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Cation-exchange capacity

Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is a key soil property defined as the total negative charge in the soil that enables it to attract, retain, and exchange positively charged ions, or cations, such as calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), and potassium (K⁺), which are vital for plant nutrition.^[1] This capacity arises primarily from the surfaces of clay minerals and organic matter, where negative charges bind cations reversibly, preventing their leaching while allowing release as needed by plant roots.^[2] Measured in units of milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil (meq/100 g) or equivalently centimoles of charge per kilogram (cmol_c/kg), CEC quantifies the soil's potential to store these nutrients, with typical values ranging from low levels (3–5 meq/100 g) in sandy soils to high levels (20–100 meq/100 g) in clay-rich or organic soils.^[3] The negative charges contributing to CEC originate from two main sources: permanent charges on clay particles due to isomorphous substitution (e.g., aluminum replacing silicon in mineral lattices) and pH-dependent charges from organic matter and certain clays, which increase with rising soil pH through the dissociation of acidic functional groups.^[2] Factors influencing CEC include soil texture, with finer clays providing more surface area for charge sites; organic matter content, which can significantly boost CEC in even coarse-textured soils; and soil pH, as acidic conditions reduce variable charges.^[1] For instance, soils with high clay or humus content exhibit greater CEC, enhancing their buffering capacity against nutrient fluctuations.^[3] CEC plays a pivotal role in soil fertility and management by determining nutrient availability and guiding practices like fertilization and liming.^[1] High-CEC soils retain more cations, reducing the need for frequent applications but requiring larger doses when amendments are necessary, while low-CEC soils demand split, smaller nutrient inputs to avoid losses.^[2] Related concepts include base saturation, the percentage of CEC occupied by nutrient cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺) versus acid cations (H⁺, Al³⁺), which influences soil acidity and productivity.^[3] Overall, understanding CEC helps in sustainable agriculture by optimizing resource use and minimizing environmental impacts from nutrient runoff.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is defined as the total number of exchangeable cations that a soil or other material can hold, representing the soil's ability to adsorb and retain positively charged ions such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium on its negatively charged surfaces.^[1] This capacity arises primarily from clay minerals and organic matter, which provide the negative charges necessary for cation adsorption.^[2] CEC is typically expressed in units of milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil (meq/100g), which measures the amount of charge that can be balanced by exchangeable cations.^[3] An equivalent unit is centimoles of charge per kilogram (cmol/kg), and the two are numerically identical since 1 meq/100g = 1 cmol/kg, facilitating direct conversions between them.^[4] A key distinction exists between effective CEC (ECEC), which quantifies exchangeable cations at the soil's natural pH, and potential CEC, which estimates the total capacity including sites that become active only at a buffered pH (typically 7.0), such as in acidic soils where aluminum and hydrogen ions occupy sites.^[5] ECEC often yields lower values than potential CEC in variable-charge soils because it reflects field conditions without pH adjustment.^[6] The term CEC originated in the early 20th century amid soil fertility studies, with pioneering work by scientists like Walter P. Kelley and Hans Jenny in the 1920s and 1930s, who advanced understanding of ion exchange in soils through experimental research on clay minerals and nutrient retention.^[7] Kelley's contributions, including his 1931 studies on crystalline clay structures, helped formalize the concept in the context of agricultural productivity.^[7]

Underlying Principles

Negative surface charges on soil colloids, which enable cation exchange, arise primarily from two mechanisms: permanent charges due to isomorphous substitution within mineral structures and pH-dependent charges from the dissociation of hydrogen ions from functional groups. Isomorphous substitution involves the replacement of higher-valence cations with lower-valence ones in the crystal lattice of clay minerals, such as aluminum (Al³⁺) substituting for silicon (Si⁴⁺) in the tetrahedral sheet of phyllosilicates, creating a net negative charge that remains constant regardless of soil pH.^[8]^[9] In contrast, variable charges originate from the dissociation of H⁺ from surface functional groups, particularly carboxyl (-COOH) groups in organic matter like humus, which deprotonate to form -COO⁻, contributing significantly to charge in soils rich in organic colloids.^[8] These charges attract and hold cations from the soil solution through electrostatic forces, forming the basis for exchangeable nutrient storage. The cation exchange process is a reversible reaction driven by electrostatic attraction between negatively charged soil surfaces and positively charged ions in the soil solution. It can be represented by the general equation:

