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Unbalanced line

An unbalanced line, in the context of electrical engineering and telecommunications, is a transmission line consisting of two conductors designed to carry electrical signals or power, where the impedances of the forward and return paths to ground are unequal, often with one conductor serving as a reference to ground.^[1] This asymmetry distinguishes it from balanced lines, where both conductors are symmetric with respect to ground and carry equal but opposite signals.^[2] The most common example of an unbalanced line is the coaxial cable, featuring a central conductor surrounded by a tubular shield that acts as the return path and ground reference.^[3] Unbalanced lines are widely used in applications requiring single-ended signaling, such as in printed circuit boards (e.g., microstrip lines and coplanar waveguides) and interconnect cables like coaxial or flat-ribbon types with a ground plane.^[1] They offer advantages in simplicity and shielding against electromagnetic interference due to the grounded conductor, but they are more vulnerable to common-mode noise and ground potential differences compared to balanced counterparts.^[4] In high-frequency operations, such as RF and microwave systems, unbalanced lines like coaxial cables maintain equal and opposite currents between the inner conductor and the shield's interior surface, minimizing radiation within the line, though external currents on the shield can lead to unwanted emissions without proper balancing techniques like baluns.^[3] Key parameters for unbalanced lines include characteristic impedance, typically around 50 Ω or 75 Ω for coaxial types, which is determined by the geometry and materials of the conductors and dielectric.^[4] Design considerations often focus on minimizing losses, reflections, and imbalances to ensure efficient signal integrity, particularly in interfaces like CMOS, TTL, I²C, or SPI.^[1] While robust for many consumer and industrial uses, unbalanced lines may require additional components, such as transformers or filters, to interface with balanced systems and mitigate noise in sensitive environments.

Fundamentals

Definition and Characteristics

An unbalanced line is a type of transmission line consisting of two conductors with unequal impedances to ground, typically comprising one signal conductor and a grounded return path, such as earth or a shield.^[5] This configuration contrasts with balanced lines, which feature symmetric conductors of equal impedance to ground and often require baluns for interfacing.^[5] Key characteristics of unbalanced lines include their cost efficiency, achieved through the use of a single signal wire paired with a common return path, thereby reducing material requirements compared to fully paired conductors. However, due to the asymmetry between the conductors, these lines exhibit greater susceptibility to electromagnetic noise pickup, particularly in environments with external interference. They are commonly employed in applications where a reliable ground reference, like earth or a conductive shield, is readily available to serve as the return path.^[5] Basic examples of unbalanced lines include single-wire earth return systems used in early electrical setups and coaxial cables, where the inner conductor carries the signal and the outer shield provides the grounded return.^[5] The historical origin of unbalanced lines traces back to 19th-century telegraphy, where the earth return method enabled significant cost savings.

Electrical Properties

In unbalanced transmission line configurations, signal propagation is governed by the telegrapher's equations, which model the distributed parameters of resistance R (ohms per unit length), inductance L (henries per unit length), conductance G (siemens per unit length), and capacitance C (farads per unit length) along the line.^[6] These equations describe the voltage V(z, t) and current I(z, t) distributions as functions of position z and time t, accounting for wave propagation, attenuation, and phase shifts.^[6] Specifically, the voltage and current satisfy the coupled partial differential equations:

\frac{\partial V}{\partial z} = -(R + j\omega L) I, \quad \frac{\partial I}{\partial z} = -(G + j\omega C) V,

