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Very high frequency

Very high frequency (VHF) is the designation for the range of radio frequencies from 30 to 300 MHz, equivalent to wavelengths between 10 and 1 meters.^[1] This band plays a crucial role in modern communications due to its balance of range and data capacity, enabling line-of-sight propagation over distances of tens to hundreds of kilometers depending on terrain, antenna height, and atmospheric conditions.^[2] VHF signals are less susceptible to attenuation than higher frequencies but still require relatively large antennas, typically on the order of meters, for efficient transmission and reception.^[3] The allocations within the VHF band are governed internationally by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and nationally by bodies like the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC), dividing it into sub-bands for specific services to minimize interference.^[4] Key applications of VHF include FM radio broadcasting, which occupies the 88–108 MHz sub-band and supports high-fidelity audio transmission for commercial stations.^[5] Television broadcasting utilizes low VHF (54–72 MHz and 76–88 MHz for channels 2–6) and high VHF (174–216 MHz for channels 7–13), though digital transition has reduced some usage in favor of UHF.^[6] In aviation, VHF frequencies from 108 to 137 MHz are used for navigation aids like VOR (108–117.95 MHz) and for air traffic control and aircraft communications (118–136.975 MHz), ensuring safe and efficient airspace management.^[7]^[8] Maritime operations rely on VHF for ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications, primarily in the 156–162 MHz band, with channel 16 (156.800 MHz) designated for distress and safety calls.^[9] Additionally, land mobile services, including public safety, emergency response, and business communications, operate extensively in the 136–174 MHz segment, supporting voice and data for first responders and utilities.^[10] Amateur radio enthusiasts also access portions like the 6-meter (50–54 MHz) and 2-meter (144–148 MHz) bands for experimentation and emergency networks.^[11] These diverse uses highlight VHF's versatility in both civilian and professional contexts, though ongoing spectrum management addresses growing demands from wireless technologies.

Fundamentals

Definition and Frequency Range

Very high frequency (VHF) refers to a specific portion of the radio frequency spectrum designated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as band number 8, spanning from 30 megahertz (MHz) to 300 MHz.^[12] This range corresponds to frequencies between 30 × 10⁶ hertz (Hz) and 300 × 10⁶ Hz, where 1 MHz equals 1 million Hz, providing a standardized measure for electromagnetic wave oscillations in telecommunications applications.^[12] The nomenclature "very high frequency" emerged in the early 20th century as radio technology advanced beyond medium frequencies, distinguishing VHF from the adjacent high frequency (HF) band (3–30 MHz) below it and the ultra high frequency (UHF) band (300–3,000 MHz) above it.^[12] The ITU formalized this terminology through its radio regulations, with the current band definitions originating from recommendations established in 1953 and revised periodically, with the latest edition (V.431-9) in October 2025 to accommodate evolving global spectrum management needs.^[12] The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) aligns with the ITU in defining the VHF band as 30–300 MHz under IEEE Standard 521-2019, ensuring consistency in radar and communication engineering contexts where precise frequency boundaries are essential for equipment design and interoperability.^[13] These standards emphasize VHF's position in the metric wave subdivision of the spectrum, historically abbreviated as "B.m" in ITU documentation to reflect its wavelength scale from 10 meters to 1 meter.^[12]

Wavelength and Comparison to Adjacent Bands

The wavelength \lambda of a radio wave in free space is calculated using the formula \lambda = \frac{c}{f}, where c is the speed of light ($3 \times 10^8 m/s) and f is the frequency in Hz.^[12] For VHF frequencies ranging from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, this yields wavelengths between 10 m and 1 m, respectively; for instance, at the lower band edge of 30 MHz, \lambda \approx 10 m, while at 300 MHz, \lambda \approx 1 m.^[12] In comparison to the adjacent high frequency (HF) band (3–30 MHz), VHF wavelengths are significantly shorter, ranging from one-tenth to one-hundredth the length of HF wavelengths (which span 100 m to 10 m).^[12] This difference contributes to HF's greater reliance on skywave propagation via ionospheric reflection for long-distance communication, whereas VHF primarily supports ground-wave and direct-wave paths with limited beyond-line-of-sight extension.^[14] Conversely, the ultra high frequency (UHF) band (300–3000 MHz) features even shorter wavelengths (1 m to 0.1 m), enabling higher data rates due to increased bandwidth availability but resulting in poorer penetration through obstacles compared to VHF.^[12]^[15] These VHF wavelength characteristics have key implications for equipment design and signal behavior: antennas can be practically sized (e.g., quarter-wave elements of 2.5 m to 0.25 m), facilitating portable and vehicle-mounted systems without the large structures required for HF.^[16] However, the relatively shorter wavelengths reduce diffraction efficiency around obstacles compared to HF, limiting non-line-of-sight coverage and emphasizing the need for elevated or clear-path installations.^[17]^[15]

