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Universal value

Universal values refer to motivational goals or ethical principles that empirical research identifies as recognized and prioritized similarly across human cultures, reflecting shared human needs and adaptive requirements.^[1] These values are distinguished from culturally specific norms by their consistent appearance in surveys spanning over 80 countries, indicating psychological universals rather than mere social constructs.^[2] The most comprehensive empirical framework for universal values is Shalom H. Schwartz's theory of basic human values, which posits ten broad categories organized in a circular structure based on motivational conflicts and compatibilities: power and achievement (self-enhancement), hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction (openness to change), universalism and benevolence (self-transcendence), and tradition, conformity, and security (conservation).^[1]^[3] This structure emerges from data showing that values like benevolence (concern for close others) and universalism (concern for all) oppose self-enhancement values, while conservation values oppose openness to change, a pattern replicated cross-culturally and linked to biological imperatives for individual and group survival.^[4] Evolutionary perspectives reinforce this by attributing such values to natural selection pressures favoring cooperation, reciprocity, and kin protection, which enhance fitness in social species like humans.^[5] Despite robust empirical support, universal values remain debated, with critics emphasizing cultural variations in value expression or hierarchy, though these differences typically occur within the shared framework rather than negating its existence.^[6] Applications of these insights inform fields like international policy, where recognizing common values aids conflict resolution, and psychology, where value congruence predicts individual well-being and societal stability.^[7]

Definition and Foundations

Core Definition and Scope

Universal values are ethical principles or standards of worth that apply equally to all human beings, independent of cultural, temporal, geographical, or individual variations. This conception posits that certain norms, such as the intrinsic value of human life or prohibitions against gratuitous harm, possess objective validity rather than being mere social constructs. Moral universalism, the meta-ethical framework supporting this view, asserts the existence of a coherent ethical system binding on everyone, grounded in shared human nature or rational requirements rather than contingent agreements.^[8]^[9] The scope of universal values extends beyond abstract philosophy to encompass motivations that guide human behavior across diverse societies, as evidenced by cross-cultural psychological research. Shalom Schwartz's theory of basic human values, derived from surveys of over 25,000 individuals in more than 40 countries since the 1990s and validated in subsequent studies across 80+ nations, identifies ten motivationally distinct values—power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security—arranged in a circular structure reflecting compatibilities and conflicts. These values prioritize either openness to change versus conservation, or self-enhancement versus self-transcendence, demonstrating a universal motivational framework despite priority differences among individuals.^[10]^[3] Empirically, universal values manifest in recurrent themes like reciprocity, fairness, and aversion to suffering, observable in anthropological data from hunter-gatherer societies to modern states, suggesting evolutionary roots in cooperative survival rather than imposed ideologies. Philosophically, their scope is delimited by debates over derivation—whether from reason, as in Kant's categorical imperative requiring maxims universalizable without contradiction, or from empirical universals like those in Schwartz's model—while excluding purely subjective preferences such as aesthetic tastes unless they align with broader human flourishing. Claims of universality must be tested against factual commitments across cultures, distinguishing them from aspirational ideals lacking cross-societal adherence.^[11]^[12]

Distinction from Relative Values

Universal values are ethical or normative principles deemed applicable to all human beings irrespective of cultural, historical, or individual contexts, whereas relative values are those whose validity or applicability depends on specific societal norms, personal circumstances, or subjective standpoints.^[13]^[8] This distinction underpins the debate between moral universalism and moral relativism, where universalism asserts the existence of objective standards—such as prohibitions against intentional harm to innocents or the intrinsic value of truth-telling—that transcend particular frameworks, while relativism maintains that moral truths are indexed to particular viewpoints, rendering judgments like "torture is wrong" true only within the adopting culture or individual.^[14]^[15] Philosophically, universal values derive from first-principles reasoning about human nature or rational agency, as in Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative, which demands maxims that could consistently apply as universal laws, independent of contingent desires or traditions.^[16] In contrast, relative values arise from descriptive accounts of variability, such as cultural practices where honor killings might be valorized in one society as upholding family purity but condemned in another as unjust violence, with relativism denying any external arbiter to adjudicate between them.^[8] This relativity can extend to individual subjectivism, where personal utility or preference determines value, as opposed to universal claims grounded in shared human capacities like reciprocity or empathy, evidenced in cross-species analogs but argued to bind all moral agents.^[14] The distinction carries implications for ethical evaluation: universal values enable cross-cultural critique, permitting condemnation of practices like female genital mutilation regardless of local acceptance, on grounds of inherent harm to autonomy and well-being.^[13] Relative values, however, prioritize contextual tolerance, potentially precluding such judgments and risking the endorsement of divergent norms without resolution, as seen in anthropological observations of varying kinship taboos that relativists treat as equally valid within their origins.^[17] Critics of relativism, drawing from evolutionary biology, note that core aversions to betrayal or incest appear near-universally due to adaptive pressures, suggesting not all values relativize equally, whereas proponents counter that apparent universals mask deeper cultural modulations in their expression.^[13]^[14]

