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Vampire fish

Vampire fish is a colloquial term for several species of predatory or parasitic fish noted for their fang-like teeth or blood-feeding behaviors, primarily found in freshwater systems. The name evokes their eerie, vampire-like appearances and feeding strategies. The term most commonly refers to three species covered in this article: the payara (Hydrolycus scomberoides), a large predatory characiform fish from South American rivers; the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), an anadromous parasitic lamprey invasive in the Great Lakes; and the candiru (Vandellia cirrhosa), a small parasitic catfish from Amazonian waters. These species play varied ecological roles but face human-related threats such as overfishing, habitat alteration, and invasive spread, highlighting conservation needs across their ranges.

Payara

Taxonomy and physical description

The payara (Hydrolycus scomberoides) is a species of dogtooth tetra in the order Characiformes, family Cynodontidae, and genus Hydrolycus.^[1] Native to tropical South America, it is commonly known as the vampire fish due to its prominent fang-like canine teeth. The species was first described by Georges Cuvier in 1829.^[1] This predatory fish has an elongated, silvery body that aids in its streamlined movement through water. A distinctive feature is its protrusile lower jaw, armed with two exceptionally long, fang-like canine teeth that can extend up to 15 cm (6 in), used to impale and stun prey.^[2] Adults typically measure 50–90 cm (20–35 in) in total length (TL), with maximum recorded sizes of 117 cm (46 in) TL and 17.8 kg (39 lb) in weight.^[1] It lacks scales on parts of its body and possesses an adipose fin typical of characiforms.^[1]

Habitat and distribution

Hydrolycus scomberoides is native to the tropical freshwater systems of South America, primarily the Amazon and Orinoco River basins, including tributaries in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Guyana.^[1] It inhabits fast-flowing rivers, rapids, and associated floodplains, often in clear or blackwater environments with temperatures of 24–28 °C (75–82 °F) and submerged structures like timber or rocky areas.^[1]^[3] The species is benthopelagic, favoring littoral zones with woody debris in oligotrophic waters, such as those in the Guri Reservoir of the Orinoco system.^[3] As of the 2020 IUCN assessment, the payara is classified as Least Concern, though populations may face indirect threats from habitat alteration due to dams and deforestation.^[1]

Behavior and ecology

The payara is a piscivorous apex predator, employing ambush tactics in strong currents to impale smaller fishes with its elongated canines.^[2] Its diet consists primarily of other fishes, including characins such as piranhas and catfishes like pimelodids, which can comprise up to 54% of its intake in certain populations; other prey includes sciaenids.^[3] Studies indicate a specialized, low-breadth feeding strategy (diet breadth ~0.085), targeting larger prey (mean 3–6 cm TL) in nutrient-poor tropical waters, with a trophic level of approximately 4.5.^[3]^[1] Reproduction is oviparous, occurring seasonally between November and April, with adults undertaking long upstream migrations to spawning sites; juveniles are presumed to inhabit smaller tributaries, though details on fecundity and parental care remain poorly documented.^[4] Ecologically, the payara regulates populations of smaller species in riverine food webs but is vulnerable to predation as juveniles.^[1]

Human interactions

The payara (Hydrolycus scomberoides) is highly prized as a sport fish in the Amazon Basin, renowned for its explosive strikes and acrobatic jumps that can reach several feet in height when hooked. Anglers target it using lures such as jerkbaits, diving plugs, and streamer flies that mimic small baitfish, often in fast-moving river currents where the fish ambushes prey. This predatory behavior makes it a favorite for fly fishing and conventional tackle enthusiasts, with its fierce fights drawing international attention through guided trips in regions like Peru, Brazil, and Colombia.^[5]^[6]^[7] Commercially, the payara holds limited value, occasionally appearing in South American food markets where its flesh is considered edible despite being bony and less preferred compared to other regional species. It is primarily targeted in small-scale fisheries rather than large commercial operations, contributing modestly to local protein sources in Amazonian communities.^[1]^[8] In the aquarium trade, juvenile payara are occasionally kept by experienced hobbyists due to their striking appearance, but adults, which can exceed 1 meter in length, require massive setups of at least 1,000 liters (about 265 gallons) and are impractical for most home aquaria. Their predatory nature and need for live or high-protein foods further limit captive success, with enthusiasts often resorting to public or specialized facilities for larger specimens.^[9]^[8]^[10] The payara features prominently in angling media and documentaries as the "vampire fish," a nickname derived from its prominent fangs, symbolizing the raw, untamed essence of Amazonian wilderness without deep-rooted folklore in indigenous traditions. In some Amazonian cultures, it represents strength and is occasionally referenced in warrior symbolism. Conservation-wise, the species faces minimal direct overfishing pressure, classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, though it encounters incidental bycatch in broader riverine fisheries and habitat threats from deforestation. Catch-and-release practices are encouraged to sustain its populations.^[6]^[5]^[1]