Propagation and Coverage

Characteristics of VHF Propagation

Very high frequency (VHF) signals, spanning 30 to 300 MHz, primarily propagate via line-of-sight (LOS) paths, where the direct wave travels in a straight line from transmitter to receiver, constrained by the Earth's curvature and requiring elevated antennas for optimal range. Diffraction, the bending of waves around obstacles, is limited due to the relatively short wavelengths (1 to 10 meters), resulting in significant signal blockage by terrain features, buildings, and vegetation rather than gradual curving over horizons. Ground wave propagation, which hugs the Earth's surface and follows its curvature, is minimal for VHF compared to lower frequencies, typically extending only a few kilometers to about 20 km over flat terrain before attenuation renders it negligible.^[18]^[19] Atmospheric conditions play a key role in occasional enhancements to VHF propagation beyond standard LOS limits. Tropospheric ducting arises from temperature inversions or humidity gradients that create refractive layers in the lower atmosphere, trapping signals and enabling super-refractive propagation over distances up to 1000 km in rare cases, such as during stable weather fronts. However, absorption by environmental elements significantly degrades signals; foliage causes exponential attenuation proportional to path length through vegetation, while buildings introduce scattering and absorption, particularly at higher VHF frequencies. Attenuation in VHF propagation is fundamentally governed by free-space path loss (FSPL), which quantifies the power reduction due to spherical spreading of waves in unobstructed space. The FSPL is given by the formula:

\text{FSPL} = \left( \frac{4\pi d f}{c} \right)^2

where d is the distance in meters, f is the frequency in hertz, and c is the speed of light (approximately $3 \times 10^8 m/s). This arises from the Friis transmission equation under ideal conditions, where received power P_r = P_t G_t G_r \lambda^2 / (4\pi d)^2, and without antenna gains (G_t = G_r = 1), the loss simplifies to the square of the ratio of distance to wavelength (\lambda = c/f). In the VHF band, FSPL at 100 MHz over 10 km yields about 92 dB, establishing a baseline that environmental factors exacerbate.^[20]^[21] Propagation characteristics differ markedly between urban and rural settings, with urban environments imposing higher overall losses on VHF signals. In cities, multipath fading—resulting from signal reflections off buildings and vehicles—causes rapid fluctuations in received strength, often adding 10–15 dB of excess loss beyond free-space predictions due to destructive interference. Rural areas, by contrast, experience lower attenuation from fewer obstacles, allowing more reliable LOS coverage with minimal fading, though terrain variations can still introduce shadowing.^[22]^[23]

Line-of-Sight Distance Calculations

Line-of-sight (LOS) propagation in the VHF band is fundamentally limited by the Earth's curvature, and the maximum distance to the radio horizon from a single antenna can be estimated using the geometric formula d = \sqrt{2 h R}, where d is the horizon distance in kilometers, h is the antenna height in kilometers, and R is the Earth's radius, approximately 6371 km. This approximation holds for small antenna heights relative to the Earth's radius and assumes a smooth spherical Earth without atmospheric effects. To account for atmospheric refraction, which bends VHF signals slightly downward and extends the effective range beyond the optical horizon, an effective Earth radius R_e = k R is used, where k is the effective Earth radius factor. For standard atmospheric conditions in VHF propagation, k = 4/3 is commonly applied, yielding R_e \approx 8495 km and increasing the horizon distance by about 15-20% compared to the geometric case. The adjusted formula becomes d = \sqrt{2 h R_e}. For practical VHF links between a transmitter at height h_t and receiver at height h_r, the total LOS distance is the sum of their individual horizons: d_{\text{total}} = \sqrt{2 h_t R_e} + \sqrt{2 h_r R_e}. In a typical VHF broadcasting setup with a 100 m transmitter tower (h_t = 0.1 km) and a ground-level receiver (h_r = 0), using k = 4/3, the one-way distance approximates 41 km; for a receiver at 10 m height, d_{\text{total}} extends to about 54 km. Obstacles within the LOS path can cause diffraction losses if they encroach on the Fresnel zones, which define the volume around the direct ray where signal interference occurs. The radius of the first Fresnel zone at a point along the path is given by F = \sqrt{\frac{\lambda d_1 d_2}{d_1 + d_2}}, where \lambda is the wavelength in meters, and d_1, d_2 are the distances in meters from the transmitter and receiver to that point, respectively. For VHF frequencies around 100 MHz (\lambda \approx 3 m) over a 20 km path, the maximum first Fresnel zone radius is approximately 122 m at the midpoint; clear space of at least 60% of this radius (about 73 m) is recommended to minimize attenuation. When terrain features block the direct path, approximations like the knife-edge diffraction model estimate the resulting signal loss. This model treats the obstacle as a sharp edge and computes loss based on the Fresnel diffraction parameter \nu, derived from path geometry and frequency, with losses ranging from 0 dB for full clearance to over 20 dB for deep shadowing. Tools implementing this, such as those in ITU-R P.526, allow integration with digital terrain data for VHF site planning, providing loss values for single or multiple edges.