\text{Soil-X}^- + \text{M}^+ \rightleftharpoons \text{Soil-M} + \text{X}^-

where Soil-X⁻ denotes the soil colloid with an adsorbed counterion X⁻, and M⁺ is a cation from the solution, such as Ca²⁺ or K⁺, that displaces X⁻.^[10] This equilibrium allows for dynamic nutrient availability, as cations can be released back into solution when concentrations of competing ions change, ensuring reversibility under typical soil conditions unless fixed by specific interlayer reactions.^[11] Cation selectivity in exchange reactions follows a specific sequence determined by the ions' charge density and hydration energy, with higher selectivity for cations that have greater charge-to-radius ratios and lower hydration shells, allowing closer approach to the negatively charged surface. A typical sequence for common soil cations is Al³⁺ > H⁺ > Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺ > Na⁺, where trivalent Al³⁺ is preferentially adsorbed due to its high charge density, while monovalent Na⁺ is more easily displaced owing to its larger hydrated radius and higher hydration energy.^[12] This selectivity influences nutrient competition and soil fertility, as polyvalent cations like Ca²⁺ bind more strongly than monovalent ones like K⁺.^[13] The distribution of ions near charged soil surfaces is described by the diffuse double layer (DDL) model, where cations accumulate in a diffuse region adjacent to the colloid surface to balance the negative charge, with concentration decreasing exponentially away from the surface. The Gouy-Chapman theory provides the theoretical foundation for this model, quantifying the electrical potential and ion concentration profiles in the DDL through equations relating surface charge density, electrolyte concentration, and ionic valence, thus explaining how environmental factors modulate exchange dynamics.^[14]^[15] This framework highlights the role of the DDL in facilitating reversible exchange by maintaining a reservoir of exchangeable cations close to the surface.^[16]

Contextual Factors

Relation to Soil Properties

The cation-exchange capacity (CEC) of soil is closely intertwined with its inherent properties, such as pH and texture, which modulate the availability of exchange sites and influence nutrient retention and soil fertility. At low soil pH levels, typically below 5.5, hydrogen ions (H⁺) and aluminum ions (Al³⁺) dominate the exchange sites, occupying a significant portion of the CEC and thereby reducing the effective capacity for essential nutrient cations like calcium, magnesium, and potassium.^[5] This occupation by acid cations limits nutrient availability and can exacerbate soil infertility. Conversely, as soil pH increases toward neutral or slightly alkaline conditions (around 6.5–7.5), the effective CEC rises due to the deprotonation of variable charge sites on organic matter and certain clay minerals, such as those with hydroxyl groups, which generate additional negative charges for cation adsorption.^[17] Soil texture profoundly affects CEC through differences in particle surface area and mineral composition. Clay-rich soils, particularly those dominated by 2:1 phyllosilicate clays like montmorillonite, exhibit high CEC values ranging from 20 to 150 cmol/kg, attributed to their expansive lattice structures and extensive surface areas that provide numerous permanent negative charges.^[18] In contrast, sandy soils, with low clay content and minimal surface area, typically have CEC values below 5 cmol/kg, resulting in poor nutrient-holding capacity and increased leaching risks.^[3] Organic matter further amplifies CEC beyond what mineral components alone can achieve; humus, the stable fraction of soil organic matter, contributes 200–400 cmol/kg of exchange capacity per unit of material, often exceeding the CEC from clays by several fold and enhancing overall soil fertility in textured soils.^[19] CEC also plays a pivotal role in soil buffering capacity against acidification, as higher CEC values allow soils to resist pH changes by exchanging acid cations for base cations, thereby stabilizing soil solution chemistry over time.^[20] This buffering is particularly evident in soils with substantial clay or organic matter content, where the exchange process mitigates the impacts of acid rain or fertilizer applications, maintaining a more consistent environment for plant growth.^[21] The proportion of base cations relative to total CEC, known as base saturation, provides a quantitative indicator of this buffering potential, with values above 50% generally associated with greater resistance to acidification (detailed in Quantitative Evaluation).^[1]

