by geologist Jim Bowler, the site yielded the remains of Mungo Lady (Lake Mungo 1), a cremated female skeleton that represents the world's oldest known intentional cremation, followed by crushing and reburial of the bones. These findings, preserved in the ancient lake's lunette dunes, also include stone tools and hearths, illustrating adaptive strategies to a fluctuating semi-arid environment. Lake Mungo's significance extends to demonstrating complex mortuary practices among Australia's first peoples, underscoring continuous human occupation since the Pleistocene.^[69]^[73]^[74]

South Asia

In South Asia, type sites play a pivotal role in defining the archaeological sequences of early urban and Neolithic cultures, particularly within the Indus Valley region. Harappa, located in Punjab Province, Pakistan, serves as the eponymous type site for the Harappan civilization, establishing the baseline for the Mature Harappan phase dating to approximately 2600 BCE.^[75] This phase is characterized by advanced urban planning, including a grid-based layout, standardized baked-brick construction, and sophisticated drainage systems that highlight the society's organizational complexity.^[75] Excavations at Harappa, first conducted in 1921 and continued in subsequent decades, uncovered thousands of seals inscribed with the undeciphered Indus script—over 400 distinct signs—alongside uniform weights and measures that indicate regulated trade and administrative practices across the Indus basin.^[76] These artifacts, including unicorn-motif seals, provide the foundational material for identifying Mature Harappan sites throughout the region, underscoring Harappa's enduring significance in tracing the subcontinent's earliest urbanism.^[76] Complementing Harappa's urban legacy, Mehrgarh in Balochistan, Pakistan, exemplifies Neolithic development as a type site for early farming communities in South Asia, with occupation beginning around 7000 BCE.^[77] Excavations initiated in 1974 by the French Archaeological Mission to Pakistan, led by Jean-François Jarrige, revealed mud-brick villages composed of hand-formed plano-convex bricks, marking some of the earliest settled architecture in the subcontinent.^[78] These structures, initially used for storage rather than habitation, were accompanied by evidence of domesticated wheat, barley, and cattle from the aceramic Neolithic period (6500–6000 BCE), establishing Mehrgarh as the baseline for independent agricultural domestication in the region.^[77] The site's progression through eight phases, culminating in Bronze Age crafts by 2600 BCE, illustrates the gradual evolution toward Indus Valley subsistence patterns, with artifacts like early beads and tools linking it to later Harappan innovations.^[78] Together, these type sites frame South Asia's archaeological narrative, with Harappa anchoring the urban Mature Harappan phase and Mehrgarh delineating the Neolithic foundations of farming and sedentism that preceded it.^[75] Their discoveries, through systematic 20th-century excavations, have informed broader understandings of monsoon-influenced cultural adaptations without reliance on external parallels.^[77]

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[PDF] Analysis and Comparison of Chipped Stone Projectiles from the ...
In archaeology, the “type site” is the place where a particular group or type of artifacts is first defined. A type is a class of artifacts which share a ...
[18]
[PDF] National Register Bulletin 36
... Criteria A,. C, and D. Site Y consisted of at least 225 earthworks and mounds and associated village site. It is the type site for a Late Pre-Contact context.
[19]
[PDF] Classification and Typology
They may be sorted and classified in various ways, which yield different classifications, according to the purposes of the archaeologist.
[20]
Against Typology: A Critical Approach to Archaeological Order
Jan 26, 2017 · ... type-site. Using the ... Archaeological Typology and Practical Reality: A Dialectical Approach to Artifact Classification and Sorting.
[21]
The role of radiocarbon dating in advancing Indigenous-led ... - Nature
Jul 5, 2022 · ... circular reasoning as it assumes that sites that share certain practices or materials (or not) should be grouped together in time (or not).
[22]
The big picture: Archaeology of the Andes revealed on a scale not ...
Jan 19, 2024 · Using GeoPACHA allowed researchers to efficiently map these sites, which in turn helped to eliminate accessibility bias from the survey dataset.
[23]
Beyond binaries. Interrogating ancient DNA
May 15, 2020 · In this paper we explore ancient DNA (aDNA) as a powerful new technique for archaeologists. We argue that for aDNA to reach its full potential we need to ...
[24]
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9
[25]
[PDF] decolonization in archaeological theory - University of Pennsylvania
Introduction. Decolonizing approaches in archaeology emerged as a means to counter the dominance of colonial ideologies.
[26]
Howiesons Poort
### Summary of Howiesons Poort from Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology
[27]
Blade technology and tool forms in the Middle Stone Age of South ...
One such episode is the Howiesons Poort (HP). The appearance of a range of small geometric forms, apparently used as insets in multi-component tools, has been ...Missing: bladelet | Show results with:bladelet
[28]
[PDF] The Howiesons Poort of South Africa - WIReDSpace
The term 'Howiesons Poort' (HP) was first used in 1927 to describe a stone artefact assemblage excavated from a small rock shelter in the eastern Cape by ...
[29]
[PDF] Blombos Cave, Southern Cape, South Africa
Bifacial points also occur within and below the basal Howiesons Poort at Nelson Bay Cave (Volman,. 1981) and in a Howiesons Poort-like assemblage at. Paardeberg ...