Antenna Systems

VHF Antenna Designs

VHF antenna designs are tailored to the band's wavelengths, which range from 1 to 10 meters, enabling relatively straightforward construction using resonant elements sized proportionally to these dimensions. Common configurations prioritize efficiency, directivity, and ease of integration into broadcasting, mobile, or base station systems, often employing simple geometries that leverage the relatively long wavelengths for robust performance without excessive complexity. Dipole antennas serve as foundational elements in VHF systems due to their simplicity and balanced radiation patterns. A half-wave dipole, with length l = \frac{\lambda}{2}, provides an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane when oriented horizontally, achieving a gain of approximately 2.15 dBi and a characteristic impedance of 73 ohms, making it suitable for balanced feed systems.^[24] Yagi-Uda designs extend this concept by incorporating parasitic elements, including one reflector behind the driven dipole and multiple directors ahead, to enhance forward directivity and achieve gains of 10 to 15 dB in VHF applications such as television reception or point-to-point links.^[25]^[26] Vertical monopoles are widely adopted for omnidirectional coverage in mobile VHF communications, typically implemented as a quarter-wave element (\frac{\lambda}{4}) mounted over a ground plane to simulate a full dipole and approximate unity gain with a low-angle radiation pattern ideal for vehicle-mounted or portable use.^[27] The ground plane, often formed by radial wires or a metal surface, ensures efficient current distribution and minimizes ground losses.^[28] For base station applications requiring elevated vertical gain to extend coverage, collinear arrays stack multiple half-wave dipoles or similar elements end-to-end along a vertical axis, phasing them to constructively combine signals in the horizontal plane while narrowing the vertical beamwidth for gains of 3 to 10 dB over a single dipole.^[29] This configuration is particularly effective in VHF repeaters and broadcast towers, where the extended length—often several wavelengths—focuses energy toward the horizon.^[30] Construction of VHF antennas commonly utilizes aluminum tubing due to its lightweight strength, corrosion resistance, and ease of fabrication for elements spanning 1 to 10 meters. Alloys such as 6063-T832 or T6061 are preferred for their conductivity and durability, with tubing diameters tapered from 1/2 inch at the base to 1/8 inch at the tips to optimize weight and wind loading while maintaining structural integrity.^[31]^[32] Tuning for bandwidth involves adjusting element lengths or adding matching networks, such as gamma matches on Yagis, to accommodate the allocated spectrum slices (e.g., 6-8 MHz for TV channels) without excessive voltage standing wave ratio.^[33]

