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Vertisol

Vertisols are a soil order in the USDA Soil Taxonomy and a Reference Soil Group in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, defined by their high content of swelling clays, such as smectite (montmorillonite), which cause the soil to exhibit pronounced shrink-swell behavior in response to seasonal moisture variations, leading to the formation of deep, wide cracks during dry periods and self-mulching surfaces upon rewetting.^[1]^[2] These soils are typically dark-colored, clayey throughout their profile, and lack significant horizonation due to the intense mixing action from cracking and swelling, often resulting in a gilgai microrelief of low mounds and depressions.^[3]^[4] Globally, Vertisols cover approximately 335 million hectares, representing about 2.4% of the ice-free land surface, with the largest extents found in subtropical and tropical regions of Australia, India, northeastern Africa (including Sudan and Ethiopia), central and southern Latin America, and the southern United States, particularly Texas.^[5] Vertisols are agriculturally significant due to their high fertility from good nutrient retention and water-holding capacity, supporting crops like cotton, wheat, and sorghum in regions with adequate rainfall or irrigation, but they pose management challenges including tillage difficulties from stickiness when wet and hardness when dry, waterlogging in depressions, and high erosion risk from their loose structure.^[3]^[6] Effective management strategies emphasize conservation tillage, contour farming, and organic amendments to mitigate erosion and improve soil structure, while their shrink-swell properties require specialized equipment and timing for cultivation.^[3]^[7]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Vertisols are defined as a soil order in the USDA Soil Taxonomy, consisting of mineral soils that exhibit a vertic horizon or vertic properties within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface, characterized by significant shrink-swell dynamics driven by high clay content in the fine-earth fraction of at least 30 percent.^[8] This order is identified by diagnostic features such as seasonal cracks at least 5 mm wide extending through 30 cm or more, slickensides or wedge-shaped peds in layers 15 cm thick or greater, and a linear extensibility of 6 cm or more between the surface and 100 cm depth, reflecting the soil's capacity for volume change with moisture fluctuations.^[8] In the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), Vertisols constitute a Reference Soil Group, described as soils with a vertic horizon starting no deeper than 100 cm from the surface, dominated by swelling and shrinking clay minerals and containing 30 percent or more clay from the surface to the vertic horizon.^[9] The vertic horizon in WRB classification requires a minimum thickness of 25 cm, with evidence of shrink-swell including cracks that open and close seasonally, at least 20 percent wedge-shaped aggregates tilted 10–60 degrees from horizontal, or slickensides covering 10 percent or more of aggregate surfaces.^[9] The name "Vertisol" derives from the Latin word vertere, meaning "to turn," which captures the soil's characteristic self-mixing or churning process, where surface material falls into deep cracks during dry periods and is incorporated into deeper layers upon swelling in wet conditions.^[5] This internal turnover, known as argillipedoturbation, results from the repeated cycles of cracking and pressure face development, effectively inverting soil layers over time.^[4] Vertisols are typically associated with natural vegetation such as grasslands, savannas, open woodlands, or desert shrubs, adapted to the soil's dynamic physical conditions in warm, subhumid to semi-arid climates.^[1] The pronounced shrink-swell behavior and high clay content create physical instability that challenges tree growth, as roots struggle to penetrate the deep cracks and hard, compact layers formed during wetting and drying cycles.^[10] This instability favors herbaceous plants with shallow, fibrous root systems over deep-rooted trees, limiting woodland development in many Vertisol landscapes.^[10]