where \omega is the angular frequency; solving these yields the wave equations \frac{\partial^2 V}{\partial z^2} = \gamma^2 V and \frac{\partial^2 I}{\partial z^2} = \gamma^2 I, with propagation constant \gamma = \sqrt{(R + j\omega L)(G + j\omega C)} = \alpha + j\beta, where \alpha is the attenuation constant and \beta is the phase constant.^[6] The general solutions are traveling waves: V(z) = V^+ e^{-\gamma z} + V^- e^{\gamma z} for voltage and I(z) = \frac{V^+}{Z_0} e^{-\gamma z} - \frac{V^-}{Z_0} e^{\gamma z} for current, where V^+ and V^- are the forward and backward wave amplitudes.^[6] The ground return plays a critical role in unbalanced lines, as the return current flows through the ground path (earth or a reference conductor) rather than a symmetric paired conductor, leading to asymmetric field distributions.^[1] This configuration results in voltage drops and inductive effects along the ground path, which contribute to the total series inductance L (including conductor self-inductance and mutual effects with the return path) and shunt capacitance C (primarily between the signal conductor and ground).^[6] Unlike balanced lines, where fields are symmetric and return currents cancel external influences, the ground return in unbalanced setups introduces additional resistance and inductance from soil or reference plane variability, altering wave propagation characteristics.^[1] The characteristic impedance Z_0 of an unbalanced line is defined as Z_0 = \sqrt{\frac{R + j\omega L}{G + j\omega C}}, which simplifies to Z_0 \approx \sqrt{\frac{L}{C}} for low-loss conditions where R \ll \omega L and G \ll \omega C.^[6] Grounding in unbalanced lines modifies L and C distinctly from balanced counterparts: the asymmetric geometry increases effective inductance due to non-canceled magnetic fields around the ground return, while capacitance is dominated by the proximity to the ground plane, often resulting in lower Z_0 values (e.g., 50–75 ohms in typical implementations) compared to open-wire balanced lines.^[1] This grounding-induced asymmetry ensures Z_0 reflects the line's ability to support unimpeded wave propagation without reflections when terminated properly.^[6] Unbalanced lines support both differential-mode and common-mode signals, with the differential mode representing the desired signal voltage between the conductor and ground return, while common-mode signals manifest as equal voltages (or currents) on both the signal conductor and ground path relative to a remote reference.^[1] Due to the inherent single-ended nature, unbalanced lines facilitate common-mode currents flowing along the ground return, as there is no symmetric counterpart to cancel them; these currents arise from imbalances in the line's impedance to ground or external field coupling, potentially radiating or receiving interference.^[7] In contrast to balanced lines, where common-mode rejection suppresses such effects, unbalanced configurations convert differential signals into common-mode components under mismatch, exacerbating interference.^[7] Noise susceptibility in unbalanced lines stems from their asymmetric electromagnetic fields, which create larger loop areas for magnetic induction and exposed surfaces for capacitive coupling, making them prone to picking up electromagnetic interference (EMI) from nearby sources.^[7] External electric fields induce voltages differentially across the signal-to-ground pair, while magnetic fields couple into the return loop, with common-mode noise not rejected at the receiver end.^[1] This leads to higher susceptibility compared to balanced lines, where symmetric fields cancel noise. In shielded unbalanced types, such as coaxial structures, the outer conductor provides electrostatic screening by enclosing the signal, minimizing capacitive interference from external electric fields while directing common-mode currents along the shield to ground.^[1]

Historical Development

Telegraph Lines

The pioneering application of unbalanced lines in telegraphy emerged with Samuel Morse's development of the electromagnetic telegraph in 1837, which utilized a single-wire earth return system to transmit signals over long distances. This configuration employed one overhead conductor for the signal current, with the earth serving as the return path, marking a significant advancement in efficient electrical communication by eliminating the need for a dedicated return wire.^[8]^[9] The technical setup of Morse's system involved grounding the circuit at both the sending and receiving stations, allowing the earth's conductivity to complete the electrical loop and thereby reducing infrastructure demands. This approach achieved substantial cost savings, approximately halving material expenses compared to traditional two-wire systems by requiring only one copper conductor per line, which facilitated broader deployment across expansive terrains like railroads and rural areas.^[9]^[10] Key milestones in the adoption of unbalanced telegraph lines included the inauguration of the first commercial line in the United States in 1844, spanning 40 miles from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore, where Morse transmitted the message "What hath God wrought?" This success spurred nationwide expansion, with over 2,000 miles of line operational by 1848.^[11]^[12]^[13] A notable international achievement occurred in 1866 with the successful laying of the first reliable transatlantic submarine telegraph cable by the SS Great Eastern, which employed a single copper conductor insulated with gutta-percha, using seawater as the return path to enable direct communication between Europe and North America.^[14] Despite these innovations, unbalanced earth return systems faced inherent challenges that limited their reliability over extended distances. Signal attenuation increased progressively with length due to the distributed resistance and capacitance of the line combined with the variable conductivity of the earth, often necessitating intermediate relay stations every 10 to 20 miles to amplify weak pulses. Additionally, corrosion posed a persistent issue, as electrolytic action at ground connections—where current entered or exited the soil—accelerated degradation of electrodes and nearby metallic structures, exacerbated by soil chemistry and moisture variations. By the late 19th century, these limitations contributed to a transition in telephony toward balanced twisted-pair lines, which better rejected electromagnetic interference and supported voice signals without frequent relays, as standardized in 1888 specifications for metallic circuits.^[9]^[15]^[16] For underground telegraph installations, where direct earth contact risked excessive leakage and corrosion, cables incorporated metal sheaths—typically lead or copper—serving as insulated return conductors to isolate the signal path from soil electrolytes while maintaining the unbalanced configuration.^[17]^[18]