Antenna Performance Factors

Antenna performance in the very high frequency (VHF) band is critically influenced by gain, directivity, and radiation patterns, which determine how effectively the antenna concentrates and directs radiated power. Gain quantifies the antenna's ability to focus energy in a preferred direction relative to an isotropic radiator, typically measured in dBi, while directivity describes the concentration of radiation without accounting for losses. For directional VHF antennas like Yagis, a front-to-back ratio exceeding 16 dB is common, indicating strong suppression of signals from the rear, which reduces interference in applications such as broadcasting.^[34] Beamwidth, the angular width where power is at half the maximum, is approximately 60° for a simple three-element Yagi, providing a balance between directivity and coverage area.^[35] Impedance matching and standing wave ratio (SWR) are essential for minimizing power losses in VHF systems, as mismatches lead to reflected energy that reduces efficiency. A voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) greater than 2:1 results in over 10% power loss due to reflections, with approximately 11% of incident power reflected back toward the transmitter in a matched line scenario.^[36] Baluns, or balanced-to-unbalanced transformers, are employed to connect balanced antenna feeds to unbalanced coaxial lines, preventing common-mode currents that degrade performance and ensuring proper impedance transformation, often targeting 50 Ω systems.^[37] Polarization affects VHF signal reception and transmission efficiency, with vertical polarization predominant in mobile communications and FM broadcasting due to its compatibility with vehicle-mounted antennas and ground-wave propagation. Horizontal polarization is favored in fixed-link and television applications for reduced attenuation over longer distances and better sky-wave performance. Mismatches, such as cross-polarization between horizontal and vertical orientations, incur losses of 20 to 30 dB, severely impacting signal strength in line-of-sight paths.^[38]^[39] Environmental factors significantly degrade VHF antenna performance, particularly through mechanical and electrical influences. Wind loading imposes dynamic stresses, causing vibrations that can misalign structures and increase pointing errors by up to several degrees in high winds, potentially reducing gain by altering radiation patterns. Icing accretions add weight and detune elements, shifting resonant frequencies and increasing SWR, which can lead to up to 30% efficiency loss in severe conditions while heightening structural failure risk. Ground plane conductivity directly impacts vertical antenna efficiency; low-conductivity soils elevate losses by 2-5 dB compared to ideal surfaces, as poor grounding dissipates energy into the earth rather than radiation.^[40]^[41]^[42]

General Applications

Broadcasting and Television

Very high frequency (VHF) has played a central role in terrestrial broadcasting since the mid-20th century, particularly for television and FM radio services that rely on its propagation characteristics for reliable coverage over moderate distances. Experimental VHF television transmissions began in the 1930s, with regular broadcasts emerging in the early 1940s in regions such as Europe and North America, where early systems used frequencies in the 40-50 MHz range for initial trials. Post-World War II, rapid commercialization followed, driven by standardized band plans that allocated VHF spectrum for fixed broadcasting infrastructure; for instance, the 1961 Stockholm Plan established coordinated frequency assignments across ITU Region 1 to support expanding television networks while minimizing cross-border interference.^[43]^[44] In analog television, VHF channels in ITU Region 1 encompass Bands I (47-68 MHz, typically channels 2-4) and III (174-230 MHz, channels 5-13), with each channel allocated a bandwidth of approximately 7-8 MHz to accommodate video and audio carriers under PAL standards prevalent in Europe and parts of Asia. These allocations supported amplitude-modulated video signals with frequency-modulated audio, enabling monochrome broadcasts initially and color transmission later, though NTSC systems in other regions like North America utilized 6 MHz channels in similar VHF ranges (54-88 MHz and 174-216 MHz). The design emphasized line-of-sight propagation, limiting coverage to roughly 50-100 km depending on terrain and transmitter height, which influenced the placement of broadcast towers for urban and suburban reception. FM radio broadcasting occupies the adjacent Band II (87.5-108 MHz), divided into 200 kHz channels worldwide, supporting high-fidelity audio through stereo multiplexing via a 19 kHz pilot tone and optional Radio Data System (RDS) for transmitting station and program information on a 57 kHz subcarrier.^[45] The transition from analog to digital broadcasting in the VHF bands began in the late 1990s and accelerated through the 2000s, with standards like DVB-T in Europe and ATSC in North America enabling spectrum reuse by packing multiple program streams into the same channel bandwidth, often 6-8 MHz, while incorporating orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) to mitigate multipath interference. This shift freed up portions of the VHF spectrum—particularly Band III (174-230 MHz)—for digital services, with guard bands of 0.5-1 MHz typically inserted between channels or adjacent services to prevent inter-carrier interference and ensure compatibility with legacy analog equipment during simulcast periods. Digital systems improved efficiency, allowing single-frequency networks for broader coverage without the co-channel restrictions of analog, though VHF's line-of-sight limitations still constrain rural deployments compared to UHF alternatives.^[46] VHF frequencies play a critical role in land mobile radio systems, enabling reliable voice and data communications for public safety and business operations. In the low VHF band of 30–50 MHz, these systems support public safety applications such as police, fire, and emergency services, offering extended range in rural areas due to better propagation characteristics compared to higher frequencies.^[47] The high VHF band from 136–174 MHz is allocated for business and industrial land mobile services, including fleet management, utilities, and transportation, where narrowband FM modulation is commonly used with channel spacings of 12.5 kHz or 25 kHz to accommodate multiple users.^[10] These allocations are governed internationally by the ITU Radio Regulations, ensuring harmonized use across regions while minimizing interference. In aviation, VHF supports essential air traffic control (ATC) and navigation functions within the band of 118–137 MHz, designated exclusively for the aeronautical mobile (route) service. This range facilitates line-of-sight voice communications between pilots and controllers, using amplitude modulation (AM) with 8.33 kHz or 25 kHz channel spacing to handle high traffic volumes at airports and en route.^[48] For navigation, the VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) system operates in the adjacent 108–118 MHz band, providing aircraft with precise bearing information through phase comparison of modulated signals; frequencies are spaced at 50 kHz intervals, with over 1,000 stations worldwide supporting instrument flight rules (IFR) procedures.^[49] These aviation applications prioritize safety and reliability, with mandatory monitoring of the 121.5 MHz emergency frequency for distress calls.^[50] Maritime communications rely on the VHF maritime mobile band of 156–162 MHz for ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore, and shore-to-ship interactions, as defined by the ITU and IMO for global interoperability. This simplex and duplex setup uses FM modulation across 88 channels, enabling short-range, line-of-sight coverage up to 20–50 nautical miles depending on antenna height.^[51] Channel 16 at 156.8 MHz serves as the international distress, safety, and calling frequency, monitored continuously by vessels and coast stations for emergency alerts and initial contacts before switching to working channels.^[52] These frequencies support critical operations like collision avoidance and search-and-rescue coordination under the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS).^[53] Digital upgrades in VHF mobile communications have transitioned from analog FM to standards like TETRA and DMR, enhancing capacity and features for voice, data, and short messaging in land, aviation, and maritime environments. TETRA, developed by ETSI, operates in allocated VHF bands such as 148–169 MHz where permitted, using time-division multiple access (TDMA) with pi/4-DQPSK modulation to support group calls and direct mode operation for public safety networks.^[54] Similarly, DMR employs two-slot TDMA with 4-level frequency-shift keying (4FSK) across VHF ranges like 136–174 MHz, allowing efficient spectrum use in business and professional mobile radio with backward compatibility to analog systems. These digital schemes improve spectral efficiency by up to 3.5 times over FM, enabling integrated services like GPS tracking and encryption while maintaining VHF's propagation advantages.^[55]

