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Viking Link

Viking Link is a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electricity interconnector that links the transmission grids of Great Britain and Denmark, enabling bidirectional power flows of up to 1,400 megawatts across a total distance of 765 kilometres. The project, a 50/50 joint venture between National Grid plc of the United Kingdom and Energinet of Denmark, connects the Bicker Fen substation in Lincolnshire, England, to the Revsing substation in southern Jutland, Denmark, via submarine cable in the North Sea and onshore cables. As the world's longest HVDC interconnector combining onshore and subsea elements, it facilitates the sharing of renewable energy resources, particularly allowing the United Kingdom to import surplus wind-generated electricity from Denmark during periods of high production. Commercial operations began on 29 December 2023, following completion of construction in 2023, though the link operates at a reduced capacity of 800 megawatts until 2025 to accommodate limitations in the Danish grid infrastructure. The £1.7 billion project supports grid stability and decarbonization efforts by balancing supply and demand across borders, with projections of significant carbon savings and consumer benefits through arbitraging price differences, despite initial archaeological disruptions during onshore works that uncovered an Anglo-Saxon cemetery.

Project Overview

Technical Specifications

Viking Link is a (HVDC) with a rated capacity of 1,400 MW at ±525 kV DC, enabling bidirectional transmission between and . The system utilizes converter (VSC) technology in a modular multilevel converter () configuration, known as HVDC PLUS, provided by for both converter s. The total route length measures 765 km, consisting of approximately 625 km of subsea cable across the and onshore underground cables of 66 km in the and 75 km in . The subsea cables are mass-impregnated () type, manufactured by Prysmian in two parallel circuits to support the bipolar configuration, while onshore cables were supplied by NKT. Converter stations are situated at Bicker Fen substation in , , connected to the 400 kV , and Revsing substation in , , also at 400 kV. Although designed for full 1,400 MW operation, transmission is currently capped at 800 MW to accommodate Danish limitations until reinforcements are completed.
ParameterSpecification
Rated Capacity1,400 MW (, 2 × 700 MW)
DC Voltage±525 kV
Total Length765 km
Subsea Length625 km (two parallel cables)
UK Onshore Length66 km
Denmark Onshore Length75 km
Converter TechnologyVSC-MMC (HVDC PLUS)
Cable Type (Subsea)Mass-Impregnated (MI) HVDC

Route and Infrastructure

The Viking Link interconnector spans 765 km, linking the Revsing substation in southern Jutland, Denmark, to the Bicker Fen substation in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom. The route primarily traverses the North Sea via submarine cable, with onshore underground segments in both nations facilitating connection to the respective national grids. In the , the cables land at Boygrift near Sandilands in , from which point two parallel (HVDC) underground cables extend approximately 68 km to the converter station adjacent to Bicker Fen substation. The Danish onshore connects the Revsing converter station directly to the offshore cable departure point, integrating with the local transmission network at Revsing. The offshore portion, roughly 650 km in length, consists of buried HVDC cables designed for durability in marine environments. Key infrastructure includes bipolar HVDC cables with a 1,400 MW capacity, employing voltage source converter (VSC) technology at both terminal stations for efficient alternating current (AC) to (DC) conversion and vice versa, supporting bidirectional energy flows. The converter stations at Revsing and Bicker Fen contain transformers, reactors, and systems essential for synchronization and power modulation. Cable installation involved specialized vessels for subsea laying and trenching, ensuring burial depths that protect against fishing gear and anchors.