Influences on CEC

Climatic conditions significantly influence cation-exchange capacity (CEC) through their effects on soil organic matter accumulation and mineral development. In wetter climates, higher precipitation and cooler temperatures promote greater organic matter buildup, which contributes substantially to variable charge sites and elevates CEC.^[22] Conversely, arid conditions limit organic matter decomposition and accumulation, resulting in lower CEC values, while also favoring the formation of saline soils that often exhibit reduced effective nutrient retention due to high salt concentrations.^[22]^[23] Land use practices, particularly agricultural management, can markedly alter CEC by impacting organic matter levels and soil structure. Conventional tillage accelerates organic matter decomposition and exposes soil to erosion, leading to CEC reductions of 20-50% compared to undisturbed systems like forests or grasslands.^[24] Liming, commonly applied to acidic soils, raises pH and displaces hydrogen and aluminum ions from exchange sites, thereby increasing effective CEC and improving base cation availability.^[25] Soil mineralogy exerts a primary control on inherent CEC, with clay type determining the density of permanent negative charges. Soils dominated by 2:1 clays, such as smectites, exhibit high CEC values ranging from 80 to 150 cmol/kg due to their expansive interlayer structure and isomorphous substitution.^[26] In contrast, 1:1 clays like kaolinite have lower CEC of 3 to 15 cmol/kg, limited by fewer charge sites and a non-expansive structure, which is more common in weathered, tropical soils.^[26] Anthropogenic inputs, especially fertilizers, introduce short-term and long-term shifts in CEC dynamics. Ammonium-based fertilizers temporarily increase exchangeable ammonium levels on soil colloids, occupying exchange sites without altering the total CEC. However, repeated use leads to soil acidification via nitrification, which decreases overall CEC by promoting aluminum mobilization and reducing variable charge contributions from organic matter and oxides.^[27]^[28]

Measurement Methods

Laboratory Techniques

Laboratory techniques for quantifying cation-exchange capacity (CEC) in soils involve controlled extractions that saturate exchange sites with a known cation and measure the displaced ions, providing precise values under standardized conditions. These methods are essential for soil fertility assessments and require careful sample preparation, such as air-drying and sieving soil to less than 2 mm, to ensure reproducibility.^[29] The ammonium acetate method at pH 7 is a widely adopted standard for determining potential CEC, where soil is first saturated with ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) to occupy all exchange sites. Typically, 5–10 g of soil is mixed with 1 N ammonium acetate (pH 7.0) in a flask or tube, shaken for 15–30 minutes, and leached multiple times until no further cations (e.g., calcium) are detected in the effluent, ensuring complete saturation. The soil is then washed with ethanol to remove excess salts, followed by displacement of the adsorbed NH₄⁺ using 1 N potassium chloride (KCl) or 10% sodium chloride (NaCl), with the displaced ammonium collected in filtrates. The amount of NH₄⁺ is quantified through steam distillation with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) into a boric acid trap, followed by titration with 0.01 N hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) using a mixed indicator, or alternatively via colorimetric methods such as the indophenol blue reaction for spectrophotometric analysis. This method assumes a neutral pH to estimate the total potential CEC, as the buffering reveals latent charge sites.^[30]^[29] The compulsive exchange method using Mehlich III extractant offers an alternative for direct measurement of exchangeable cations, particularly in acidic soils where pH-dependent charges dominate. The Mehlich III solution, composed of 0.2 N acetic acid, 0.25 N ammonium nitrate, 0.015 N ammonium fluoride, 0.013 N nitric acid, and 0.001 N ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), acts as a chelating agent to forcibly extract base cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺) from exchange sites without prior saturation. In the procedure, 2–5 g of soil is shaken with 20–30 mL of the extractant for 5 minutes on a mechanical shaker, centrifuged or filtered, and the supernatant analyzed for cation concentrations via atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) or inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES); CEC is calculated as the sum of these extractable cations. This approach is suitable for acidic soils (pH < 6.5) as the extractant's composition targets pH-relevant exchangeable ions without artificially increasing charge through buffering.^[31]^[32] Index methods like ammonium acetate at pH 7 have limitations, particularly in variable-charge soils such as those dominated by oxides or 1:1 clays (e.g., kaolinite), where the neutral pH buffering induces additional negative charge, leading to overestimation of effective CEC compared to actual field conditions. In acidic soils (pH < 5.5), this overestimation occurs because variable charges from organic matter and iron/aluminum oxides develop more negative sites at higher pH, while in calcareous or gypsiferous soils, it underestimates CEC due to incomplete NH₄⁺ saturation from competing Ca²⁺ or gypsum dissolution. Organic matter can interfere by contributing pH-dependent charges, requiring correction factors (e.g., subtracting estimated organic CEC) for accuracy in high-organic soils (>5%). Additionally, fixation of NH₄⁺ in interlayers of vermiculite or mica clays reduces measurable exchange, necessitating alternative methods like barium chloride for such minerals.^[30]^[29]^[33] Essential equipment for these techniques includes mechanical shakers or end-over-end rotators for extraction, centrifuges or vacuum filtration setups (e.g., Buchner funnels) for separation, and analytical instruments like AAS or ICP-OES for cation detection with detection limits below 0.1 mg/L to achieve CEC precision of ±0.1 cmol/kg. For NH₄⁺ quantification in the ammonium acetate method, steam distillation units with Kjeldahl flasks and burettes (0.02 mL precision) are standard, while spectrophotometers (e.g., at 630 nm for colorimetry) support rapid analysis in high-throughput labs. Calibration with standards ensures accuracy across soil types.^[30]^[34]