[30]
Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave ...
Here we report on thirteen additional pieces of incised ochre recovered from c. 75,000–100,000 year old levels at Blombos Cave. These finds, taken together with ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[31]
The Still Bay points of Blombos Cave (South Africa) - ScienceDirect
The late Middle Stone Age of South Africa between 77 and 35 ka contains three technocomplexes known as the Still Bay, the Howiesons Poort and the post-Howiesons ...
[32]
Jiahu (ca. 7000–5700 B.C.) - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Oct 1, 2000 · The archaeological site of Jiahu in the Yellow River basin of Henan Province, central China, is remarkable for the cultural and artistic remains uncovered ...Missing: East Asia<|separator|>
[33]
The earliest writing? Sign use in the seventh millennium BC at Jiahu ...
Jan 2, 2015 · Early Neolithic graves at Jiahu, Henan Province, China, include tortoise shells which are incised with signs – some of which anticipate later Chinese ...Missing: artifacts | Show results with:artifacts
[34]
Oldest playable musical instruments found at Jiahu early Neolithic ...
Jiahu was occupied from 7000 BC to 5700 BC, considerably antedating the well known Peiligang culture. Here we describe six exquisitely made complete flutes ...Missing: pottery proto- writing<|separator|>
[35]
Henan, Where China Began丨Jiahu site, where Chinese civilization ...
Aug 20, 2024 · Located in Jiahu village of Luohe city, Central China's Henan province, Jiahu site, once a Neolithic settlement some 7,500 to 9,000 years ago, ...
[36]
https://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/medew/flutepage.html
[37]
Henan, Where China Began丨Yangshao village, birthplace of ...
Aug 18, 2024 · In 1921, a large number of cultural relics including pottery wares and stone tools were unearthed at the Yangshao site in Yangshao village of Sanmenxia city.
[38]
Chengziya National Archaeological Site Park | govt.chinadaily.com.cn
Aug 5, 2021 · Chengziya is an archaeological site located on the right banks of the lower Yellow River in Shandong, China, and the place where the Longshan culture of the ...<|separator|>
[39]
A chronology for moat construction and sedimentation at Chengziya
As the site that defines the Longshan Culture in China, Chengziya has produced few absolute dates over decades of research.
[40]
Yin Xu - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Numerous pits within the Palace area contained inscribed oracle bones considered to carry the earliest evidence of the Chinese written language. The Royal Tombs ...
[41]
Chinese bronzes - Shang Dynasty, Ritual Vessels, Bronze Age
There a “palace” with pounded-earth foundation, fine jades, simple bronze vessels, and oracle bones were found. ... bronze vessels at Anyang that demonstrated the ...
[42]
Anyang: Archaeology and History of Research of the Last Shang ...
Anyang, or Yinxu, is a key archaeological site in China, the last Shang dynasty capital, with finds like oracle bones and a royal cemetery.
[43]
Hallstatt | Austria, Ancient Salt Mining Village, & Map | Britannica
The oldest archaeological evidence of the Celts comes from Hallstatt, Austria, near Salzburg. Excavated graves of chieftains there, dating from about 700 bce, ...Missing: stratigraphic | Show results with:stratigraphic
[44]
Hallstatt-Research Burial Site - Naturhistorisches Museum Wien
The Hallstatt cemetery is one of the most important archaeological remains in Europe. It contains cremations and inhumations with extremely rich grave goods.
[45]
Salt of the Alps: ancient Austrian mine holds Bronze Age secrets
Aug 24, 2018 · Exploited for 7,000 years, the mine has yielded not only a steady supply of salt but also archaeological discoveries attesting to the existence ...
[46]
Prehistoric salt mining in Hallstatt, Austria. New chronologies out of ...
The prehistoric salt mine of Hallstatt together with its burial ground is one of the most prominent archaeological sites in the world, and has given its ...Original Article · 3. Results And Discussion · 3.1. The Bronze Age
[47]
Demography of the Early Neolithic Population in Central Balkans
Aug 10, 2016 · The beginning of the Starčevo culture is conventionally dated to 6200 calBC as suggested by the earliest dates from the sites of Blagotin, Donja ...
[48]
Starčevo Ceramics from the site of Svinjarička Čuka, Serbia.
May 5, 2022 · The excavations at Svinjarička Čuka in the South Morava Valley in Serbia are presented with new primary data from the field and related ...
[49]
Introduction: The Origin and Development of Olmec Research
The archaeological evidence argues for an entirely Indigenous development, however, and many Olmec traits are traceable to earlier cultures of Early Formative ...
[50]
Expedition Magazine | Understanding the Ancient Maya
The PP2 pattern at Tikal was used by archaeologists to locate Burial 116, a major tomb found beneath Temple I. Having discovered the cultural rules regarding ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[51]
Expedition Magazine | The Rubber Ball Game - Penn Museum
Five ball courts have been found in the ruins of Tikal (see Fig. 2), the Classic Maya site in northern Guatemala excavated by The University Museum between 1956 ...