Key Characteristics

Vertisols exhibit pronounced shrink-swell behavior due to their high clay content, resulting in significant volume changes with fluctuating moisture levels. During dry periods, the soil contracts to form deep, wide cracks that typically exceed 7.5 cm in width and can extend up to 1 m in depth, while wetting induces expansion that closes these fissures and increases soil volume by 15–20%.^[11] This dynamic process creates a distinctive structural instability, with cracks often filled by sloughed surface material, contributing to the soil's self-maintenance.^[12] The repeated expansion and contraction lead to gilgai microrelief, a characteristic surface topography featuring alternating low mounds (up to 50 cm high) and depressions (up to 1 m deep), formed as soil heaves upward on wetting and slumps into cracks on drying.^[13] Within the subsurface, this activity generates slickensides—polished, striated shear planes oriented at 20–60° angles, commonly occurring between 50 and 125 cm depth and covering areas greater than 4 cm²—and lenticular peds, which are wedge- or block-shaped aggregates produced by intersecting shear surfaces.^[11] These features are diagnostic of the vertic horizon, a layer at least 25 cm thick where such structural evidence predominates.^[12] Argillipedoturbation, the soil's inherent mixing mechanism akin to self-ploughing, arises from these shrink-swell cycles, churning clay-rich materials vertically and horizontally without external tillage.^[14] This pedoturbation homogenizes the profile, disrupting horizonation and typically resulting in minimal development, such as a simple A/C sequence with little differentiation beyond the surface layer.^[15]

Formation and Composition

Formation Processes

Vertisols primarily develop from parent materials rich in weatherable minerals, such as basalt, limestone, marls, shales, or alluvium, which undergo intense physical and chemical weathering to yield fine-textured soils dominated by expansive clays.^[16] These materials provide the necessary base-rich aluminum silicates that, under suitable conditions, form smectite-rich compositions essential for the soil's behavior.^[17] The formation occurs in environments with alternating wet and dry seasons, typically in seasonal tropical or subtropical climates with annual rainfall up to 1500 mm, where moisture fluctuations drive the dominant pedogenic processes.^[17]^[18] The core mechanism of Vertisol pedogenesis is the repeated cycles of wetting and drying, which induce significant volume changes in the smectite clays. During dry periods, shrinkage creates wide vertical cracks penetrating 0.5 to 2 meters deep, allowing surface materials to fall into the subsurface.^[1]^[17] Rewetting causes rapid swelling, generating pressures up to several megapascals that promote shear failure, faulting, and the formation of slickensides—polished, striated shear planes oriented at approximately 45 degrees.^[17]^[18] This shrink-swell action results in intense bioturbation-like mixing, homogenizing the soil profile over depth and incorporating organic matter and fine particles downward.^[17] These processes unfold over timescales of thousands to tens of thousands of years in stable, low-relief landscapes, where minimal erosion preserves the developing soil.^[18] The high clay content and low hydraulic conductivity limit water percolation, restricting leaching and promoting closed-system weathering that retains nutrients and bases within the profile.^[1]^[18] As a result, Vertisols achieve a uniform, self-mixing character without pronounced horizonation, distinguishing them from other soil orders.^[17]

Mineralogical and Chemical Composition

Vertisols are characterized by a high clay content, typically exceeding 30% in the fine-earth fraction throughout the upper 50 cm of the soil profile, with many profiles showing 50% or more clay in the surface horizons and low proportions of sand and silt.^[19] The clay fraction is dominated by expansive 2:1 phyllosilicate minerals, particularly smectites such as montmorillonite, which constitute the majority of the clay minerals and impart the soil's distinctive shrink-swell behavior.^[3]^[12] Chemically, Vertisols exhibit a high cation exchange capacity (CEC), often greater than 30 cmol/kg and ranging up to 65 cmol/kg in some profiles, primarily due to the isomorphic substitution in smectite lattices.^[19]^[12] Their pH is typically neutral to alkaline, falling between 6.0 and 8.5, which supports high base saturation levels, frequently exceeding 50% and often approaching 100% in calcareous variants.^[3]^[19] Organic matter content in Vertisols is generally low, ranging from 0.5% to 2% in most profiles, though it can reach 2% to 4% in some temperate examples; this limited accumulation results from intense turbation that mixes materials and disrupts horizonation.^[20] These mineralogical and chemical attributes collectively enable the pronounced volume changes observed in Vertisols upon wetting and drying.^[3]