Historical Evolution

Ancient and Pre-Modern Views

In ancient Greek philosophy, Aristotle articulated a conception of natural justice as a universal principle inherent to human nature, distinct from conventional laws that vary by society. In the Nicomachean Ethics (c. 350 BCE), he defined universal justice as complete virtue directed toward others, while natural justice possesses "the same power everywhere" and is recognized intuitively across cultures, independent of positive law.^[18]^[19] This framework grounded ethical universality in teleological human flourishing (eudaimonia), where virtues like courage and temperance enable rational activity common to all.^[18] Hellenistic Stoicism extended these ideas into a cosmopolitan ethic, positing that all humans participate in a shared logos—divine rational order—forming a single cosmopolis transcending city-states or nations. Originating with Zeno of Citium (c. 300 BCE) and developed by thinkers like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, this view held that ethical duties, such as justice and self-control, apply universally as rational imperatives binding on every person as a "citizen of the world."^[20]^[19] In Eastern traditions, ancient Indian philosophy framed dharma as the eternal cosmic order and universal moral law upholding societal and natural harmony, obligatory for all beings regardless of varna (social class) or context. Vedic texts (c. 1500–500 BCE) and later Upanishads described dharma as encompassing virtues like truth (satya) and non-violence (ahimsa), discernible through reason and revelation as principles sustaining existence.^[21]^[22] Confucianism, emerging around 500 BCE, similarly identified five constant virtues—ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), li (propriety), zhi (wisdom), and xin (integrity)—as innate to human nature and essential for universal ethical order, applicable beyond kin or state to foster relational harmony.^[23] Pre-modern Abrahamic thought integrated philosophical universality with divine command. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE), in the Summa Theologica, synthesized Aristotelian natural law with Christian theology, arguing that universal moral precepts—such as preserving life and pursuing truth—are promulgated by God through reason, accessible to all humans as participation in eternal divine law.^[24]^[25] Islamic jurisprudence, rooted in the Qur'an (c. 610–632 CE), presented moral values like justice (adl), compassion (rahma), and truthfulness as universal obligations derived from Allah's will, extending to non-Muslims and grounded in fitrah (innate human disposition toward good).^[26]^[27]

Enlightenment to 20th Century Developments

During the Enlightenment, philosophers shifted emphasis from divine command to rational foundations for universal values, positing natural rights inherent to all humans by virtue of reason and nature. John Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government published in 1689, argued that individuals possess inalienable rights to life, liberty, and property, derived from natural law accessible through reason, independent of governmental or cultural authority.^[28] ^[29] These ideas influenced documents like the American Declaration of Independence in 1776, which affirmed that governments derive powers from the consent of the governed to secure these universal rights.^[30] Thinkers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu extended this to universal principles of tolerance and separation of powers, viewing them as rational necessities for human flourishing across societies.^[31] Immanuel Kant advanced a deontological framework for universal morality in his Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), introducing the categorical imperative as a test for moral actions: one should act only according to maxims that could be willed as universal laws applicable to all rational beings.^[16] This principle rejected consequentialism and cultural relativism, grounding ethics in the autonomy of the rational will and the innate dignity of persons, which Kant deemed universally binding regardless of empirical variations.^[32] Kant's formulation emphasized duty over inclination, positing a moral law derived a priori from reason, influencing subsequent conceptions of universal human rights as non-derogable obligations.^[16] In the 19th century, utilitarianism provided a consequentialist basis for universal values, with Jeremy Bentham's An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) proposing the principle of utility: actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number, calculated impartially across all affected parties.^[33] John Stuart Mill refined this in Utilitarianism (1861), incorporating higher intellectual pleasures while maintaining its universal applicability as a standard for legislation and ethics, applicable to diverse societies through empirical assessment of welfare.^[34] These developments integrated Enlightenment rationalism with quantitative evaluation, influencing reforms in law, economics, and governance by prioritizing aggregate human well-being as a cross-cultural metric.^[33] The 20th century saw institutionalization of universal values through international frameworks, culminating in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) adopted on December 10, 1948, which enumerated 30 articles affirming inherent dignity and equal rights for all humans, including life, liberty, and security, as foundational to peace and justice.^[35] Drafted amid post-World War II reflections on atrocities, the UDHR drew from Enlightenment natural rights and Kantian dignity, asserting these as universal norms transcending national boundaries, though debates persisted over enforcement and cultural variances.^[36] Philosophers like John Rawls in A Theory of Justice (1971) further theorized universal principles of justice via the "original position," a hypothetical veil of ignorance ensuring impartiality, reinforcing rational consensus on distributive equity.^[37] This era marked a transition from abstract philosophy to global advocacy, despite critiques from anthropological relativism emphasizing cultural specificity.^[36]

Philosophical Arguments

Arguments for Universality

Immanuel Kant's deontological framework posits that moral principles derive from pure practical reason, which is universal among rational agents. The categorical imperative requires acting only according to maxims that can be willed as universal laws, ensuring consistency and autonomy without contradiction; for instance, lying cannot be universalized without undermining trust essential to rational communication. This formulation implies objective duties binding all rational beings, independent of empirical inclinations or cultural variances, as reason itself demands universality to avoid self-defeating maxims.^[16] Kant further argues that respecting humanity as an end in itself—treating persons as rational ends rather than means—follows from this imperative, establishing a foundational respect inherent to rational nature.^[32] Aristotle's virtue ethics grounds universality in human teleology, asserting that all humans share a natural function (ergon) as rational, social animals aimed at eudaimonia, or flourishing through virtuous activity. Virtues such as courage, justice, and temperance are not arbitrary but objectively required to realize this end, as deviations lead to dysfunction akin to a defective eye failing sight; empirical observation of human capacities confirms these as cross-applicable excellences.^[38] In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle identifies practical wisdom (phronesis) as guiding virtues toward the mean, universally applicable because human nature's rational essence demands balanced habits for the good life, transcending particular conventions.^[39] Moral realists defend universality by positing stance-independent moral facts, analogous to mathematical truths, which provide objective grounds for cross-cultural critique; relativism fails to explain why acts like gratuitous torture evoke universal condemnation as erroneous, not merely divergent.^[40] This view counters relativist appeals to custom by arguing that moral truths, like non-natural properties, hold irrespective of belief or sentiment, enabling accountability—e.g., deeming genocide wrong demands universal standards, not tolerance of perpetrator norms.^[41] Philosophers such as Russ Shafer-Landau emphasize that moral realism accommodates disagreement as error-tracking, preserving progress toward truth without reducing ethics to subjective preference.^[42] These arguments converge on reason and human essence as anchors, rejecting relativism's incoherence in genuine moral dispute; if values were purely local, intra-cultural reform (e.g., abolition of slavery) lacks rational basis, yet history shows such shifts via appeals to inherent dignity.^[43]