[52]
The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East | Current Anthropology
Animal domestication seemed to have been a delayed development, with different livestock species brought under domestication in different parts of the region ( ...
[53]
Jericho - Smarthistory
Jericho isn't the only site at which plastered skulls have been found in Pre-Pottery Neolithic B levels; they have also been found at Tell Ramad, Beisamoun, ...
[54]
Jericho (article) | Neolithic sites | Khan Academy
Jericho isn't the only site at which plastered skulls have been found in Pre-Pottery Neolithic B levels; they have also been found at Tell Ramad, Beisamoun, ...
[55]
Five Plastered Skulls from Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Jericho - Persée
The five skulls studied are part of the complete series of 10 plastered skulls, unearthed in the famous neolithic site of Tell-es-Sultan, Jericho, Palestine.
[56]
Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The taller eastern mound contains eighteen levels of Neolithic occupation between 7400 bc and 6200 bc, including wall paintings, reliefs, sculptures and other ...Missing: 1950s 1960s
[57]
Bioarchaeology of Neolithic Çatalhöyük reveals fundamental ...
Çatalhöyük includes the material remains of one of the most well-known Neolithic megasite communities and is represented by a large tell measuring 13 ha with ...<|separator|>
[58]
Poverty Point, Louisiana - Smarthistory
In the Lower Mississippi Valley in Louisiana, an ancient Indigenous city called Poverty Point flourished between 1650–800 BCE in the Late Archaic Period.
[59]
History & Artifacts of Poverty Point | Explore Louisiana
Archaeologists have found more than 100 small clay figurines at Poverty Point. Archaeologists have found many flat stone artifacts believed to be atlatl ...
[60]
Poverty Point Objects Reconsidered - Taylor & Francis Online
Jun 29, 2016 · In this paper we examine the enigmatic but plentiful hand-molded, baked-clay objects known as Poverty Point Objects (PPOs) from a number of ...
[61]
[PDF] TECHNOLOGICAL STYLE AND SOCIAL BOUNDARIES OF ...
A “Basketmaker” perishable pattern is reported as far east as the panhandle of western Oklahoma, where collections include an atlatl of the San Juan.
[62]
Ancestral Puebloan - Science of the American Southwest (U.S. ...
Dec 7, 2015 · Ancestral Puebloan refers to the maize agriculturalists who lived across the northern Southwest from the beginnings of cultivation until the coming of the ...
[63]
Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site: World Heritage Site
Jul 23, 2020 · The mounds are the pre-eminent example of a cultural, religious, and economic center of the Mississippian culture, which extended throughout the ...
[64]
(PDF) The chronology of Monks Mound - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · In the past, researchers speculated that Monks Mound was both one of the oldest and longest-lived monuments at Cahokia. Using a Bayesian ...
[65]
Cahokia's Monks Mound May Have Been Built in Only 20 Years
Sep 22, 2015 · Previous research in the 1960's determined the mound was built in 14 stages, taking as long as 250 years. In 2005, Monks Mound began to ...
[66]
[PDF] THE LAPITA CULTURE AND AUSTRONESIAN PREHISTORY IN ...
The Lapita culture (1600 BC to 500 BC/AD 1) represents the archaeological record of the first substantial Austronesian colonization into Melanesia and Polynesia ...
[67]
Mungo Lady | National Museum of Australia
Jul 8, 2025 · In 1968 geologist Jim Bowler discovered human bones around the now dry Lake Mungo in south-western New South Wales.Missing: 1960s | Show results with:1960s
[68]
Lapita Colonization across the Near/Remote Oceania Boundary
The Lapita colonization of Remote Oceania involved rapid expansion from New Guinea across one-tenth of the circumference of the earth.
[69]
Tattooing tools and the Lapita cultural complex - Wiley Online Library
Nov 13, 2017 · A use-wear and residue study of 56 retouched obsidian flakes from seven Lapita sites in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu ...
[70]
(PDF) Pleistocene Human Remains from Australia: A Living Site and ...
Within the site were stone tools, hearths, faunal remains and a human cremation. The Mungo typology changes little in south‐eastern Australia until about 6,000 ...
[71]
Depositional history and archaeology of the central Lake Mungo ...
Lake Mungo, presently a dry lake in the semi-arid zone of southeastern Australia, preserves a unique record of human settlement and past environmental change.
[72]
Search | Harappa
### Summary of Harappa's Role in the Indus Civilization
[73]
A Brief Introduction to the Ancient Indus Civilization | Harappa
Harappa was an Indus civilization urban center. It lies in Punjab Province, Pakistan, on an old bed of the River Ravi. The latest research has revealed at ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[74]
Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The French Archaeological Mission to Pakistan excavated the site for thirteen years between 1974 and 1986, and they resumed their work in 1996. The most recent ...Missing: farming | Show results with:farming
[75]
[PDF] EXCAVATIONS AT MEHRGARH (1974-1985 and 1997-2000)
Nov 3, 2020 · Jean-François Jarrige was granted in 1987 with the. Sitara-e Pakistan. EXCAVATIONS AT MEHRGARH (1974-1985 and 1997-2000). MAI Mission ...