Distribution and Occurrence

Global Distribution

Vertisols are primarily distributed between latitudes 50°N and 45°S, encompassing tropical, subtropical, and some temperate regions worldwide.^[2] They cover approximately 335 million hectares, representing about 2.4% of the global ice-free land area.^[2]^[21] Major concentrations of Vertisols occur in several key regions, including extensive areas in Australia, particularly the eastern highlands.^[2] In India, they dominate the Deccan Plateau, covering vast expanses suitable for agriculture.^[2]^[21] Sudan's clay plains host significant Vertisol formations, while in the United States, the Texas Blackland Prairie represents a prominent example in the southern Great Plains.^[2] Additional notable occurrences include Mexico's central and southern regions, as well as parts of South America such as the Argentine pampas.^[2]^[21]

Influencing Environmental Factors

Vertisols primarily form in subtropical to tropical climates characterized by pronounced wet-dry seasons, which promote the seasonal wetting and drying cycles essential for their shrink-swell behavior. These soils are most common under ustic or xeric moisture regimes, where precipitation is sufficient to cause swelling during wet periods but allows for extended dry phases that induce cracking and desiccation.^[5]^[19] They are largely absent from perhumid environments, which lack sufficient drying to develop cracks, and pergelic zones with permafrost, which inhibit the necessary physical processes.^[19] Geologically, Vertisols develop from parent materials rich in smectite clays, typically derived from mafic or basic rocks such as basalt and dolerite, or from calcareous sediments like limestone and marl that supply calcium and magnesium.^[5]^[10] These materials weather to form high-clay content soils prone to expansion and contraction. Topographically, they favor flat to gently undulating landscapes, such as plateaus and river terraces with slopes of 3% or less, which minimize erosion and allow accumulation of fine sediments over time.^[5]^[22] Biotic factors, particularly vegetation, influence Vertisol stability through root systems that bind soil and moderate moisture, with natural grasslands and savannas dominating these landscapes due to their adaptation to seasonal extremes.^[5]^[19] Human activities, such as deforestation, can disrupt this balance by exposing soils to increased erosion and altering hydrologic patterns, potentially expanding or shifting Vertisol distribution.

Classification Systems

USDA Soil Taxonomy

In the USDA Soil Taxonomy, Vertisols are defined as soils that exhibit a vertic horizon or vertic properties, characterized by significant shrink-swell potential due to high clay content and resulting structural features. The diagnostic vertic horizon must be at least 25 cm thick, located within 100 cm of the soil surface, and contain 30 percent or more clay by weight in the fine-earth fraction. This horizon features cracks at least 5 mm wide that extend through 30 cm or more of the soil or occupy at least 30 percent of the horizon volume when open, along with slickensides—polished and grooved surfaces formed by shear planes tilted 10 to 60 degrees from the horizontal—in at least a 15-cm-thick layer. These criteria distinguish Vertisols by their capacity for linear extensibility of 6 cm or more between the mineral soil surface and 100 cm depth (or to a root-limiting layer if shallower).^[8] Classification at the suborder level within Vertisols is primarily based on soil moisture and temperature regimes, which reflect climatic influences on soil formation and behavior. The six suborders are Aquerts, defined by aquic conditions with saturation within 50 cm of the surface for at least 20 consecutive days or 30 cumulative days per normal year; Cryerts, with cryic temperature (mean annual soil temperature less than 8°C at 50 cm depth) and no permafrost; Xererts, under xeric moisture (dry more than 45 days and moist more than 45 days per year, typically with dry summers and moist winters); Torrerts, in torric or aridic regimes (dry more than half the year when soil temperature exceeds 5°C); Usterts, with ustic moisture (dry for 90 or more cumulative days and moist for less than 90 consecutive days when temperature exceeds 8°C); and Uderts, under udic conditions (moist for 90 or more consecutive days when temperature exceeds 8°C). These regimes determine the seasonal cracking patterns and management implications, such as the ustic regime's 90 or more consecutive dry days influencing crack openness for at least 90 cumulative days per year.^[8] For global context, these USDA criteria align conceptually with the World Reference Base's emphasis on vertic properties but differ in hierarchical application.^[8]

World Reference Base (WRB)