Spectrum Allocation

International Framework

The international framework for Very High Frequency (VHF) spectrum management is established by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for global telecommunications coordination. The VHF band, spanning 30–300 MHz, is classified as Band No. 8 in Article 2 of the ITU Radio Regulations. Article 5 of these regulations contains the Table of Frequency Allocations, which assigns portions of the VHF band to key services on a primary or secondary basis, including the fixed service for point-to-point communications, the mobile service (excluding aeronautical mobile in certain sub-bands) for land, maritime, and aeronautical applications, and the broadcasting service for FM radio and television transmission. These allocations are divided into three ITU regions to account for geographical differences, ensuring equitable access while protecting against harmful interference.^[56]^[57] World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC), held every three to four years under ITU auspices, review and revise the Radio Regulations to adapt to technological advancements and spectrum demands. These conferences promote global harmonization of VHF usage, such as standardizing channel arrangements for maritime mobile services in the 156–174 MHz sub-band to support safety communications. For instance, WRC-15 addressed agenda items related to VHF maritime bands, including updates to Appendix 18 for digital selective calling and harmonized channel plans to enhance global interoperability for ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship operations. Earlier conferences, like WRC-07, extended harmonization to mobile services, supporting broadband expansion while maintaining protections for incumbent users. Ongoing WRC efforts emphasize efficient spectrum sharing and interference mitigation across fixed, mobile, and broadcasting applications.^[58] Regional telecommunication organizations supplement ITU standards by developing implementation guidelines tailored to their areas. In Europe, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT), through its Electronic Communications Committee (ECC), maintains the European Common Allocation (ECA) table, which specifies harmonized sub-band plans for VHF, such as 87.5–108 MHz for broadcasting-satellite and 174–223 MHz for terrestrial broadcasting and mobile services, ensuring consistency among 48 member countries. In the Americas, the Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL), under the Organization of American States, coordinates VHF band plans via working groups, focusing on allocations like 174–216 MHz for television broadcasting and mobile to facilitate cross-border compatibility and regional frequency arrangements. These bodies align their plans with ITU allocations while addressing local needs, such as digital transition in broadcasting.^[59] Frequency coordination to avert cross-border interference is a core ITU mechanism, detailed in Articles 9 and 11 of the Radio Regulations, requiring administrations to notify and coordinate high-power or wide-coverage VHF assignments, particularly in broadcasting (e.g., 47–68 MHz) and mobile services (e.g., 148–149.9 MHz). This involves technical examinations by the ITU Radiocommunication Bureau and, where necessary, international agreements—bilateral for adjacent countries or multilateral via regional forums—to establish protection criteria and equitable sharing. Such coordination has proven essential for VHF's line-of-sight propagation characteristics, which can extend signals across borders, as seen in agreements for PMR/PAG networks in the 149–149.9 MHz band.^[56]