Objections and Responses

One prominent objection to the existence of universal values is cultural relativism, which asserts that moral evaluations are valid only within their specific cultural context, rendering cross-cultural judgments incoherent or imperialistic. Proponents argue that profound differences in practices—such as varying attitudes toward honor killings, infanticide, or property rights across societies—demonstrate that no single set of values applies universally, as evidenced by ethnographic studies of diverse societies from ancient Mesopotamia to modern tribal groups.^[44] This view, advanced by anthropologists like Ruth Benedict in Patterns of Culture (1934), posits that what is deemed virtuous in one society may be vicious in another, undermining claims to objective universality.^[44] A related critique is metaethical subjectivism or emotivism, which holds that value statements express personal attitudes or emotions rather than objective facts, as argued by A.J. Ayer in Language, Truth and Logic (1936), where ethical utterances are reduced to non-cognitive exclamations like "Boo to cruelty!" without truth-apt content.^[45] Critics of universalism further contend that any proposed universals, such as prohibitions against gratuitous harm, fail under scrutiny due to counterexamples like ritual sacrifice or wartime atrocities justified within their frameworks, suggesting values emerge from evolutionary adaptations or social constructs rather than timeless truths.^[12] Responses to these objections emphasize that descriptive variation in moral practices does not entail metaethical relativism, as disagreements presuppose a shared evaluative framework; for instance, even divergent cultures appeal to notions of fairness or reciprocity in justifying their norms, implying latent universals grounded in human reason or nature.^[44] Philosophers like James Rachels counter cultural relativism by noting its logical inconsistencies, such as inability to condemn practices like genocide if culturally endorsed, and highlight near-universal judgments that life is preferable to death or knowledge to ignorance across societies, as documented in comparative ethics.^[46] Regarding subjectivism, moral realists argue that the normative force of values—evident in self-transcendent obligations like justice demands—cannot be dismissed as mere sentiment, paralleling objective domains like mathematics where intuitions yield binding truths despite cultural variances in application.^[46] These defenses maintain that universal values derive from rational principles applicable to all agents, as in Kant's categorical imperative, which tests maxims for universalizability without cultural qualification.^[16]

Empirical Evidence

Psychological Frameworks

Shalom H. Schwartz's theory of basic human values posits that individuals in all societies recognize ten motivationally distinct values, derived from three universal human requirements: biological needs for survival, social coordination for interaction, and group welfare for collective functioning.^[47] These values—self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, achievement, power, security, conformity, tradition, benevolence, and universalism—form a circular structure reflecting compatibilities and conflicts, with openness to change opposing conservation and self-enhancement opposing self-transcendence.^[1] Empirical validation draws from the Schwartz Value Survey administered to over 25,000 participants across 82 countries, demonstrating consistent recognition and prioritization patterns despite cultural variations in mean endorsements.^[47] Longitudinal and methodological studies further confirm the theory's discriminant validity, reliability, and structural stability, attributing universality to evolved human necessities rather than cultural invention.^[2] Moral Foundations Theory, developed by Jonathan Haidt and colleagues, identifies six innate psychological systems—care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, sanctity/degradation, and liberty/oppression—as evolved foundations for moral judgments, present across cultures though with differing emphases.^[48] These foundations arise from adaptive pressures in ancestral environments, such as pathogen avoidance (sanctity) and reciprocal altruism (fairness), and are measured via the Moral Foundations Questionnaire, which has been tested in diverse populations showing broad endorsement of all foundations, albeit with liberals prioritizing care and fairness while conservatives value all more equally.^[48] Cross-cultural extensions, including data from over 100,000 respondents worldwide, support the theory's claim of universal intuitive moral modules, challenging pure relativism by linking values to shared human evolutionary history.^[49] Both frameworks converge on evolutionary psychology's causal account, wherein universal values stem from selection for traits enhancing fitness, such as kin protection (benevolence or care) and status hierarchies (power or authority), evidenced by convergent findings across philosophical traditions and modern surveys identifying core virtues like justice and humanity as transculturally valued.^[50] These psychological models provide empirical tools for assessing value universality, revealing that while expressions vary, underlying motivations reflect invariant human biology and social imperatives.^[4]

Cross-Cultural and Anthropological Data

Anthropological research has identified numerous behavioral and social patterns present across diverse human societies, suggesting underlying universal values despite cultural variations. Donald E. Brown's 1991 compilation of human universals, drawn from ethnographic accounts and cross-cultural surveys, includes over 300 traits such as prohibitions against murder and incest, reciprocity in social exchanges, concepts of justice and fairness, and moral emotions like shame and guilt. These universals are observed in tribal, ancient, and modern societies, indicating shared human predispositions rather than arbitrary cultural inventions.^[51] Empirical studies using large-scale databases like the Human Relations Area Files (eHRAF) provide quantitative support for moral universals. A 2019 analysis across 60 societies found near-universal endorsement of seven cooperative behaviors as morally valued: helping kin, aiding one's group, reciprocity, bravery, deference to superiors, fair resource division, and respect for property rights. Extending this, a 2024 machine-learning assessment of ethnographic texts from 256 societies confirmed the prevalence of these morality-as-cooperation values in the majority of cases, with family values and reciprocity appearing most consistently across regions.^[52] Such findings counter strong cultural relativism by demonstrating statistical regularities in moral judgments, attributable to adaptive pressures in social cooperation. Cross-cultural psychological research complements anthropological data. Shalom Schwartz's theory of basic human values, tested in over 80 countries via surveys of more than 25,000 participants, identifies ten motivationally distinct values—such as benevolence (concern for close others), universalism (welfare of all), and security (safety and stability)—that form a circular structure recognized universally, with similar priorities across individualistic and collectivistic cultures.^[3] Refinements to the theory, incorporating additional values like humility and personal authenticity, have been validated in diverse samples, including indigenous and non-Western groups, underscoring their robustness beyond Western biases.^[53] These values derive from universal human needs for survival, social coordination, and self-expression, empirically prioritized similarly despite surface-level differences in expression.^[1] While anthropological traditions have emphasized cultural specificity, often influenced by ideological commitments to relativism, the accumulation of ethnographic codings and survey data reveals that values promoting kin protection, mutual aid, and equitable treatment are empirically recurrent, likely evolved for group cohesion and fitness.^[51] Exceptions exist in extreme isolates or atypical conditions, but they do not negate the broad pattern; instead, they highlight universals' resilience amid variation.^[52]