Development History

Planning and Approvals

The planning process for Viking Link encompassed regulatory approvals in and the , maritime consents for the offshore cable route spanning Dutch, German, and Danish waters, and compliance with EU Project of Common Interest requirements established in November 2015. The project partners, National Grid Viking Link Limited and Energinet, pursued parallel consenting pathways, prioritizing onshore infrastructure permissions to enable construction commencement in 2019. In , Energinet secured onshore and offshore consents prior to 2019, culminating in formal ministerial approval from the Minister of Energy, Utilities and Climate, Lars Christian Lilleholt, on 30 October 2017. This endorsement authorized the 1,400 MW (HVDC) interconnector from Revsing substation in South to the border, integrating with planned grid reinforcements. The approval facilitated subsequent final investment decisions and cable procurement contracts signed in August 2019. UK approvals proceeded under the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 for onshore elements, bypassing the more rigorous Development Consent Order process under the Planning Act 2008 to expedite local permissions, though this choice later contributed to delays. The government issued overarching approval on 15 January , followed by a comprehensive decision in 2019, enabling progression of the onshore route from landing point to Bicker Fen substation in . Individual applications to local authorities, such as Council, yielded approvals for substation works and cable facilitation by 2023, but securing full onshore consents incurred a 12-month project delay relative to the original 2023 commissioning target. Offshore, the Management Organisation granted a marine license, with additional permits obtained from and authorities by early 2019. consents, required for land acquisition, were confirmed by the Secretary of State in 2020 following review. Regulatory milestones extended to Ofgem's cap-and-floor regime confirmation in 2017 and approval of access rules and charging methodology on 10 August 2023, ensuring market integration objectives were met despite approval-induced timeline shifts. These steps underscored the project's emphasis on stakeholder consultations and environmental impact assessments, though onshore permitting complexities in the UK highlighted variances in bilateral regulatory efficiencies.

Construction Phase

The construction phase of Viking Link followed the award of key contracts in 2019, marking the transition from development to building the 1,400 MW HVDC interconnector spanning 765 km between the and . In 2019, National Grid and Energinet awarded contracts valued at approximately €1.1 billion for the electrical connections, including converter stations and cabling. secured the contract for the two stations at Bicker Fen in the and Revsing in , each capable of handling ±525 kV and 1,400 MW bidirectional power flow. Onshore works commenced in mid-2020. In the , National Grid initiated construction in July 2020 with a 2.4 km permanent access road to the Bicker Fen converter station site in , designed to accommodate heavy equipment and expected to take nine months. In , Energinet began building the expanded Revsing converter station on August 10, 2020, integrating with existing infrastructure. The onshore scheme involved installing two underground DC cables over 135 km from the Boygrift landfall in to the converter station, using horizontal in sensitive areas to minimize environmental disruption. Cable manufacturing and installation were handled by . The UK onshore cables were fully installed by February 2023. Subsea cable laying in the followed, with Prysmian deploying specialized vessels to install the 580 km offshore section, culminating in the connection of the final cable length on July 18, 2023, forming a continuous circuit from the UK landfall to . efforts accumulated over three million working hours, addressing challenges such as constraints in the cable market that contributed to timeline extensions. Converter station assembly progressed concurrently, with integrating advanced HVDC technology for efficient power conversion and control.

Commissioning and Delays

The Viking Link faced multiple delays during its development, with the original target for commercial operation set for late 2020 following the final investment decision in January 2019, but pushed back due to supply chain challenges, regulatory reviews, and the impacts of the . In September 2020, developers National Grid Viking Link (NGVL) and Energinet invoked , citing these factors as reasons for postponing commissioning to 2023. partially approved a later start date in April 2023, shifting it from January 2021 to January 2023 to account for setbacks, while noting that some delays were foreseeable and potentially avoidable through better . Subsea cable commissioning testing began in November and December 2023, enabling the link to achieve commercial operations on 29 December 2023 at an initial capacity of 800 MW. This included intermediate testing of onshore and assets to mitigate further risks, as outlined in updates to regulators. However, full operational capacity of 1,400 MW has been constrained by the need for parallel reinforcements to Denmark's onshore grid, including new 400 kV lines to integrate the link without overloading existing infrastructure. Energinet projected that these upgrades would allow ramp-up to full by the first quarter of 2025, though as of early 2025, the remained partially available at around 700 MW amid ongoing efforts. Ofgem's 2025 post-construction review finalized adjustments to cap-and-floor revenue parameters, incorporating delay-related terms to reflect actual commissioning timelines and asset testing outcomes. These delays have implications for revenue recovery under the regulatory framework, with NGVL eligible for adjustments tied to verifiable events but facing scrutiny over preventable aspects of project execution.