Sea lamprey

Taxonomy and physical description

The sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) is a primitive, jawless fish classified in the phylum Chordata, class Petromyzonti (lampreys), order Petromyzontiformes, family Petromyzontidae.^[11] Native to the Atlantic Ocean, its name derives from Greek Petromyzon ("stone sucker," referring to spawning behavior) and Latin marinus ("of the sea").^[12] This eel-like species has a cartilaginous skeleton, lacking true jaws, paired fins, scales, or bony structures. Adults feature a slender, cylindrical body mottled in brown, black, or gray, reaching 30–91 cm (12–36 in) in length and up to 2.3 kg (5 lb) in weight, though typical sizes are 60–80 cm (24–31 in).^[11]^[13] The head includes a single dorsal nostril, seven gill slits, and a large, disc-shaped oral (suction) mouth lined with sharp, rasp-like teeth and a file-like tongue for attaching to hosts and rasping flesh. Two dorsal fins are present (closely spaced, without spines), along with a ventral tail fin; the body is scaleless and covered in protective mucus.^[11] Larval stages (ammocoetes) are blind, filter-feeding burrowers with a hood-like mouth.^[14]

Habitat and distribution

The sea lamprey is native to the Atlantic Ocean and associated coastal rivers, exhibiting an anadromous life cycle: adults inhabit marine or large freshwater environments (e.g., Great Lakes), migrating upstream to spawn in cool, flowing streams with gravelly or sandy bottoms suitable for nest-building.^[11]^[14] Preferred spawning habitats feature water temperatures of 12–18 °C (54–64 °F) and oxygen levels above 7 mg/L, often in tributaries with velocities of 0.3–1.0 m/s. Larvae burrow into soft sediments in slower, silty stream sections for 3–20 years.^[15] Its native distribution spans the western Atlantic from Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence south to Florida, and the eastern Atlantic from Norway and Iceland to the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas.^[11]^[16] Introduced to the Great Lakes in the early 20th century via man-made canals (e.g., Welland Canal bypassing Niagara Falls), it now inhabits all five lakes, with highest densities in Lakes Michigan and Huron.^[14]^[15] Globally assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN (2008), populations are stable in marine ranges but declining in some native rivers due to dams, pollution, and habitat loss; invasive Great Lakes populations are actively managed.^[17]

Behavior and ecology

Sea lampreys exhibit a complex life cycle spanning 5–20+ years, with distinct larval, parasitic adult, and semelparous spawning phases. Ammocoete larvae emerge from eggs in streams, burrowing into sediment to filter-feed on microorganisms and detritus for 3–20 years, growing to 15–25 cm (6–10 in). Metamorphosis in autumn triggers migration to lakes or seas, where juveniles develop a functional oral disc and become parasitic.^[11]^[14] Parasitic adults (1–2 years) attach to hosts using their suction mouth, rasping wounds to ingest blood, body fluids, and flesh—killing about 40 prey per lamprey lifetime and weakening survivors. Preferred hosts include salmonids (e.g., lake trout), coregonids (e.g., whitefish), and other large fishes, though they attack over 20 species in the Great Lakes.^[18]^[19] Spawning occurs in spring (April–June), with adults migrating upstream, often traveling 100+ km. Males construct pebble nests in riffles; females deposit 35,000–266,000 eggs (average ~70,000), externally fertilized by males. Both parents die post-spawning. Sensory cues like pheromones guide migration and mate location.^[11]^[20] Ecologically, sea lampreys regulate prey populations as parasites but devastate invaded ecosystems by reducing forage fish and altering food webs. In native ranges, they support biodiversity; as invasives, they face predation by birds and mammals but have few natural enemies.^[14]