Sociological and Cultural Dimensions

Universals Amid Cultural Variation

Cross-cultural research reveals persistent universals in human values despite diverse societal norms and practices. Anthropologist Donald E. Brown's compilation of over 300 human universals, derived from ethnographic data across societies, includes moral elements such as distinguishing right from wrong, concepts of justice, and prohibitions against certain harms like murder within the in-group and incest between primary kin.^[54] These features appear without known exceptions, suggesting innate or deeply rooted cognitive and behavioral patterns shaped by evolutionary pressures rather than arbitrary cultural invention.^[55] Empirical surveys further substantiate value universals. Shalom Schwartz's theory, tested in over 80 countries involving more than 25,000 participants, identifies ten motivationally distinct basic values—power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security—that individuals across cultures recognize and rank in a circular structure reflecting compatibility and conflict.^[3] This structure holds consistently, with empirical support from multidimensional scaling analyses showing near-universal prioritization patterns, though mean endorsements vary by cultural context such as individualism versus collectivism.^[4]^[56] In moral domains, a 2019 study by Oliver Scott Curry and colleagues analyzed ethnographic accounts from 60 societies spanning six world regions and found seven universal moral rules: actively helping family, aiding the local community, reciprocating favors, being fair in resource division, respecting others' property, practicing bravery in defense of the group, and deferring to superiors.^[57] These rules, identified through coding of behaviors deemed morally valenced, transcend foraging, agrarian, and pastoralist economies, indicating cooperative imperatives central to human sociality amid varying taboos and rituals.^[57] Jonathan Haidt's Moral Foundations Theory posits six innate foundations—care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, sanctity/degradation, and liberty/oppression—that underpin moral intuitions universally, but with differential emphasis explaining cultural and ideological divides.^[58] Cross-cultural validations, including a 2023 mega-study across 25 populations, confirm the foundations' presence and predictive power for judgments, though Western educated samples overemphasize care and fairness relative to binding foundations like loyalty in collectivist societies.^[59] Such variations highlight expressive differences rather than absences, aligning with causal mechanisms from kin selection and reciprocal altruism that favor these concerns for survival and coordination.^[60] These findings counter strict cultural relativism by demonstrating empirical regularities grounded in human biology and ecology, while accounting for adaptive modulations in value expression. For instance, while individualistic cultures prioritize self-direction and stimulation, collectivist ones emphasize conformity and tradition, yet both uphold benevolence toward close others as a core priority.^[3] Methodological critiques, such as overreliance on self-reports or underrepresentation of non-WEIRD populations, have been addressed in expanded datasets, reinforcing the robustness of identified universals.^[60]

Critiques of Cultural Relativism

Critiques of cultural relativism highlight its logical inconsistencies and failure to align with empirical observations of human behavior. Philosopher James Rachels argues that the foundational "cultural differences argument"—which infers from observed moral variations across societies that no universal moral truths exist—is invalid, as factual disagreement does not logically preclude objective standards, akin to how scientific disputes do not negate truth in physics.^[61] This critique underscores that relativism conflates descriptive facts about customs with normative conclusions about morality's relativity.^[62] A further objection is relativism's implication of moral stasis, denying the concept of progress within societies; for instance, Rachels points out that reforms against practices like suttee in India or slavery in the West would be impossible to justify under relativism, as they challenge prevailing cultural norms without an external standard.^[61] Relativism also encounters self-contradiction: its assertion that all moral claims are culture-bound is itself presented as a universal truth, applicable beyond cultural boundaries, thus undermining its own premise.^[63] Moreover, intra-cultural moral disputes—evident in historical debates over issues like capital punishment—reveal that relativism cannot even consistently explain variations within a single society.^[62] Empirical challenges arise from cross-cultural data documenting human universals that transcend relativist expectations. Anthropologist Donald E. Brown compiles evidence of over 60 universals, including in-group prohibitions on unprovoked killing, norms of reciprocity, facial expressions of emotion, and distinctions between right and wrong, attested in ethnographic records from hunter-gatherer bands to complex states without known exceptions.^[51] These patterns suggest innate psychological and biological constraints on behavior, rooted in evolutionary adaptations rather than arbitrary cultural invention, as Brown's analysis draws from diverse societies like the Andaman Islanders and Inuit to demonstrate consistency in moral intuitions such as empathy and fairness.^[64] Such findings imply that while surface customs vary, core values reflect shared human nature, rendering extreme relativism empirically untenable.^[51]