Regional Variations

In Europe, coordinated through the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT), the VHF spectrum features distinct allocations that prioritize broadcasting and mobile services. The band 47–68 MHz is primarily allocated to the broadcasting service for television transmission, supporting legacy analog and digital TV operations in Band I. Similarly, 87.5–108 MHz is designated for sound broadcasting, accommodating FM radio services across the region. The 137–174 MHz range is assigned to fixed and land mobile services on a primary basis, facilitating public safety, utilities, and professional mobile radio communications.^[59]^[60] In the Asia-Pacific region, VHF allocations exhibit variations stemming from historical broadcasting standards, particularly the legacy divide between OIRT and CCIR systems. Countries influenced by former Soviet alignments, such as parts of Central Asia, retain elements of the OIRT framework, which originally placed FM radio in 65–74 MHz and featured differing TV channel plans in lower VHF bands for improved propagation in expansive terrains. In contrast, many other Asia-Pacific nations adhere to CCIR standards, aligning TV bands more closely with 47–230 MHz for compatibility with international equipment and digital transitions. These differences arise from post-colonial and geopolitical broadcasting histories, though harmonization efforts under ITU Region 3 are gradually standardizing allocations.^[61]^[62] Africa and the Middle East, encompassing overlaps between ITU Regions 1 and 2, adapt VHF allocations to address diverse geographical and developmental needs, with a growing focus on mobile service expansion. In these areas, bands like 137–174 MHz support land mobile operations for emergency services and industrial applications, amid efforts to bolster connectivity in underserved regions through refarming for wider mobile broadband access. Broadcasting allocations, such as 47–68 MHz for TV, remain prominent but face pressures from digital migration and spectrum sharing.^[63]^[64]

Country-Specific Allocations

Australia

The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) is responsible for managing the radiofrequency spectrum in Australia, including VHF allocations for various services.^[65] VHF spectrum is primarily designated for broadcasting, land mobile communications, and other critical uses, with allocations outlined in the Australian Radiofrequency Spectrum Plan. For television broadcasting, ACMA allocates VHF bands from 45 MHz to 230 MHz, encompassing channels 0 through 12. Channel 0 spans 45–52 MHz, while channels 1–12 cover 57–230 MHz, supporting analog and digital terrestrial television services across metropolitan, regional, and remote areas.^[65] These allocations facilitate nationwide coverage, with VHF channels historically providing robust propagation for over-the-air signals in diverse terrains. FM radio broadcasting operates within the 87.5–108 MHz band, enabling commercial, community, and national stations to deliver high-fidelity audio services.^[66] Land mobile services utilize specific VHF segments for operational communications. The 148–174 MHz high band supports paging, business, and public safety applications, including trunked systems and direct-mode operations for industries such as mining, agriculture, and utilities.^[67] Additionally, the low VHF range around 30 MHz, particularly 30–30.5 MHz, is reserved for emergency services, providing long-range coverage essential for rural firefighting and disaster response in expansive areas.^[68] ACMA enforces technical standards to minimize interference, such as emission limits and coordination requirements under the Radiocommunications Act.^[69] VHF plays a vital role in serving indigenous and remote communities through dedicated broadcasting initiatives. Remote Indigenous Broadcasting Services (RIBS) leverage VHF FM frequencies to deliver locally produced radio content to outback regions, fostering cultural expression and information access for over 100 communities.^[70] The transition to digital television, including VHF-based services, culminated in the analog switchover completion by December 2013, enhancing signal quality and enabling multi-channel offerings while vacating spectrum for other uses.^[71] Post-2020, ACMA has pursued spectrum reallocation and auctions to optimize VHF mobile usage, particularly for land mobile enhancements amid growing demand for reliable rural connectivity. While major auctions have focused on adjacent bands like 850/900 MHz, VHF segments continue to be reviewed for efficiency, with interference mitigation rules ensuring coexistence among services.^[72]