Human interactions and control

The invasion of sea lampreys into the Great Lakes in the early 20th century led to the collapse of commercial fisheries, particularly devastating populations of whitefish and lake trout, with annual fish kills exceeding 100 million pounds—five times the contemporary commercial harvest—resulting in tens of thousands of job losses and an economic downturn valued in billions of dollars since the 1950s.^[21] The Great Lakes fishery, now sustained through control efforts, generates over $5.1 billion annually in economic benefits, underscoring the ongoing threat posed by unchecked sea lamprey proliferation.^[21] To mitigate this impact, the Great Lakes Fishery Commission, established in 1955, has coordinated a multifaceted control program that has reduced sea lamprey populations by approximately 90% across the basin.^[22] Primary methods include the application of lampricides, such as 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM), to over 200 tributaries annually to target larval stages before they become parasitic adults.^[22] Additional strategies encompass physical barriers installed on more than 100 rivers and streams to block upstream migration, sterile male release techniques to disrupt reproduction—first implemented in the 1990s and refined thereafter—and adult trapping systems that capture up to 40% of spawning individuals.^[22]^[23] In the 2020s, emerging pheromone-based traps and "push-pull" attractant-repellent systems have enhanced trapping efficiency by exploiting sea lamprey chemical communication, with ongoing research aiming to integrate these into broader integrated pest management.^[24] Beyond control, sea lampreys serve as a valuable model organism in neurobiology due to their primitive vertebrate nervous system, which facilitates studies on locomotion and regeneration applicable to human conditions.^[25] At the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL), research since 2020 has focused on their remarkable spinal cord regeneration, where severed cords fully recover function within three months, providing insights into potential therapies for spinal injuries and neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's.^[25] In popular culture, sea lampreys are often dubbed the "vampire fish" for their blood-feeding habits, a moniker amplified in media portrayals of their invasive threat.^[26] They have featured prominently in documentaries, such as PBS's Great Lakes Now (2022) and The Fish Thief: A Great Lakes Mystery (2025), which highlight control efforts and ecological impacts.^[26]^[27] As of November 2025, sea lamprey populations remain at historic lows due to sustained control, with adult abundance indices well below pre-1950s levels in most Great Lakes tributaries.^[22] However, proposed federal budget cuts for 2026 (potentially reducing funding by 90% from $29 million) and climate change introduce risks, including warmer waters and extended growing seasons that could enhance larval survival, faster growth rates, and expanded spawning habitats, potentially undermining control efficacy.^[28]^[29]

Candiru

Taxonomy and physical description

The candiru (Vandellia cirrhosa) is a species of parasitic freshwater catfish classified in the order Siluriformes, family Trichomycteridae, and subfamily Vandelliinae.^[30] It is commonly known as the candiru, vampire fish, or toothpick fish due to its slender form and blood-feeding habits.^[31] This species exhibits a small, elongated body typically measuring 2.5–17 cm (1–7 in) in standard length, with a translucent, scaleless appearance that enhances camouflage in turbid waters.^[30]^[32] The body lacks scales entirely, rendering it nearly transparent except after feeding, when it may take on a slight coloration.^[32] Like other members of the family Trichomycteridae, V. cirrhosa has no adipose fin, and its dorsal fin is fleshy without a strong spine.^[33]^[34] Key anatomical adaptations for parasitism include small, backward-facing spines on the operculum (gill covers) and pectoral fins, which lock the fish in place during attachment, and sharp, recurved teeth in the mouth for gripping host tissues.^[32]^[31] The gills and oral region are specialized for hematophagy, with the mouth capable of biting into major gill arteries to extract blood directly, aided by possible valvular structures to control flow, though it lacks a powerful suction mechanism unlike that of the sea lamprey.^[30]^[35] V. cirrhosa belongs to a group of around 20 species collectively known as candiru in the hematophagous Vandelliinae subfamily of the Trichomycteridae, but it stands out as the most notorious for its specialized blood-feeding morphology, which distinguishes it from non-parasitic trichomycterids through features like its locking spines and arterial-piercing dentition.^[36]^[35]