Implications and Applications

In Ethics and Human Rights

Universal values form the cornerstone of ethical frameworks that posit certain rights as inherent to human nature, transcending cultural, temporal, or political boundaries. Philosophers drawing from natural law traditions, such as those articulated during the Enlightenment, argue that humans possess intrinsic dignity and capacities—reason, autonomy, and the pursuit of flourishing—that ground universal entitlements like life, liberty, and security.^[65] These foundations emphasize moral claims derivable from first principles of human agency and vulnerability, rather than contingent social constructs, enabling ethical judgments applicable across societies.^[66] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, exemplifies this application by affirming that "all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights," deriving from their "endowed reason and conscience."^[35] Influenced by a UNESCO-led inquiry into philosophical convergences across civilizations, the UDHR integrates diverse traditions—Western natural rights, Confucian harmony, and Islamic justice—into 30 articles covering civil, political, economic, and social protections, ratified or referenced in over 500 languages and influencing subsequent covenants like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966).^[67] Empirical cross-cultural surveys, such as Shalom Schwartz's theory of basic human values tested in over 80 countries, reveal near-universal prioritization of values like benevolence (care for others), universalism (concern for all humanity), and security, supporting the UDHR's core tenets through observed motivational consistencies rather than imposed ideals.^[47] In practice, these universal values guide human rights advocacy and enforcement, as seen in international tribunals addressing atrocities—e.g., the International Criminal Court's prosecutions for genocide and crimes against humanity since 2002, predicated on non-derogable prohibitions against extermination irrespective of local norms. Ethical theories grounded in such values counter relativist challenges by highlighting causal links between their violation and measurable harms, including societal instability and reduced cooperation, evidenced in longitudinal studies of post-conflict regions where adherence to universal protections correlates with lower recidivism rates and higher development indices.^[4] While implementation faces resistance in authoritarian regimes—e.g., documented suppressions in China and Iran—proponents maintain that universality stems from empirical human universals like reciprocity and harm aversion, validated in anthropological data spanning hunter-gatherer societies to modern states.^[56]

Evolutionary and Biological Underpinnings

Evolutionary theories posit that universal values such as altruism, reciprocity, and fairness emerged through natural selection to promote survival and reproduction in social ancestral environments. Kin selection, introduced by W.D. Hamilton in 1964, explains prosocial behaviors toward relatives via inclusive fitness, where the genetic benefit to kin (weighted by relatedness coefficient r) exceeds the actor's cost (rB > C), forming the basis for widespread values like familial protection and loyalty.^[68] This mechanism accounts for observed universals in human and primate behavior, where aiding close kin enhances gene propagation without requiring direct reciprocity.^[69] Reciprocal altruism, theorized by Robert L. Trivers in 1971, extends cooperation beyond kin by favoring repeated interactions where initial costly aid is repaid, often enforced through memory of past exchanges, reputation, and punishment of defectors—traits evident in cross-species cooperation and human moral systems emphasizing fairness and cheating aversion.^[70] These dynamics likely stabilized in small-group hunter-gatherer bands, where mutual aid improved foraging success and defense against threats, yielding near-universal norms against free-riding and for equitable resource sharing.^[71] Genetic evidence supports an inherited component to moral values, with twin studies demonstrating heritability estimates of 30-50% for traits like moral foundations (e.g., harm avoidance and fairness sensitivity). A 2022 analysis of over 2,000 twins using multivariate models found common genetic pathways underlying these foundations, distinct from environmental influences, indicating evolved predispositions rather than purely cultural constructs.^[72] Similarly, a 2013 study of Swedish twins linked genetic variation to perceptions of dishonesty acceptability, with heritability explaining up to 40% of variance in moral thresholds for everyday infractions.^[73] Neurobiological findings reveal specialized brain regions underpinning moral cognition, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex for emotional valuation of harms and the temporoparietal junction for fairness judgments, activated consistently across individuals during ethical dilemmas.^[74] Functional MRI studies confirm these circuits respond to moral violations in ways predictive of universal intuitions, such as stronger aversion to intentional harm than accidental, suggesting hardwired adaptations shaped by evolutionary pressures for social cohesion.^[75] While cultural overlays modulate expression, the conserved neural architecture implies a biological substrate for core values, resilient to variation.^[76]

Contemporary Debates

Recent Philosophical Revivals

In the early 21st century, analytic philosophers have advanced defenses of moral realism, positing objective universal values independent of cultural or individual preferences, countering pervasive relativism in postmodern thought. Russ Shafer-Landau's ongoing work, building on his 2003 treatise, emphasizes robust moral facts grounded in non-natural properties, arguing that moral disagreement does not undermine universality but reflects errors in judgment akin to scientific disputes. Similarly, David Enoch's 2011 analysis contends that moral commitments are indispensable for rational agency, implying universal norms like prohibitions on gratuitous harm that transcend subjective attitudes. These arguments revive Enlightenment-era rationalism by integrating evolutionary psychology and game theory to explain why universal values, such as reciprocity and harm avoidance, persist across societies despite surface variations. Markus Gabriel's 2022 publication explicitly frames a philosophical revival of universal values as essential for addressing contemporary crises, drawing on Kantian principles to assert objective moral progress through reason rather than cultural consensus.^[77] Gabriel critiques identity-based relativism for eroding shared norms like individual dignity and rule of law, proposing instead that universal ethical facts—evident in cross-cultural condemnations of atrocities—enable moral advancement amid global instability.^[78] This approach aligns with empirical findings from large-scale surveys, such as the 2022 Global Universalism Survey, which document widespread endorsement of impartial moral reasoning, correlating with support for egalitarian policies yet challenging purely constructivist views.^[79] Such revivals extend to interdisciplinary efforts, where philosophers like Gabriel integrate historical analysis showing an expansion of moral concern post-Enlightenment, driven by rational argumentation over religious or parochial bases.^[80] Critics within academia often dismiss these as overly Western-centric, but proponents counter that universalism's causal efficacy—evident in the global adoption of human rights frameworks despite opposition—demonstrates its non-arbitrary foundation in human cognitive architecture.^[81] This resurgence underscores a shift from skepticism toward pragmatic realism, prioritizing verifiable moral convergence over ideological fragmentation.