New Zealand

In New Zealand, the Radio Spectrum Management (RSM), part of the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, oversees VHF spectrum allocations, including the band from 44 to 230 MHz designated for television broadcasting across channels A through E.^[73] This allocation supports traditional analogue and transitional digital services, ensuring compatibility with regional transmission needs in a geographically diverse country.^[74] Similarly, the 87 to 108 MHz band is allocated for FM sound broadcasting, enabling nationwide radio coverage through licensed stations operating on 200 kHz channel spacing.^[73] The 156 to 162 MHz portion of the VHF band is reserved for maritime mobile services, facilitating essential communications for safety and navigation around New Zealand's extensive coastline and islands.^[73] These frequencies support simplex and duplex operations on international channels, such as Channel 16 at 156.8 MHz for distress and calling, in alignment with International Maritime Organization (IMO) standards under the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS).^[75] Aviation services also utilize adjacent VHF allocations for air-ground communications, though primary maritime use dominates this range.^[74] New Zealand's transition to digital terrestrial television began with the launch of Freeview using the DVB-T standard in April 2008, employing a hybrid of VHF and UHF spectrum to deliver free-to-air services amid the phase-out of analogue broadcasting completed in December 2013.^[76] This hybrid approach allowed for multiplexed channels in major centers, improving efficiency and enabling high-definition content while legacy VHF bands supported interim coverage in remote areas.^[77] Recent spectrum management efforts by RSM have included reallocations to support 5G deployment, with the 410 to 430 MHz band—primarily allocated to fixed and land mobile services—under review for expanded mobile broadband uses at its edges to accommodate emerging technologies.^[73] These updates, initiated around 2023, align with broader 5G initiatives without disrupting established VHF operations.^[78] Mobile navigation applications in VHF continue to benefit from these maritime allocations for coastal and inland waterway safety.^[75]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the Office of Communications (Ofcom) manages VHF spectrum allocations as outlined in the United Kingdom Frequency Allocation Table (UKFAT), which aligns with international standards from the International Telecommunication Union while incorporating domestic provisions post-Brexit to allow greater flexibility in spectrum use independent of European Union harmonization requirements.^[79]^[80] VHF bands (30–300 MHz) support a range of services, including legacy broadcasting, mobile communications, and emergency systems, with ongoing shifts toward digital technologies reflecting efficiency and coverage goals. Television broadcasting in the VHF range historically utilized Bands I and III (47–68 MHz and 174–230 MHz, corresponding to groups A and B), but following the completion of digital switchover by 2012, analogue VHF transmissions were fully phased out in favor of digital terrestrial television (DVB-T2) primarily on UHF bands above 470 MHz.^[81] This transition, mandated under the Digital Switchover (DSO) program, repurposed much of the VHF spectrum for other uses, though residual allocations in 47–68 MHz remain designated for fixed and mobile services with limited broadcasting potential.^[82] FM radio broadcasting occupies the 87.5–108 MHz band, supporting national and local stations such as BBC Radio and commercial services, with frequencies assigned to avoid interference based on Ofcom's planning guidelines.^[81] Debates on transitioning to Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) continue, as the 2021 Digital Radio and Audio Review concluded that FM services remain essential until at least 2030 due to listener reliance and equipment prevalence, though small-scale DAB multiplexes are expanding to complement FM coverage. Land mobile services, including Private Mobile Radio (PMR), utilize the 137–174 MHz band for professional and business communications, with narrowband allocations supporting voice and data applications.^[81] Amateur radio allocations in VHF, such as 144–146 MHz, have been preserved for full and foundation licensees, supporting experimental and communication activities without reduction.^[83]

United States and Canada

In the United States and Canada, VHF spectrum for television broadcasting is allocated to channels 2 through 13, spanning 54–216 MHz, with low-VHF (channels 2–6, 54–88 MHz) and high-VHF (channels 7–13, 174–216 MHz) segments supporting both full-power and low-power television (LPTV) stations.^[84]^[85] This allocation retains LPTV operations on VHF to serve rural and underserved areas, even as digital transitions progress. The ATSC 3.0 standard, enabling advanced features like 4K video and interactive services, is deployed on VHF channels in both countries, with experimental and commercial operations confirmed on low-VHF bands to improve signal robustness in challenging terrains.^[86]^[87] The FM radio broadcasting band operates from 88–108 MHz in both nations, divided into 200 kHz channels to accommodate commercial and non-commercial stations. To prevent interference from television channel 6 audio carriers at approximately 87.75 MHz, the sub-band 87.5–87.9 MHz is reserved for television use rather than FM broadcasting, ensuring clear separation between services.^[88]^[89] Public safety communications utilize VHF high-band frequencies, with the United States allocating 138–174 MHz for land mobile radio (LMR) systems including police, fire, and emergency services under FCC rules. In Canada, the corresponding band is 148–174 MHz managed by Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada (ISED), with 148–152 MHz specifically designated for public safety base and mobile operations. Both countries adopt the APCO Project 25 (P25) digital standard for VHF public safety radios, promoting interoperability across agencies and borders through phase 1 and phase 2 trunking capabilities.^[84]^[90]^[91] As of 2025, the FCC has expanded access for wireless microphones in unused VHF television spectrum, permitting unlicensed low-power operations across TV channels 2–13 to support broadcast and event production without disrupting primary TV services; this follows 2024 rulemaking and affects approximately 3–4 channels in select markets for enhanced coordination. Border spectrum management is governed by the U.S.-Canada General Coordination Agreement, updated through technical annexes to harmonize VHF assignments and minimize cross-border interference, particularly for television and public safety uses.^[92]^[93]