Habitat and distribution

The candiru (Vandellia cirrhosa) is native to the Amazon and Orinoco River basins in northern South America, where it inhabits shallow, slow-moving tributaries and streams primarily in Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.^[32]^[37] These lowland freshwater environments feature acidic waters with muddy or sandy bottoms, supporting the species' demersal lifestyle as it burrows into the riverbed for shelter.^[32] The fish thrives in warm tropical freshwater habitats, including vegetated shallows and seasonally flooded forests, where low visibility from turbidity aids its translucent body in concealment.^[32] It often occurs near larger fish hosts in these microhabitats, utilizing the benthic zones of rivers and streams for orientation and activity.^[37] During high-water periods driven by the Amazon flood pulse, candiru disperse into adjacent floodplains, accessing expanded shallow areas.^[38] Despite being relatively common, the candiru remains understudied, with population numbers largely unknown and no dedicated conservation measures in place.^[32] It has not been evaluated by the IUCN Red List. However, broader threats to Amazonian freshwater fish, including habitat degradation from deforestation and pollution, pose indirect risks by altering water quality and availability of host species.^[39]^[40]

Behavior and ecology

The candiru, primarily represented by species in the genus Vandellia such as V. cirrhosa, exhibits a specialized ectoparasitic lifestyle, targeting the gills of larger host fishes including characins (e.g., Colossoma macropomum, Piaractus brachypomus) and pimelodid catfishes.^[35] Upon detecting a host, the candiru enters the gill chamber, often during the host's ventilation cycle, and anchors itself using backward-pointing interopercular spines to prevent expulsion.^[37] It then uses needle-like teeth to bite into major gill arteries (ventral or dorsal aortae), relying on the host's blood pressure to fill its gut rather than active suction.^[35] Feeding bouts are brief, lasting 30–145 seconds on average, after which the candiru detaches and exits, allowing most hosts to recover without long-term harm.^[35] The diet of candiru is strictly hematophagous, consisting almost exclusively of blood from host gill vessels, with rare instances of scavenging mucus or flesh when blood access is limited.^[41] This sanguivory supports their small size (up to 17 cm standard length) and high metabolic demands in nutrient-poor Amazonian waters.^[37] Reproduction in candiru is oviparous with external fertilization, though details remain scarce due to challenges in observation. Females produce small clutches of 4–15 eggs, with ripe ovaries noted in December, suggesting a seasonal breeding pattern aligned with Amazonian flood cycles; one captive record documented egg release over several days, but viability was low and no parental care was observed.^[32] Maturity is reached at small sizes, but exact timelines and spawning sites in shallow, vegetated waters are undocumented.^[37] Ecologically, candiru serve as obligate parasites that impose minor stress on host populations without typically causing mortality or anemia, as hosts heal rapidly from attachments; they may indirectly regulate host densities in gill-rich environments like the Amazon basin.^[32] Free-swimming individuals are vulnerable to predation by larger carnivorous fishes, though specific predators are unconfirmed.^[32] No evidence supports their role as intermediate hosts for other parasites. Sensory adaptations enable host location through a combination of large eyes for visual detection of movement and chemosensory organs along the head for orienting toward gill exhaust streams, though experimental evidence refutes attraction to urine or isolated blood scents.^[41] The lateral line system further aids in sensing water displacements from nearby hosts.^[37]