Policy and Global Challenges

Universal values inform key international policy frameworks, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, which articulates fundamental rights applicable to all humans irrespective of cultural or national boundaries.^[82] These values, encompassing dignity, equality, and freedom from arbitrary interference, underpin global governance efforts aimed at fostering peace and social progress, as emphasized in UN addresses highlighting shared human characteristics.^[83] However, their application encounters resistance from state sovereignty doctrines, where nations prioritize domestic autonomy over external impositions perceived as hegemonic.^[84] Enforcement mechanisms, such as the UN Human Rights Council established in 2006 and the International Criminal Court (ICC) operational since 2002, face structural limitations including Security Council vetoes and selective ratification by states.^[85] The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine, endorsed at the 2005 World Summit, seeks to address mass atrocities but has been critiqued for inconsistent application, as seen in the 2011 Libya intervention authorized by UN Resolution 1973, which exceeded mandate in regime change efforts, eroding trust among Global South nations.^[86] Political instability, authoritarian governance, and economic disparities further hinder implementation, with reports documenting repression in over 80 countries as of 2025.^[87] ^[88] Critiques of universalism in global governance highlight its potential to mask power asymmetries, with non-Western perspectives viewing it as a Western-centric tool for influence rather than genuine moral consensus.^[89] For instance, rising powers like China advocate sovereignty-based models over liberal universal rights, challenging enforcement in multilateral forums.^[90] Double standards in application—evident in selective condemnations of violations—undermine credibility, as noted in analyses of international responses to conflicts in Gaza, Sudan, and Ukraine.^[91] ^[87] This politicization fosters polarization, complicating alliances and requiring diversified coalitions to advance core principles without overreach.^[92] In addressing transnational issues like migration and armed conflicts, universal values clash with local norms, such as border security imperatives versus refugee protections under the 1951 Refugee Convention, ratified by 146 states as of 2023.^[93] Efforts to integrate these values into foreign policy for soft power gains, as explored in realist frameworks, underscore the tension between normative promotion and pragmatic interests.^[94] Ongoing debates emphasize constructing practical universalism through dialogue, avoiding absolutist impositions that risk backlash and conflict escalation.^[95]