Early Coaxial Developments

The theoretical foundations for coaxial lines, an early form of unbalanced shielded transmission, trace back to Oliver Heaviside's work in the 1880s, where he analyzed loaded transmission lines and patented a coaxial structure in 1880 to minimize signal interference between parallel conductors.^[19] This design featured an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer and an outer conducting shield, enabling distortionless propagation over long distances. Heaviside's contributions built on earlier telegraph concepts, such as earth return paths, but emphasized shielding to confine electromagnetic fields and reduce external interference.^[20] Practical development accelerated in the 1920s amid growing demands for telephone and radio transmission, as open-wire lines suffered severe crosstalk at frequencies above 30 kHz.^[21] Engineers Lloyd Espenschied and Herman Affel at AT&T Bell Laboratories conceived the first workable coaxial prototype in 1929, patenting a rigid pipe-like structure with a central copper conductor and outer metal sheath to support broadband signals.^[22] A key innovation was the introduction of dielectric insulators—initially air-spaced with spacers, later refined with materials like gutta-percha—between the inner conductor and shield, which minimized attenuation and enabled efficient high-frequency operation.^[23] AT&T achieved the first commercial deployment in 1936, installing an experimental 100-mile coaxial line between New York and Philadelphia for long-distance telephony, capable of carrying up to 240 voice channels via frequency-division multiplexing within a bandwidth of several megahertz.^[23] These early coaxial lines provided superior shielding compared to open-wire telegraph lines, dramatically reducing crosstalk in bundled installations by containing the electromagnetic field within the structure.^[21] This addressed key limitations of 19th-century telegraph-era systems, such as susceptibility to weather-induced noise and signal distortion from environmental factors, allowing reliable underground or armored deployment.^[22] World War II further propelled advancements, as demand for radar systems necessitated low-loss transmission lines for interconnecting high-power components.^[24] Engineers developed flexible coaxial cables with improved polyethylene dielectrics, achieving low attenuation for signals up to 100 MHz in military applications like shore-based radar feeds.^[24] These innovations transitioned unbalanced lines from rudimentary telegraph forms to robust, shielded mediums essential for modern communication.

Modern Types

Coaxial Lines

Coaxial cables feature a central conductor, typically a solid or stranded wire, surrounded by a dielectric insulator that maintains spacing, all enclosed within an outer cylindrical shield that is grounded to provide return path for the current.^[25] This concentric design ensures the electromagnetic fields are confined between the inner conductor and the shield, forming the basis of an unbalanced transmission line. A triaxial variant extends this structure by incorporating an additional insulated shield layer outside the primary shield, offering further electromagnetic isolation for applications requiring heightened protection against interference.^[26] Key design parameters include the characteristic impedance, standardized at 50 Ω for general high-frequency applications or 75 Ω for optimized low-attenuation video and broadcast uses, determined by the ratio of conductor radii and the dielectric properties.^[27] The velocity factor, which indicates the speed of signal propagation relative to the speed of light in vacuum, is given by

v = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\epsilon_r}}

where \epsilon_r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric material; this factor typically ranges from 0.66 for solid dielectrics to 0.80–0.88 for foamed versions, influencing signal delay and phase characteristics.^[28] These parameters enable precise control over signal integrity in unbalanced configurations. The primary performance advantages of coaxial lines stem from their near-perfect electrostatic shielding provided by the outer conductor, which confines electric fields and minimizes external interference, while the balanced current flow on the inner conductor and shield results in low electromagnetic radiation.^[25] This structure supports single-mode TEM propagation with low losses, making them suitable for high-frequency signals up to several GHz, where higher-order modes are suppressed below the cutoff frequency of approximately c / \pi (a + b), with a and b as the inner and outer conductor radii.^[27] Common dielectric materials include polyethylene, valued for its low dielectric constant of about 2.3 in solid form, which yields a velocity factor of 0.66 and good moisture resistance; foamed polyethylene variants offer even lower loss with \epsilon_r between 1.3 and 1.6.^[29] Shields are typically constructed from braided copper wires for flexibility or metallic foil tapes for enhanced coverage, often combined in multi-layer designs to achieve over 90% shielding effectiveness.^[29] Limitations include mechanical constraints such as a minimum bending radius generally 5 times the cable's outer diameter to prevent internal damage, misalignment, or increased attenuation.^[30]