Myths and human encounters

The myth of the candiru, a small parasitic catfish from the Amazon basin, gained prominence in the 19th century through accounts by European explorers and naturalists who described it as entering the human urethra while individuals urinated in rivers, drawn by the ammonia in urine, and lodging itself with backward-facing spines that prevented removal.^[42] These tales, often exaggerated for dramatic effect, were reported as early as the 1850s by visiting naturalists and later documented in scientific literature reviewing indigenous folklore.^[43] Scientific investigations have found no verified cases of deliberate urethral entry by candiru, with the single documented incident—a 1997 surgical removal from a 23-year-old man's urethra in Brazil—deemed dubious due to inconsistencies, such as the fish's size exceeding the urethral diameter and lack of independent verification.^[42] Experimental studies, including those from the early 2000s, demonstrate that candiru are not attracted to urine or ammonia but hunt primarily by sight and are drawn to blood or gill tissues in fish hosts, suggesting any rare human incidents would likely be accidental, such as entry through open wounds.^[44] Human encounters with candiru are infrequent and typically involve superficial skin embeddings during bathing in infested waters, where the fish's spines anchor it temporarily; these cases are treatable through simple mechanical removal under local anesthesia, with no recorded fatalities.^[31] The candiru's lore has profoundly influenced Amazonian culture, symbolizing the river's hidden perils and inspiring local customs like avoiding urination in water or using protective barriers while bathing to ward off perceived threats.^[45] It features prominently in horror narratives and media, including BBC documentaries and viral YouTube videos from the mid-2010s that dramatize its supposed invasiveness, perpetuating its status as a cautionary icon of tropical dangers.^[45] Recent research, such as a 2021 study published by Pensoft Publishers, observed candiru attaching externally to the bodies of thorny catfish (Doras phlyzakion) for phoretic transport rather than solely for feeding, challenging myths of aggressive parasitism and highlighting more passive behavioral strategies in their ecology.^[46]

References

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Hydrolycus scomberoides, Payara : fisheries, gamefish, aquarium
Size / Weight / Age. Maturity: Lm ? range ? - ? cm. Max length : 117 cm TL male/unsexed; (Ref. 40637); max. published weight: 17.8 kg (Ref. 40637). Short ...
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Hydrolycus scomberoides and C. temensis consumed significantly larger prey than P. squamosissimus, and differences in the relative pro- portions of specific ...
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Jan 15, 2016 · Vampire FishHogan holds a vampire fish that was caught below Corona Falls in Guyana, in South America. Also called payara, the Amazon Basin ...
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Vandellia cirrhosa, Candiru - FishBase
Time required to engorge itself with blood and leave host's gill chamber ranges from 30 to 145 seconds.
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Candirus of the genus Vandellia are small (usually around 4-8 cm but can reach a size of 20 cm), have an elongated body (Figure 1A), and their mouths contain ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
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Vandellia cirrhosa ; Class, Actinopterygii ray-finned fishes ; Order, Siluriformes ; Family, Trichomycteridae Pencil or parasitic catfishes ; Genus, Vandellia.
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### Summary for Vandellia cirrhosa
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Amazonian freshwater habitats experiencing environmental and ...
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Scientific Name: Hydrolycus scomberoides ; Common Names: Payara, Vampire Fish, Dogtooth Tetra ; Size & Weight: Up to 3 feet long and 40 lbs ; Habitat: Fast-moving ...
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They are capable of exceeding 3 feet in total length and nearly 40 pounds in overall weight—now that's a big, toothy tetra!
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Hydrolycus scomberoides, or Payara, is a South American, toothy fish that can grow to 120cm. It is a fearsome predator with large teeth, and is not recommended ...
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Coupled with increased warming, this will increase the risk of harmful algal blooms within in-land waterbodies, affecting aquatic species and human health. DATA ...
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Sep 14, 2023 · It is feared because of stories that it invades the human urethra. Its usual way of making a living is by parasitizing the gills of larger fish and drinking ...Missing: threats pollution deforestation habitat loss
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Sep 9, 2021 · Candiru is the common name of Vandelliinae catfishes (Trichomycteridae) that are known to be parasites of other fish ( de Pinna and Wosiacki ...Missing: air breathing