Estimation Approaches

Pedotransfer functions (PTFs) provide empirical models to estimate cation-exchange capacity (CEC) from readily available soil properties, enabling rapid assessments in fieldwork or large-scale surveys without requiring full laboratory analysis. These functions typically incorporate soil texture (e.g., clay content), organic matter (OM) or organic carbon (OC) content, and pH as key predictors, as these factors strongly influence the number of exchange sites on soil colloids. For instance, in temperate regions like Denmark, PTFs relate CEC to clay and OM contributions, with average clay-CEC values of 48–53 cmol_c kg⁻¹ and OM-CEC of 284–291 cmol_c kg⁻¹, highlighting the dominant role of organic matter in low-clay soils. In highly weathered tropical soils, such as those in northwest Cameroon, linear and nonlinear regressions using OC, clay percentage, and pH yield reliable estimates when stratified by soil horizons or reference groups (e.g., Acrisols, Ferralsols), with OC emerging as the primary driver due to its buffering against low-activity clays.^[35]^[36] A practical variant of PTFs integrates soil test cations (STCat: sum of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺), pH, and soil organic carbon (SOC) to predict CEC, particularly effective in agricultural settings. Studies on Finnish soils demonstrate that these inputs explain up to 96% of CEC variation, with mean values ranging from 14 cmol_c kg⁻¹ in coarse-textured soils to 33 cmol_c kg⁻¹ in heavy clays, and higher in organic-rich profiles (42–77 cmol_c kg⁻¹). This approach is advantageous for its reliance on routine soil testing data, facilitating site-specific predictions while accounting for pH-dependent charge in variable soils.^[37] The sum of exchangeable cations method offers a direct proxy for effective CEC (ECEC) by quantifying and adding concentrations of base cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺) extracted via ammonium acetate, plus exchangeable acidity (H⁺ and Al³⁺) determined using BaCl₂-triethanolamine extraction. This summation approximates total charge under natural soil pH conditions, making it suitable for in situ evaluations in acidic or variable-charge soils where traditional CEC overestimates capacity. Widely adopted in soil testing labs, it provides ECEC values that correlate closely with nutrient retention potential, though it requires careful extraction to avoid underestimating acidity in low-pH environments.^[38]^[4]^[39] Remote sensing proxies extend CEC estimation to landscape scales through techniques like mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, which captures spectral reflectance linked to clay minerals and organic matter, enabling non-destructive predictions with high throughput. For example, MIR analysis has successfully quantified CEC alongside texture and nutrient properties in diverse soils, offering rapid calibration for regional mapping. Complementarily, GIS-based clay mapping utilizes satellite data (e.g., Landsat) and terrain attributes to infer CEC, as clay content strongly correlates with exchange sites; machine learning integrations achieve effective predictions in semi-arid or tropical landscapes. These methods are validated against lab data, supporting scalable applications in precision agriculture.^[40]^[41]^[42] Validation studies confirm the utility of these approaches, with PTFs achieving R² values of 0.70–0.90 in loamy temperate soils, reflecting strong performance where clay and OM dominate charge. However, accuracy declines in highly weathered tropical soils (e.g., Oxisols, Ultisols), where errors increase due to variable mineralogy, low bulk density (<0.72 Mg m⁻³), and dominant oxide influences, often requiring soil-specific calibrations to mitigate biases. Sum methods and remote proxies similarly show 80–95% agreement with lab ECEC in calibrated settings, underscoring their value for approximate, field-oriented assessments.^[43]^[44]^[33]