Unlicensed Operations

Low-Power Device Rules

In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates unlicensed low-power devices operating in VHF bands under Part 15 of Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations, which establishes strict limits to prevent interference with licensed services. For cordless telephones, operations are permitted in specific sub-bands within 40-50 MHz, including 43.71-44.49 MHz, 46.60-46.98 MHz, 48.75-49.51 MHz, and 49.66-50.0 MHz, with field strength limits of 80 dBμV/m at 3 meters for the fundamental emission and reduced levels for harmonics to ensure minimal interference. Additionally, wireless microphones are allowed unlicensed operation in the 72-76 MHz band under section 15.236, with a maximum effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of 50 mW to accommodate short-range audio applications while protecting television broadcasting services. In Europe, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standard EN 300 220 governs short-range devices (SRDs) in VHF frequencies, including the narrow allocation of 169.4-169.8 MHz designated for low-power applications such as assistive listening devices and telemetry. Devices in this band are limited to a maximum effective radiated power (ERP) of 10 mW, with requirements for non-specific SRDs to comply with out-of-band emission masks and receiver blocking tests to mitigate interference in adjacent licensed spectrum.^[94] The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) provides global guidelines for Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands within VHF, notably the 40.66-40.70 MHz allocation centered at 40.68 MHz, which supports unlicensed wireless technologies like remote controls and sensors under shared-use conditions. ITU Recommendation SM.1056 specifies radiation limits for ISM equipment, such as field strengths of 60-120 dBμV/m at 30 meters, to balance ISM operations with primary radiocommunication services, often referencing CISPR 11 for measurement methods.^[95] Certification for these low-power VHF devices universally requires electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing to verify compliance with emission and immunity standards, ensuring devices do not disrupt other spectrum users. Under FCC Part 15, unintentional emissions must meet section 15.109 limits, while intentional radiators undergo radiated and conducted tests; in Europe, ETSI EN 301 489 series mandates immunity levels like electrostatic discharge up to 4 kV and radiated immunity at 3 V/m. Duty cycle restrictions further minimize interference, with FCC section 15.231 allowing up to 20 dB correction for emissions if the duty cycle is below 10% in bands like 40.66-40.70 MHz, and EN 300 220 imposing limits such as 1% or 10% average occupancy in certain SRD allocations to reduce average power exposure.

Common Unlicensed VHF Uses

One prominent unlicensed application in the VHF band is wireless microphones, which operate in the 174–216 MHz range corresponding to VHF television channels 7–13 in the United States, allowing portable use during events such as concerts and broadcasts where users select locally unused frequencies for interference avoidance.^[92] These devices employ frequency agility, enabling automatic scanning and switching to clear channels to maintain reliable audio transmission in dynamic environments.^[96] Remote control toys and models commonly utilize unlicensed frequencies in the 72–76 MHz range for hobbyist operation of consumer RC vehicles, boats, and aircraft. Similarly, garage door openers historically operate at around 40 MHz within the 40.66–40.70 MHz ISM band, providing short-range signaling for residential access control without requiring licensing.^[97] In healthcare settings, unlicensed VHF medical telemetry devices transmit patient vital signs for monitoring, often using the 174 MHz band to relay data from wearable sensors to central receivers, supporting mobility in hospitals.^[98] These systems operate under Part 15 rules, ensuring compatibility with shared spectrum while prioritizing patient safety.^[99] To mitigate interference in these crowded VHF segments, modern unlicensed devices incorporate techniques such as frequency hopping, where transmitters rapidly switch across available channels, or listen-before-talk protocols that sense the spectrum before transmitting to avoid collisions.^[100] These methods enhance reliability for short-range applications, leveraging VHF's line-of-sight propagation limits.

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### Summary of ISM Bands in VHF (40.66-40.70 MHz) and Guidelines for Low Power Devices
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