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Feb 5, 2008 · “Value theory” is a catch-all label used to encompass all branches of moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and sometimes feminist ...
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[PDF] The moral universalism-relativism debate
The dominant view in philosophy is that morality is universal, meaning that moral statements follow from general moral principles that apply to everyone and ...
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10.2: Universalism vs. Relativism - Humanities LibreTexts
Sep 20, 2023 · Others think moral values are relative to individuals: I have my morality, and you have yours. Live and let live. There is nothing I can appeal ...
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Moral Relativism vs Universalism Examine whether moral truths are ...
Oct 13, 2024 · Moral relativism says moral truths are culturally shaped, while universalism says some principles apply to all humans, regardless of culture.
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Kant's Moral Philosophy
Feb 23, 2004 · Kant holds that the fundamental principle of our moral duties is a categorical imperative. It is an imperative because it is a command addressed ...Categorical and Hypothetical... · The Formula of the Universal...
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Cultural Relativism and Universal Values - Krisis & Praxis
Sep 20, 2006 · Cultural relativism means that the values expressed in any culture are to be both understood and themselves valued only according to the way the people who ...
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Aristotle's Ethics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 1, 2001 · Like Plato, he regards the ethical virtues (justice, courage, temperance and so on) as complex rational, emotional and social skills. But he ...
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Modern Morality and Ancient Ethics
The first part of the article outlines the main ethical approaches in Ancient Greek ethics by focusing on the Cynics, the Cyrenaics, Aristotle's virtue ethics, ...
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Cosmopolitanism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 23, 2002 · The idea that all human beings, regardless of their political affiliation, are (or can and should be) citizens in a single community.History of Cosmopolitanisms · Objections to Cosmopolitanism · Bibliography
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Universal Dharma: Significance and symbolism
Oct 2, 2025 · Universal Dharma is defined as the ethical principles and fundamental virtues beneficial to all humans, such as truthfulness and self-control.
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[PDF] AN ANALYSIS OF DHARMA FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF INDIAN ...
Dharma, according to Hindu philosophy, is the universal rule that encompasses and preserves the whole world while also uniting the many orders of existence ...
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3.3: Classical Chinese Philosophy - Humanities LibreTexts
Mar 8, 2024 · In Confucianism, the five constant virtues are ren, yi, li, zhi, and xin. Each of these terms is difficult to translate consistently, having ...
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Natural Law | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Here it is worth noting that Aquinas holds a natural law theory of morality: what is good and evil, according to Aquinas, is derived from the rational nature ...Two Kinds of Natural Law Theory · Classical Natural Law Theory
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The Natural Law Tradition in Ethics
Sep 23, 2002 · On Aquinas's view, killing of the innocent is always wrong, as is lying, adultery, sodomy, and blasphemy; and that they are always wrong is a ...Key Features of Natural Law... · Theoretical Options for Natural...
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The Ethical Worldview of the Qur'an - Yaqeen Institute
Apr 25, 2019 · The Qur'an's ethical worldview includes responsibility, accountability, justice, benevolence, sin, repentance, intention, and sincerity.
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Islam's Moral Code: A Guide to Self-Development
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Natural Rights & the Enlightenment - World History Encyclopedia
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Natural Rights | History of Western Civilization II - Lumen Learning
Natural rights are universal, inalienable rights not dependent on any culture or government, and cannot be repealed by human laws.
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The Enlightenment and Human Rights - Facing History
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Enlightenment - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 20, 2010 · The Enlightenment, centered on French thinkers, was a period of human progress, advancing natural sciences, and the rise of empiricism.
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Immanuel Kant - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Kant's ethics are organized around the notion of a “categorical imperative,” which is a universal ethical principle stating that one should always respect ...
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The History of Utilitarianism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 27, 2009 · Classical Utilitarianism emerged in the nineteenth-century and is distinguished from earlier forms of utilitarianism by it's clear structure and ...
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History of Utilitarianism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
“Classical utilitarianism” emerged in the 18 th and 19 th centuries, and it is associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
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Universal Declaration of Human Rights | United Nations
It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages.
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History of the Declaration | United Nations
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948, was the result of the experience of the Second ...
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Human Rights | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10th. December 1948 and was explicitly motivated to prevent the ...
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Aristotelian Virtue Ethics – Philosophical Thought - OPEN OKSTATE
According to Aristotle, eudaimonia is the state that all humans should aim for as it is the aim and end of human existence. To reach this state, we must ...Missing: universal | Show results with:universal
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Virtue Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Eudaimonia is happiness, contentment, and fulfillment; it's the name of the best kind of life, which is an end in itself and a means to live and fare well. ...
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Moral Objectivism
"Objectivism" denotes the thesis that morality is objective. Subjectivism holds that morality is subjective. Relativism holds that morality is relative. In the ...
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[PDF] A Defense of Moral Realism - Eagle Scholar
Apr 11, 2022 · Relativism raises a few questions about moral realism, but mainly because it does not require any of the metaphysical commitments that moral ...
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Our Morality: A Defense of Moral Objectivism | Issue 83
These philosophers maintain that moral objectivism requires that we can only validate an action's moral status or a judgment's moral correctness by resorting ...
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https://www.telospress.com/defending-moral-realism/
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Moral Relativism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 19, 2004 · Moral relativism is an important topic in metaethics. It is also widely discussed outside philosophy (for example, by political and religious leaders), and it ...
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Moral Anti-Realism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jul 30, 2007 · Moral relativism is a form of cognitivism according to which moral claims contain an indexical element, such that the truth of any such claim ...
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Moral Realism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 3, 2005 · Moral realists are those who think that, in these respects, things should be taken at face value—moral claims do purport to report facts and are ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] An Overview of the Schwartz Theory of Basic Values
The Schwartz theory identifies ten basic personal values recognized across cultures, forming a circular structure that reflects motivations.
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Moral Foundations Theory | moralfoundations.org
Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) explores shared morality themes across cultures, suggesting innate psychological systems are the core of our intuitive ethics.Questionnaires · Publications · Other Materials · Videos and Press
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Moral foundations theory and its implications for the World Values ...
Nov 18, 2022 · In the original conceptualization of MFT, five moral foundations were proposed: Care, Fairness, Loyalty, Authority, and Purity. Our team ...Missing: universal | Show results with:universal
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[PDF] The Convergence of Valued Human Strengths Across Culture and ...
The study found six core virtues: courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom, and transcendence, across philosophical and religious traditions.
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Human universals, human nature & human culture
Donald E. Brown is professor emeritus of anthropology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His books include “Hierarchy, History, and Human Nature.
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Moral universals: A machine-reading analysis of 256 societies
Mar 30, 2024 · We use MAC-D to estimate the cross-cultural prevalence of MAC's seven moral values in a total of 256 societies; and we compare the results of the hand- and ...
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Measuring the Refined Theory of Individual Values in 49 Cultural ...
The Schwartz (1992) theory of basic human values has been applied widely across the social sciences. The theory postulated that human values are organized ...
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[PDF] Donald E. Brown's List of Human Universals - Joel Velasco
THIS LIST, COMPILED in 1989 and published in 1991, consists primarily of. "surface" universals of behavior and overt language noted by ethnographers. It does ...Missing: cross- | Show results with:cross-
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[PDF] 1991-brown-humanuniversals.pdf - Gwern