Quantitative Evaluation

Typical Values

Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) varies widely across soil orders, reflecting differences in mineralogy, weathering intensity, and organic matter content. Mollisols, typically found in grassland regions with high base saturation, exhibit CEC values ranging from 25 to 50 cmol/kg, attributed to their rich organic horizons and smectitic clays that enhance nutrient retention.^[45] In contrast, Oxisols, prevalent in highly weathered tropical environments, display low CEC of 5 to 15 cmol/kg due to the dominance of low-activity kaolinitic clays and iron oxides, limiting their ability to hold exchangeable cations.^[46] Vertisols, characterized by smectite-dominated clays and shrink-swell behavior, show elevated CEC levels of 20 to 60 cmol/kg, supporting high fertility in clay-rich profiles.^[46] Globally, arable topsoils average 15 to 25 cmol/kg, influenced by cultivation practices that often deplete organic matter and expose lower-CEC subsoils.^[47] Forest soils, benefiting from continuous organic inputs like leaf litter, typically range higher at 20 to 50 cmol/kg, promoting greater cation buffering and nutrient cycling.^[48] In non-soil contexts, materials like zeolites employed in water treatment demonstrate CEC values of 100 to 300 cmol/kg, stemming from their aluminosilicate framework that facilitates ion exchange for contaminant removal.^[49] Peat, used in horticultural media, can exceed 200 cmol/kg, largely due to carboxyl and phenolic groups in its organic structure that provide abundant exchange sites.^[10] Intensively farmed soils often experience declining CEC, with erosion contributing to losses of 10 to 20% over decades by removing organic-rich topsoil and exposing mineral-poor layers.^[50]

Base Saturation

Base saturation refers to the proportion of a soil's cation-exchange capacity (CEC) occupied by basic cations, such as calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), potassium (K⁺), and sodium (Na⁺), in contrast to acidic cations like hydrogen (H⁺) and aluminum (Al³⁺). It is calculated using the formula:

\text{Base saturation (\%)} = \left( \frac{\sum \text{base cations (meq/100 g soil)}}{\text{CEC (meq/100 g soil)}} \right) \times 100

where the sum of base cations represents the exchangeable amounts of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺ extracted from the soil.^[3]^[51] This metric provides insight into soil acidity and nutrient availability, as higher base saturation indicates a greater occupancy by nutrient-providing cations and reduced dominance by potentially toxic acidic ones.^[18] In productive agricultural soils, base saturation typically ranges from 80% to 100%, which helps maintain optimal pH levels (around 6.5–6.8) and minimizes aluminum toxicity that can inhibit root development and nutrient uptake.^[52]^[53] Conversely, low base saturation below 50%, common in acidic subsoils at pH around 5.0–5.5, correlates with elevated Al³⁺ concentrations that restrict root growth and limit crop productivity by impairing water and nutrient absorption.^[54]^[55] Maintaining high base saturation is thus critical for soil fertility, as it enhances the availability of essential bases while suppressing acidity-related stresses.^[18] Base saturation is determined indirectly after measuring CEC, through analysis of exchangeable cations extracted from soil samples, often using ammonium acetate or barium chloride solutions followed by quantification via atomic absorption spectroscopy.^[56]^[57] This approach allows for the calculation of individual and total base cation contributions to CEC. Historically, the concept draws from Justus von Liebig's 19th-century law of the minimum, which emphasized that plant growth is limited by the scarcest essential nutrient, influencing early soil fertility studies on cation balances.^[58] It was further refined in the 1940s through U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil surveys and experiments by researchers like Firman E. Bear, who proposed ideal base saturation ratios to optimize fertility and reduce nutrient imbalances in cropped soils.^[59]