Planar Transmission Lines

Planar transmission lines represent a class of unbalanced structures widely used in integrated circuits and high-frequency electronics, where a single conductor references a ground plane for signal propagation. These lines leverage lithographic fabrication techniques to enable compact, scalable designs in modern devices, distinguishing them from bulkier cylindrical forms by their flat geometry that facilitates integration with semiconductors and printed circuit boards (PCBs). The primary types of planar transmission lines are microstrip, stripline, and coplanar waveguide (CPW). A microstrip line features a conducting strip on one side of a dielectric substrate, with a ground plane on the opposite side; the electromagnetic field propagates through both the substrate and the air above, resulting in a mixed dielectric environment. In contrast, a stripline consists of a flat conductor embedded between two parallel ground planes within a homogeneous dielectric, providing full enclosure for the signal path. CPW consists of a central signal conductor flanked by two ground planes on the same side of the substrate, enabling easy access for shunt or series connected components without the need for vias and supporting both quasi-TEM and higher-order modes.^[31] Microstrip lines were developed in the early 1950s, with foundational work tracing to 1952, while stripline emerged around 1955 through efforts at the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre.^[32]^[33] Design of these lines centers on achieving a target characteristic impedance Z_0, typically 50 \Omega for RF applications, which influences trace dimensions and performance. For microstrip, the strip width w relative to substrate height h is determined using approximate formulas such as the Hammerstad equations, which account for \varepsilon_r and often require refinement with full-field simulations; these apply for narrow strips and thin substrates, aiding initial sizing. Stripline designs, due to the enclosing ground planes, require narrower traces than microstrip for the same Z_0—often 20-50% slimmer depending on substrate thickness—to account for the higher capacitance from dual shielding, enhancing field confinement but complicating fabrication tolerances.^[34]^[35] For CPW, Z_0 is set by the center conductor width and gaps to the ground planes, with similar dependence on \varepsilon_r. In microwave integrated circuits (MICs), planar lines serve as building blocks for passive components and interconnects, including filters for signal selectivity, antennas for radiation, and high-speed links between active devices. Microstrip, in particular, supports open structures that allow easy coupling to lumped elements or vias, making it ideal for hybrid circuits. These technologies, originating in the 1950s, have become standard in PCBs for consumer electronics and are integral to 5G modules as of 2025, where they route signals in multilayer boards to support sub-6 GHz and mmWave bands with controlled impedance.^[36]^[37] Key advantages of planar lines include their ease of fabrication using standard PCB etching processes, which reduces costs compared to three-dimensional structures, and inherent tunability through geometric adjustments or substrate variations for frequency-specific optimization. However, they exhibit higher radiation losses than fully shielded coaxial lines at very high frequencies (above 30 GHz), as fringing fields in microstrip and CPW can couple to free space, leading to signal attenuation and crosstalk in dense layouts; stripline mitigates this somewhat via better shielding but at the expense of added layers.^[38]^[39] Recent advancements integrate planar lines into mmWave technologies for 6G prototypes, where microstrip and stripline variants enable beamforming arrays and reconfigurable surfaces in compact modules operating at 28-100 GHz. For instance, printed ridge gap waveguide structures based on planar designs have demonstrated low-loss crossovers in experimental 6G setups, addressing propagation challenges in beyond-5G networks by supporting high-density integration without traditional waveguides.^[40]^[41]

Applications

Power Transmission

Unbalanced lines find application in power transmission through single-wire earth return (SWER) systems, which utilize a single overhead conductor for the active phase while employing the earth as the return path. These systems have been employed since the early 20th century for rural electrification, particularly in remote areas where conventional multi-wire infrastructure is uneconomical. Developed initially in New Zealand in 1925 by engineer Lloyd Mandeno for extending power to sparse populations, SWER represents an evolution from earlier telegraph-era earth return techniques.^[42]^[43] In Australia, SWER lines have been extensively deployed since the mid-20th century, with initial installations in Queensland during the 1950s as part of rural electrification schemes, serving vast outback regions with low population densities. These networks typically operate at higher voltages, such as 11-33 kV, to reduce current in the ground return and thereby minimize resistive losses associated with soil conductivity variations. Design considerations also address electrolytic corrosion risks to buried infrastructure like pipelines, mitigated through material selection (e.g., copper or soft steel electrodes) and, in some implementations, insulated return conductors to limit stray currents. Australian SWER spurs often support loads under 100 kW, scattered over distances exceeding 100 km, enabling cost savings of 60-70% compared to equivalent three-phase distribution due to reduced conductor and support requirements.^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47] Safety concerns in SWER systems primarily arise from ground potential rise (GPR) during fault conditions, where fault currents flowing through the earth can elevate local soil voltages, posing risks of step and touch potentials to personnel and livestock. Modern mitigations include the use of insulated neutral configurations at transformers to isolate the system and prevent fault currents from fully utilizing the earth return, alongside low-impedance grounding electrodes to limit GPR below safe thresholds (typically 20-30 V). Despite these advantages for low-density rural applications, SWER is inefficient for high-power urban grids owing to higher I²R losses in the earth path and electromagnetic interference with nearby telecommunications and metallic structures, rendering it unsuitable for dense or high-demand scenarios.^[46]^[48]^[49]