In the World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resources, Vertisols are classified as a Reference Soil Group defined primarily by the presence of a vertic horizon within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface, characterized by shrinking and swelling properties that result in cracks, slickensides, and shear features due to high clay content and alternating moisture conditions.^[23] This classification emphasizes international standards for global soil correlation, focusing on diagnostic horizons and properties rather than detailed suborders, in contrast to the USDA Soil Taxonomy, which includes more hierarchical subdivisions like usterts or uderts based on moisture regimes (detailed in the USDA Soil Taxonomy section).^[23] The key diagnostic criteria for Vertisols in the WRB include at least 30% clay in the fine earth fraction throughout the soil from the surface to the vertic horizon, with the vertic horizon itself being at least 25 cm thick and showing evidence of pedoturbation, such as wedge-shaped aggregates occupying ≥10% of the volume (tilted 10°–60°), slickensides covering ≥5% of aggregate surfaces or ≥10% by volume, or cracks ≥1 cm wide extending to ≥5 cm depth that remain open for ≥60 cumulative days in most years.^[23] Additionally, a coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE) ≥0.06 supports identification of the shrink-swell potential.^[23] Unlike stricter suborders in other systems, WRB uses principal qualifiers to specify variants, such as Haplic Vertisol for those without dominant secondary features, Pellic Vertisol for dark-colored profiles, or Gilgaic Vertisol for soils with pronounced gilgai microrelief ≥10 cm; the vertic qualifier can also apply to other groups, like Vertic Cambisol, when the properties are present but not dominant enough for full Vertisol status.^[23] The fourth edition of the WRB, released in 2022, introduced or refined supplementary qualifiers to address additional limitations, including Sodic for soils with high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP ≥15% or ≥6% sodium on the exchange complex, without a natric horizon) indicating salinity issues, and Humic for those with ≥1% organic carbon as a weighted average in the upper 50 cm.^[23] These updates enhance the system's flexibility for describing soil variability worldwide.^[24] Vertisols in the WRB are widely applied in global soil mapping efforts, such as those by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), where the Harmonized World Soil Database version 2.0 (2023) integrates WRB classifications with harmonized profile data from over 200,000 locations to support international land use planning and environmental assessments.^[25]

Uses and Management

Agricultural and Land Uses

Vertisols exhibit high fertility, attributed to their substantial cation exchange capacity and ability to retain nutrients and water, making them productive for rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Common crops grown on these soils include cotton, wheat, sorghum, soybeans, and rice when irrigation is available. In regions like the United States and India, Vertisols support the cultivation of these crops, with cotton and sorghum being particularly prominent due to the soils' moisture retention during dry periods.^[3]^[12] These soils also facilitate livestock production, particularly grazing for cattle on rangelands in semi-arid and subhumid environments. In Australia and parts of Africa, Vertisols under natural or managed grassland serve as pastures, contributing to beef and dairy systems where the deep clay profile sustains forage during seasonal droughts. However, the shrink-swell behavior of Vertisols can complicate grazing management by affecting surface stability.^[1]^[3] Non-agricultural uses of Vertisols are limited by their physical instability, though they provide suitable habitats for wildlife in savanna ecosystems. The natural vegetation of grasses and shrubs on uncultivated Vertisols supports biodiversity, including herbivores and associated species, in areas such as the Deccan Plateau in India and the Great Plains in the United States. Forestry is viable in humid zones, but overall, engineering and urban development are constrained.^[1]^[3] Economically, Vertisols play a vital role in food production, particularly in India where they cover approximately 28 million hectares and underpin cotton and cereal farming, and in Australia where they support wheat and barley on over 50 million hectares in Queensland alone. Under effective management, cereal yields on Vertisols can reach 3-4 tons per hectare, enhancing regional food security and export contributions. These soils thus represent a cornerstone of agricultural economies in tropical and subtropical regions.^[26]^[27]^[28]