Anion-Exchange Capacity

Anion-exchange capacity (AEC) refers to the soil's ability to adsorb and retain anions, such as nitrate (NO₃⁻) and phosphate (PO₄³⁻), through positively charged sites on soil particles, quantified as the sum of total exchangeable anions in centimoles of charge per kilogram (cmol_c kg⁻¹).^[60] This capacity is typically low in most soils, ranging from 0.1 to 5 cmol_c kg⁻¹, but becomes more pronounced in variable-charge soils like Oxisols due to the presence of iron and aluminum oxides and kaolinite.^[61] The primary mechanisms underlying AEC involve pH-dependent positive charges generated on soil surfaces, particularly through the protonation of hydroxyl groups (-OH) on Fe and Al oxides and at the edges of kaolinite clay minerals. At low pH values (typically below 5), these surfaces acquire a net positive charge, enabling electrostatic attraction of anions; as pH increases, deprotonation reduces this positive charge and AEC diminishes.^[62] Kaolinite exhibits higher anion adsorption than other clays like montmorillonite at equivalent pH levels owing to its greater positive charge density. In contrast to cation-exchange capacity (CEC), which dominates in most soils due to permanent negative charges, AEC is generally much lower but assumes greater relative importance in highly weathered, acidic tropical soils such as Oxisols and Ultisols, where the AEC:CEC ratio can exceed 0.2, resulting in net positive surface charges that favor anion retention over cation holding.^[63] This shift contributes to challenges like enhanced leaching of basic cations and potential accumulation or fixation of anions, while AEC remains negligible in temperate soils dominated by 2:1 clays with high permanent negative charges.^[64] AEC plays a key role in nutrient management, particularly influencing phosphorus fixation by strongly adsorbing phosphate ions (H₂PO₄⁻ and HPO₄²⁻) on oxide surfaces, which reduces phosphorus availability to plants in tropical environments.^[65] Measurement of AEC follows principles similar to CEC but involves saturating soils with an index anion like chloride (Cl⁻) followed by displacement and quantification, often via titration or extraction to assess adsorbed anion quantities.

Exchangeable Cations

Exchangeable cations are the positively charged ions held on the negatively charged surfaces of soil colloids, such as clay minerals and organic matter, and they play a central role in soil fertility and plant nutrition within the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) framework. The primary exchangeable cations include calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), potassium (K⁺), and sodium (Na⁺), which occupy varying proportions of the CEC depending on soil type and management. In fertile soils, Ca²⁺ typically constitutes 40-70% of the base saturation, serving as the dominant cation that enhances soil structure by promoting aggregation and improving porosity, which reduces erosion and facilitates root penetration.^[66]^[67] Mg²⁺ accounts for 5-15% of base saturation in such soils, acting as a key component of chlorophyll to support photosynthesis and enzyme activation in plants.^[66]^[67] K⁺ occupies 1-5%, essential for plant osmoregulation, water uptake efficiency, and disease resistance.^[66]^[67] In contrast, Na⁺ is usually minimal (<5%) in non-sodic soils but becomes detrimental in excess, promoting clay dispersion that degrades soil structure and reduces permeability.^[1]^[68] The dynamics of exchangeable cations are governed by principles of mass action, where cations in the soil solution compete for exchange sites based on their concentrations and affinities; higher concentrations of a cation in solution can displace sorbed ions, facilitating release and uptake by plants.^[4] This reversible process ensures a steady supply of nutrients but is influenced by soil pH, with acidic conditions favoring the displacement of base cations by H⁺ or Al³⁺.^[4] However, certain cations like K⁺ face fixation risks in 2:1 clay minerals, such as illite and smectite, where the ion becomes trapped in interlayer spaces upon drying, reducing its availability; this fixation is partially reversible with wetting but can limit plant access in clay-rich soils.^[69] Deficiency and toxicity thresholds for exchangeable cations are critical for assessing soil health. For instance, exchangeable Ca²⁺ levels below 2 cmol/kg often lead to deficiencies, impairing root growth and causing disorders like blossom-end rot in crops.^[70] Al³⁺, an acidic cation, becomes toxic when its saturation exceeds 15% of the CEC, inhibiting root elongation and nutrient uptake in sensitive plants.^[71] Analytical determination of exchangeable cations involves extraction with 1 M ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) at pH 7 to displace cations from soil exchange sites, followed by quantification using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for accurate multi-element profiling.^[72] This method provides estimates of plant-available cations in cmol/kg, guiding fertilization practices.^[72]