Radio Frequency Systems

In radio frequency (RF) systems, unbalanced lines such as coaxial cables play a central role in broadcasting and telecommunications, particularly for delivering cable television and high-speed internet services. Coaxial cables support Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) standards, with DOCSIS 4.0 enabling operations up to 1.8 GHz for downstream and 684 MHz for upstream traffic, facilitating multi-gigabit speeds over existing hybrid fiber-coaxial networks as of 2025.^[50] This capability allows cable operators to provide symmetrical broadband exceeding 10 Gbps downstream and 6 Gbps upstream, addressing growing demands for video streaming and data-intensive applications.^[51] Planar unbalanced lines, including microstrip configurations, are integral to antenna designs in base stations and wireless infrastructure. These lines enable compact, low-profile antennas that support 5G millimeter-wave bands, such as 26-28 GHz, with applications in urban base stations for enhanced coverage and capacity.^[52] In modern integrations, microstrip lines are embedded in smartphones and 5G/6G antenna arrays to achieve high-gain performance in sub-6 GHz and mmWave frequencies, optimizing space-constrained devices for reliable connectivity.^[53] Hybrid systems often employ baluns to interface unbalanced lines like coaxial or microstrip with balanced antennas, such as dipoles, ensuring impedance matching and minimizing common-mode currents in RF transceivers.^[54] Unbalanced lines exhibit low-loss characteristics at ultra-high frequency (UHF, 300-3000 MHz) and very high frequency (VHF, 30-300 MHz) bands, making them suitable for efficient signal propagation in RF systems with attenuation rates as low as 3-5 dB per 100 feet for high-quality coaxial types. A representative example is the RG-6 coaxial cable, which serves as the standard for satellite television distribution, supporting 4K ultra-high-definition streaming with frequencies up to 3 GHz and minimal signal degradation over typical home runs.^[55] Despite the shift toward fiber optics in local area networks (LANs) during the 2010s—driven by coherent optical technologies enabling terabit-scale capacities—unbalanced lines persist in last-mile wireless connections and Internet of Things (IoT) devices.^[56] Coaxial and microstrip implementations remain essential for bridging fiber backhaul to wireless endpoints in IoT networks, such as sensor arrays and edge devices operating in sub-GHz bands for low-power, long-range communication.^[57] In dense urban RF environments, unbalanced lines face electromagnetic interference (EMI) challenges from nearby sources like power lines and wireless traffic, potentially degrading signal-to-noise ratios by 10-20 dB without countermeasures. Shielding in coaxial cables, achieved through braided or foil layers, effectively mitigates EMI by attenuating external fields by over 60 dB, preserving signal integrity in high-interference scenarios.^[58]

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Designed to support cable and satellite signal transmission with minimal static and maximum picture quality, Belden's low-loss RG6 Cable is small in ...7711A · 7712A · 7713A
[56]
Fiber Capacity Mining, Then and Now - Acacia Communications
Aug 28, 2019 · Another confluence of technology advancements in the 2010s brought about the generation of mainstream coherent optical transmission. Aided ...
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[PDF] Internet of Things: Last Mile Connectivity Options Explained
Today, the Internet of Things (IoT) relies heavily on short-range wireless technologies, such as WiFi, Zigbee and Bluetooth. Over the next five years, ...
[58]
The Essential Role of Cable Shielding in Minimizing ... - Megaphase
Feb 26, 2024 · Explore the importance of cable shielding in RF and microwave systems to mitigate electromagnetic interference (EMI) and uphold signal integrityMissing: urban | Show results with:urban