Challenges and Management Strategies

Vertisols present significant challenges for agricultural and infrastructural use due to their physical properties. Poor drainage leads to seasonal waterlogging, particularly on flat terrains during high-rainfall periods, which restricts root aeration and crop growth.^[29] When wet, the high clay content causes extreme stickiness, limiting the use of machinery for tillage and harvest as the soil adheres to equipment and impedes movement.^[29] During dry periods, deep and wide cracks form, which not only damage roads and building foundations through differential swelling and shrinking but also increase erosion risk on slopes by facilitating concentrated runoff.^[1]^[3] To mitigate these issues, several management strategies have been developed. Conservation tillage practices, such as minimum tillage and residue retention, reduce soil disturbance and erosion by maintaining surface cover, thereby improving infiltration and stability on sloped Vertisols.^[3] Raised beds, typically 0.5 m high and 1 m wide, enhance drainage and prevent waterlogging while allowing for better machinery access during wet conditions.^[3] For sodic variants with high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP >15%), gypsum application replaces sodium with calcium, improving soil structure, permeability, and leaching of excess salts to reduce dispersion and compaction.^[30] Irrigation scheduling, often involving surface or artificial drainage systems, avoids water extremes by timing applications to maintain optimal moisture without excess accumulation.^[1] In the 2020s, precision agriculture techniques, including soil moisture sensors, have advanced management by enabling real-time monitoring and targeted irrigation in saline or waterlogged Vertisols, optimizing water use and reducing over-application risks. Environmentally, Vertisols offer carbon sequestration potential through their deep mixing via shrink-swell cycles, with long-term organic amendments like cattle manure or wheat straw achieving sequestration rates of 0.39–0.97 ton C/ha/yr and efficiencies up to 17%.^[31] However, they are vulnerable to salinization from over-irrigation, as low permeability promotes salt buildup from poor-quality water or shallow groundwater, exacerbating sodicity and reducing productivity.^[1]^[32]