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[PDF] Method 9080: Cation-Exchange Capacity of Soils (Ammonium ...
Method 9080 determines soil cation-exchange capacity by mixing soil with ammonium acetate, exchanging cations, and measuring exchangeable ammonium.
[30]
[PDF] 1N ammonium acetate, pH 7.0 method - FAO Knowledge Repository
Jul 26, 2022 · This procedure outlines the process for the determination of cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable bases (calcium, magnesium, ...
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Evaluation of Mehlich‐3 for determination of cation exchange ...
Nov 13, 2021 · The Mehlich-3 (M3) soil test procedure allows for the simultaneous measurement of numerous essential plant nutrients in soils, including P, K, ...
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Extraction of Soil Nutrients Using Mehlich-3 Reagent for Acid ...
Mehlich-1 was the soil extractant used as the standard method by the UF/IFAS Extension Soil Testing Laboratory for acidic-mineral soils in the state.
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Comparison of cation exchange capacity extraction methods for soil ...
Relationships between 'effective' cation exchange capacity (ECEC), T and CEC in noncalcareous soils (n = 163). Explanation of abbreviations as in Fig. 1, Fig. 4 ...
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Soil Science Review: Cation Exchange Capacity - Agvise Laboratories
Mar 4, 2021 · The cations are extracted with ammonium acetate, then analyzed with atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) or inductively coupled plasma atomic ...
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Cation-Exchange Capacity Pedotransfer Functions for Danish Soils
The average soil organic matter-CEC is 284–291 cmolc kg−1 and the average clay-CEC is 48–53 cmolc kg−1, indicating that illite is the principal clay mineral.
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Pedotransfer functions for cation exchange capacity estimation in ...
Pedotransfer functions (PTFs) can be used as indirect and reliable tools for CEC estimation using easy-to-measure soil properties such as pH, soil organic ...
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Estimating cation exchange capacity and clay content ... - Journal.fi
Dec 31, 2021 · In this study, pedotransfer functions including soil test cations (STCat; Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+), pH and soil organic carbon (SOC, %) as explanatory ...
[38]
Cation Exchange Capacity, CEC, by Summation Method
CEC is determined by the summation of exchangeable Ca, Mg, Na, K, and Al. Base cations are extracted by leaching 3 g air dried soil.
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Determination of Effective Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchange ...
Aug 9, 2025 · In both methods, ECEC was calculated by summing base and acid cations, including H+ determined by titration, and EA was determined by a second ...
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Mid-infrared spectroscopy for accurate measurement of an extensive ...
MIR spectroscopy has proven to successfully predict various forms of soil carbon, CEC, texture, phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) content (Soriano-Disla et ...
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Integrating GIS and remote sensing for soil attributes mapping in ...
These findings highlight the effectiveness of integrating diverse remote sensing data with ML for soil attributes mapping, particularly for clay and CEC.
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High Resolution Mapping of Soil Properties Using Remote Sensing ...
This study investigated the use of high spatial resolution satellite data (RapidEye and Landsat), terrain/climatic data and laboratory analysed soil samples
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Performance of Soil Cation Exchange Capacity Pedotransfer ...
The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of calibration dataset size on accuracy and validity of soil CEC pedotransfer functions (PTFs) derived ...Missing: loamy tropics
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(PDF) Pedotransfer functions for tropical soils - ResearchGate
This chapter compares the performance of well-documented pedotransfer functions (PTFs) developed in tropical soils.
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(PDF) Estimating cation exchange capacity and clay content from ...
The mean of potential CEC extracted by 1 M ammonium acetate at pH 7.0 ranged from 14 (range 6.4−25) in coarse soils to 33 (21−45) cmol(+) kg-1 in heavy clay ...
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[PDF] Cation Exchange: A Review - Agvise
These estimates are made by measuring and summing the extractable basic cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and. Na+) and estimating H+ and Al3+ from soil and buffer pH.
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A Critical Evaluation of the Relationship Between the Effective ...
Sep 3, 2020 · The effective cation exchange capacity (CEC eff.) is a measure that integrates information about available soil surfaces to which metal cations ...Missing: ECEC | Show results with:ECEC<|control11|><|separator|>
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Natural Zeolites in Water Treatment – How Effective is Their Use
Jan 16, 2013 · Na+ ion is most rapidly exchanged with ammonium ions from water solutions. Total CEC of zeolite was found to be up to 13 mg NH4+/g zeolite ( ...
[49]
Effect of Land Use on Soil Degradation in Alpine Grassland Soil ...
Sep 1, 2002 · ... cation-exchange capacity declined by 33, 28, and 18% respectively. Cultivation of grassland worsened soil erosion, and after 8-, 16-, and 41 ...