community studies and cross-cultural surveys of anthropology, and he applies this approach to the specific problem of determining uniformi- ties in how ...
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Are There Universal Aspects in the Structure and Contents of ...
This article presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. Ten types of values are distinguished by their motivational ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Seven Moral Rules Found All Around the World Oliver Scott Curry
And we show how each type of cooperation explains a corresponding type of morality: (1) family values, (2) group loyalty, (3) reciprocity, (4) bravery, (5) ...
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What's Wrong with Moral Foundations Theory, and How to get Moral ...
Mar 26, 2019 · These foundations include: Care, Fairness, Loyalty, Authority, and Purity. Care: “The suffering of others, including virtues of caring and ...Missing: universal | Show results with:universal
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How the nomological network of morality varies across cultures
Aug 17, 2023 · Three studies were conducted to develop the MFQ-2 and to examine how the nomological network of moral foundations varies across 25 populations.Missing: cross- | Show results with:cross-
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Universality and Cultural Diversity in Moral Reasoning and Judgment
Dec 13, 2021 · This review discusses the current formulation of moral theories that attempt to explain cultural factors affecting moral judgment and reasoning.
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[PDF] The Challenge of Cultural Relativism - rintintin.colorado.edu
Cultural Relativism says, in effect, that there is no such thing as universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural codes. Cultural.
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The Challenge of Cultural Relativism
Cultural Relativism, as it has been called, challenges our ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth. It says, in effect, that there is ...
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[PDF] Critiquing Cultural Relativism - Digital Commons @ IWU
Cultural relativism is the ever-popular theory claiming that, "any set of customs and institutions, or way of life, is as valid as any other:'l In its appeal ...
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Human universals.
Challenging dominant assumptions of cultural relativism, Donald E. Brown contends that certain behavioral traits are common to human beings everywhere.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Inherent Human Rights: Philosophical Roots of the Universal ...
Inherent human rights, according to the Enlightenment, are inherent in all humans from birth, with a protected moral status that cannot be taken away.
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Human Rights - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 7, 2003 · The philosophy of human rights addresses questions about the existence, content, nature, universality, justification, and legal status of human ...The Existence and Grounds of... · Universal Human Rights in a... · Bibliography
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UNESCO and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights
UNESCO was the first UN agency to place the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) at the core of its action. All human beings are born free and ...
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Biological Altruism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 3, 2003 · Kin selection theory predicts that animals are more likely to behave altruistically towards their relatives than towards unrelated members of ...
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How evolutionary principles improve the understanding of human ...
The key principles of evolutionary medicine are that selection acts on fitness, not health or longevity; that our evolutionary history does not cause disease.
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[PDF] The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism - Greater Good Science Center
The strongest argument for the operation of reciprocal-altru- istic selection in man is the psychological system controlling some forms of human altruism.
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Morality and Evolutionary Biology
Dec 19, 2008 · Darwinian evolutionary theory tells us that human beings are members of an evolved species related by common ancestry to every other species on ...
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Testing heritability of moral foundations: Common pathway models ...
May 26, 2022 · Here, we report two independent twin studies (total n = 2020), using multivariate multi-group common pathway models to test the following three ...
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The heritability of moral standards for everyday dishonesty
Based on a classic twin study-design with over 2000 Swedish adult twins, we show that genetic variation is a significant source of heterogeneity in perceptions ...Missing: values | Show results with:values
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The Neurobiology of Moral Behavior: Review and Neuropsychiatric ...
Morality may be innate to the human brain. This review examines the neurobiological evidence from research involving functional magnetic resonance imaging ...
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[PDF] The biological roots of morality - eScholarship
Jul 1, 1987 · ABSTRACT: The question whether ethical behavior is biologically determined may refer either to the capacity for ethics (i.e., the proclivity ...
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The neurobiology of moral sense: facts or hypotheses? - PMC
The aim of this paper is to present a comprehensive review of the data regarding the neurobiological origin of the moral sense.
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https://www.politybooks.com/bookdetail?book_slug=moral-progress-in-dark-times-universal-values-for-the-twenty-first-century--9781509549481
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Moral Progress in Dark Times: Universal Values for the Twenty-First ...
Jul 1, 2023 · Markus Gabriel's Moral Progress in Dark Times aims to revive moral realism as an antidote to the forces of chaos and uncertainty that characterize our current ...Missing: revivals | Show results with:revivals<|separator|>
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[PDF] NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES MORAL UNIVERSALISM
To further our understanding of the role of universalism in society, this paper intro- duces the Global Universalism Survey (GUS), the first large-scale ...
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On the Post-Enlightenment Evolution of Moral Universalism
Apr 30, 2024 · I then test two prominent hypotheses predicting moral universalism: reason and religion. Reason-based terminology correlates positively with ...Missing: revivals | Show results with:revivals
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Do universal values exist? A philosopher says yes, and takes aim at ...
Aug 23, 2023 · Philosopher Markus Gabriel argues that a new enlightenment based on moral facts is necessary to overcome the darkness of our times.
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Human Rights | United Nations
Promoting respect for human rights is a core purpose of the United Nations and defines its identity as an organization for people around the world.
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UNIVERSAL VALUES - PEACE, FREEDOM, SOCIAL PROGRESS ...
Dec 12, 2003 · Also, our universal values require us to recognise the human characteristics, both good and bad, that we have in common with all our fellow ...
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[PDF] The Dilemmas of Universal Value and the Possible Solutions
Driven by the purposes of colony and hegemony, some countries impose their values on an improper political environment by adopting forceful practical means, ...
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The Global Human Rights Regime | Council on Foreign Relations
Western countries—especially the United States—resist international rights cooperation from a concern that it might harm business, infringe on autonomy, or ...
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[PDF] The Global Challenge of Protecting Human Rights: Promising New ...
The challenge is that existing international machinery is inadequate. Promising developments include a responsibility to protect, strengthening the UN human ...
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World Report 2025 - Human Rights Watch
Whether in response to heightened repression in Russia, India, and Venezuela, or catastrophic armed conflicts in Gaza, Sudan, and Ukraine, governments around ...
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Protecting Human Rights Globally: Challenges and Responses
Apr 16, 2024 · Challenges include political instability, authoritarian governance, discrimination, economic constraints, and globalization's negative impacts ...
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Global Governance: A Struggle over Universal Values
Aug 4, 2017 · As it attempts to depoliticize global governance, we argue, the idiom of universal values actually ends up bringing politics back to the fore.Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
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Universalism and Its Discontents - Internationale Politik Quarterly
Sep 7, 2023 · The West should give up its messianism, but not its norms and principles when interacting with the Global South.
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International systems unfit to deal with global crises
Mar 28, 2023 · Annual Report highlights double standards on human rights and failure of the international community to unite around universal values.
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Overcoming challenges to universal human rights - Wilton Park
Jan 17, 2024 · Challenges include increasing polarization, lack of implementation, double standards, and the need for diverse coalitions and long-term ...
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Navigating our global challenges through human rights | OHCHR
Jul 5, 2024 · We urgently must find the resolve to return to the basic tenets of the international order. This calls for reinvigorated action on all human rights everywhere.
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The Relevance of Universal Values to a Nation's Soft Power
Jul 29, 2022 · Realism is an appropriate starting point for successful foreign policy leaders. The problem is that too many realists stop where they start.
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Constructing Universal Values? A Practical Approach
Oct 1, 2020 · The idea that corruption is bad at all levels serves as a universal value that structures the work of the organization. Of course, there ...