References

[1]
Vertisols - Natural Resources Conservation Service
Vertisols are are clayey soils that have deep, wide cracks for some time during the year. They shrink as they dry and swell as they become moist.
[2]
[PDF] Illustrated Guide to Soil Taxonomy
The main soil properties and features considered at the suborder and great ... Vertisols are very clayey soils that shrink and crack when dry and.
[3]
Classification and management-related properties of Vertisols
Abstract. Vertisols, as a class of soils, are easily recognised because of their clayey textures, dark colours, and special physical attributes.
[4]
Vertisols | University of Idaho
Vertisols are clay-rich soils that shrink and swell with changes in moisture content. During dry periods, the soil volume shrinks and deep wide cracks form.
[5]
Physical properties of Ethiopian Vertisols
Vertisols are important to Ethiopian agriculture. They account for 24% of all highland soils that are cropped, but their high yield potential has not been ...
[6]
5.14 - Vertisols | Soil Genesis and Development, Lesson 5
Large areas of Vertisols are found in Northeastern Africa, India, and Australia , with smaller areas scattered worldwide. Soil order - Vertisols. Image courtesy ...
[7]
Networking on Vertisol management concepts, problems and ...
This presentation explains the concepts on which soil management and networks are based, the major problems of Vertisol management under semiarid conditions and ...
[8]
[PDF] Keys to Soil Taxonomy - Natural Resources Conservation Service
The "Keys to Soil Taxonomy" is a 13th edition publication by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, published in 2022.<|separator|>
[9]
[PDF] IUSS Working Group WRB. 2022. World Reference Base for Soil
Dec 18, 2022 · International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. 4th edition. International Union of Soil Sciences.
[10]
[PDF] v4 WRB Documentation Centre Vertisols Lecture Notes
Map 1: Distribution of Vertisols worldwide. Soil Forming factors in ... Soil map of the world. Revised legend. World Soil Resources. Report No. 60. FAO ...
[11]
Vertisolic soils of Canada: Genesis, distribution, and classification
Surface cracks that are greater than 7.5 cm in width and may extend to depths of 1 m are typical features of Vertisolic soils under dry soil moisture conditions ...
[12]
Vertisol - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Vertisols are clayey soils that shrink and swell, forming deep, wide cracks. They are also known for self-mulching, and pothole formation.
[13]
Vertisols: Extreme features and extreme environment - ScienceDirect
According to WRB (IUSS WG WRB, 2015) Vertisols are churning heavy clay soils formed on parent materials with a high proportion of swelling clays. They have deep ...
[14]
Vertisols - Soil Formation and Soil Processes
The dominant soil-forming processes in Vertisols are: cracking, argilli-pedoturbation (mixing of clay in the pedon) and mass movement of materials due to ...
[15]
[PDF] Characterization and classification of clayey soils forming on ...
Argillipedoturbation is the mixing of soil due to shrinking and swelling of expansive clays which accompany drying and wetting cycles (Buol et al., 2003). It is.<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
[PDF] Vertisols - ScienceDirect.com
Typical and extreme parent material and mineralogy. 101. Coulombe et al. (1996) indicated that parent materials of Vertisols are highly variable originating.
[17]
(PDF) Formation of Vertisols - ResearchGate
Apr 18, 2018 · Two sets of processes related to the genesis of Vertisols will be discussed: the formation of smectitic clays, and the development of the typical physical ...
[18]
[PDF] Pedogenic Relationships in a Texas Vertisol Climosequence ...
Chadwick and Chorover (2001) suggest that soils progress through a series of pedogenic thresholds dictated by weathering regime and geological setting. Paleosol ...
[19]
None
Below is a comprehensive merged summary of Vertisols based on the provided segments from Soil Taxonomy (USDA NRCS). To retain all information in a dense and organized manner, I will use a combination of narrative text and tables in CSV format where appropriate. The summary integrates all details across the segments, avoiding redundancy while ensuring completeness.
[20]
[PDF] Physical and Chemical Properties of Vertisols and their Management
According to Dudal(1965), the content of organic matter varies from 0.5 to 2.0% in most of the African Vertisols and from 2 to 4% in some Vertisols from the USA ...
[21]
[PDF] World reference base for soil resources 2014
The WRB is a soil classification system for naming soils and creating soil map legends. It is hoped that this publication will contribute to the understanding ...
[22]
[PDF] Soil and Water Resources and Degradation Factors Affecting their ...
In most cases Vertisols are found in topography having flat or gentle slopes. The main constraints of these soils are waterlogging during the wet season and ...
[23]
[PDF] WRB 2022 (PDF)
Dec 18, 2022 · International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. 4th edition. International Union of Soil Sciences.Missing: latitudinal | Show results with:latitudinal
[24]
World Reference Base for Soil Resources—Its fourth edition and its ...
Feb 8, 2023 · The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is an international soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps.<|separator|>
[25]
Harmonized world soil database v2.0 | FAO SOILS PORTAL
The HWSD v2.0 is a global soil inventory with detailed soil properties, 1km resolution, seven soil layers, and a GIS raster image file.Missing: remote sensing Vertisols<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
[PDF] PROBLEMS AND POTENTIALS OF VERTISOLS AND ALFISOLS
Vertisols and associated soils in India alone occupy 73 million ha out of which 38% (28 million ha) are Vertisols, 37% Vertic-Inceptisols and 21% Entisols. The ...
[27]
Soil water measurement and management on Vertisols in ...
Rooting depth varies with crop growth, the stress levels imposed, and between Vertisols: it is defined as the deepest soil depth of significant decrease in soil ...
[28]
Sustainable intensification opportunities for Alfisols and Vertisols ...
Jun 30, 2023 · Current yields in rainfed systems range between 0.5 t/ha and 1.5 t/ha, way below the achievable potential of 2–4 t/ha that is possible by ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
[29]
Characteristics and management problems of Vertisols in the ...
The Mansur Vertisols contains the highest sand fraction, while the Numan Vertisols have the lowest sand and silt contents.
[30]
[PDF] Land reclamation and water management
sodic soils and in sodic vertisols the 15 per cent limit is ... as cultivation, deep ripping, gypsum application, or a combination of these ...
[31]
Carbon Sequestration Efficiency of Organic Amendments in a Long ...
Sep 29, 2014 · The results indicate that the Vertisol has a large potential to sequester SOC with a high efficiency, and applying cattle manure or wheat straw ...
[32]
[PDF] SOIL SALINITY AND SODICITY IMPACTS ON SOIL SHRINKAGE ...
) and irrigation water can replace sodium on cation exchange ... which are vulnerable to salinization from shallow ground waters. ... Vertisol soils of ...