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[PDF] Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) Base Saturation Ca:Mg Ratio
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is the total number of exchangeable cations a soil can hold, and base saturation is the percentage of CEC occupied by basic ...Missing: science | Show results with:science
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Cation Exchange Capacity and Base Saturation
A soil with a pH between 6.5 and 6.8 will typically have a base saturation of 80-90%.Missing: agriculture toxicity
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Importance of Mineral Nutrition for Mitigating Aluminum Toxicity in ...
Oct 8, 2018 · Aluminum (Al) toxicity is one of the major limitations that inhibit plant growth and development in acidic soils. In acidic soils (pH < 5.0) ...
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Base Saturation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
For example, an 80% BS soil provides cations to plants more easily than 40% BS soil. At pH 5.5 most soils have 45–55% BS, whereas at pH 7 BS is ≥90%.
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Soil Test Interpretation Guide - OSU Extension Service
The lower rates reflect sandy soil or a low cation exchange capacity (CEC). The low lime rates in eastern Oregon are applied with greater frequency than ...
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Exercise 3: Determination of Exchangeable Base Cations
One common method of determining CEC is to saturate all CEC sites with a common cation, such as ammonium, and then displace the ammonium with another cation ...Missing: equipment | Show results with:equipment
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[PDF] Exchangeable Cations (Ca , Mg , K , Na )
The extracted solution is then analyzed by AA (atomic absorption) for the soil cations. Each chemical compound should be treated as a potential health hazard.
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On the Origin of the Theory of Mineral Nutrition of Plants ... - ACSESS
Sep 1, 1999 · In addition to being considered the founder of the theory of mineral nutrition of plants, Liebig is celebrated because of his formulation of the ...
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[PDF] A Review of the Use of the Basic Cation Saturation Ratio ... - Agvise
Mar 12, 2007 · Indeed, there is an extensive literature demon- strating the negative effect of acid soils, particularly that caused by toxic levels of Al and ...
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https://www.agvise.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/SSSA-Cation-Ratios.pdf
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Mineralogy (Chapter 8) - Properties and Management of Soils in the ...
... Oxisols, Ultisols and reddish Alfisols exhibit significant anion exchange capacity in their subsoils. Although the anion exchange capacity is low (1–4 cmol c/kg ...Chapter 8 Mineralogy · 8.3 Types Of Clay Minerals · 8.4 Mineralogy Families<|separator|>
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/properties-and-management-of-soils-in-the-tropics/mineralogy/1702B200FADA28BC31D025E72DF91D4E
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[PDF] Nutrient mobility in variable- and permanent-charge soils - KBS LTER
For example, theory predicts that, as pH of v-c soils decreases, cation exchange capacity (CEC) also decreases and anion exchange capacity (AEC) increases. If ...
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Soil-Nutrient Relationships - CTAHR
By definition, it is the percentage of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium cations that make up the total cation exchange capacity.Missing: science | Show results with:science
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Phosphorus Forms and Functions - Soil Management
Since phosphate is an anion, particles that generate an anion exchange capacity will form strong bonds with phosphate.
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[PDF] Soil Cation Ratios for Crop Production
''For the 'ideal soil' ,it is suggested that 65 per cent of the exchange complex should be occupied by calcium, 10 per cent by magnesium,. 5 percent by ...
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Soils, Plant Nutrition and Nutrient Management - MU Extension
Nutrient cations in the soil include positively charged ions such as calcium (Ca+2), magnesium (Mg+2), potassium (K+), sodium (Na+) and hydrogen (H+).Missing: major | Show results with:major<|separator|>
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Managing Salt-affected Soils for Crop Production
Generally, soil salinity (EC) is reduced by one-half for every 6 inches of good-quality water that moves through the soil. Good-quality water has an EC lower ...
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North Dakota Clay Mineralogy Impacts Crop Potassium Nutrition ...
The 1:1 and 2:1 minerals have a net negative charge and, therefore, attract positive ions, called cations. In illite, the negatively charged 2:1 mineral sheets ...
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Exchangeable Calcium - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The median value for exchangeable Ca was 0.25 cmolc/dm3, with a range of 0.04–6.81 cmolc/dm3 (Fig. 7). Considering 1.5 cmolc/dm3 as the upper limit for low Ca, ...
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Soil Acidity and Liming - CTAHR
Organic matter increases the cation exchange capacity of the soil. As the base saturation increases, the relative amount of “acid cations” decreases.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Extractable Cations | Soil Lab Modules
Extractable cations of primary interest are: calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+), and sodium (Na+).