Economic and Market Impacts

Costs, Financing, and Regulatory Framework

The Viking Link incurred total project costs of £1,701.6 million in 2019-20 prices, encompassing development, construction, operation, maintenance, replacement, and decommissioning expenditures. 's post-construction review, completed in 2025, assessed these as economically efficient overall, with efficient capital and development expenditure at £691.9 million (adjusted downward from the operator's submission) and operational expenditure at £913.6 million. Replacement expenditure was deemed efficient at £46.7 million, while decommissioning costs stood at £49.4 million. Financing for the project was provided through a 50-50 between National Grid () and Energinet (), which bore the equity portions. Debt financing included a $743 million multi-export credit agency-backed green loan, comprising $488 million from SACE (with SIMEST CIRR support) and $255 million from Euler Hermes. Additionally, Energinet secured a €134.4 million 10-year loan from the in 2022 to support construction. The provided €2.8 million in funding for project development. The regulatory framework employs a split-model cap-and-floor regime, with regulating the revenue share and Danish authorities handling the counterpart, dividing costs and revenues equally. granted cap-and-floor regulation in principle in July 2015, setting preliminary annual allowed revenue levels in 2020 at a cap of £111.55 million and a of £61.70 million (2019-20 prices, GB share). Following the 2025 post-construction review, these were finalized at a cap of £121.13 million and a of £76.08 million, incorporating adjustments for verified efficient costs and applying for 25 years from commercial operations on 29 December 2023. The regime mitigates merchant risks by compensating shortfalls below the from consumers and requiring excess revenues above the cap to be returned.

Effects on Energy Prices and Trade

The Viking Link , which commenced commercial operations on December 29, 2023, facilitates bidirectional trade between the and with a designed of 1,400 MW, though initial operations were constrained to 800 MW due to limitations in the Danish onshore grid reinforcement. By April 2024, it had transmitted 1,733 GWh of , predominantly flowing from Denmark to the , reflecting Denmark's frequent lower wholesale prices driven by high wind generation. Power flow data indicate that the UK imported 76% of the time in early operations, with Denmark exporting during periods of price divergence, enabling market arbitrage under the Day-Ahead Coupling (SDAC) mechanism that automatically directs flows from lower- to higher-priced zones. This trade dynamic has exerted downward pressure on UK wholesale electricity prices by increasing supply from Denmark's renewable-rich market, where prices have historically been below those in the UK due to greater penetration and interconnection with resources. Modeling estimates suggest annual price reductions in ranging from 0.3 to 0.8 €/MWh in the near term, contributing to projected net benefits of £5.2 billion for UK consumers over the link's lifetime through enhanced competition and access to low-cost imports. Conversely, Danish prices experience a mild upward adjustment from exports that deplete local supply during low-price periods, though integrated market effects may initially moderate this to a net decrease of €2-4/MWh before transmission expansions dilute the impact. Full , anticipated by 2026 following Danish grid upgrades, is expected to amplify these trade volumes and price-equalizing effects.

Broader Economic Consequences

The Viking Link is projected to yield £5.2 billion in net consumer benefits for the over its 25-year lifespan, primarily through enhanced access to lower-cost Danish renewable and improved market integration. National Grid estimates an additional £500 million in cumulative savings for consumers over the subsequent decade, supporting broader by facilitating the sharing of surplus generation capacity. In , the project bolsters socio-economic gains by enabling exports of excess , which sustains investment returns for renewable producers and contributes to grid stability amid variable output. This cross-border trade promotes competition in both markets, potentially lowering operational costs for energy-intensive industries and households, though realized benefits depend on sustained price differentials and flow directions. Despite these advantages, the observed power flows— with the importing 76% of the time in early operations—intensify reliance on foreign supply, heightening vulnerability to Danish production shortfalls or European-wide price spikes, as interconnectors historically expose the to higher wholesale rates during constraints. Such , subsidized via the 's cap-and-floor regime, may deter domestic generation investments, constraining long-term economic and indigenous supply chain growth in renewables.

Environmental and Operational Impacts

Claimed Environmental Benefits

Proponents of Viking Link, including operators National Grid and Energinet, claim the interconnector facilitates the integration of by enabling the export of surplus Danish to the during periods of high generation and low demand, thereby displacing fuel-based production. This mechanism is projected to reduce emissions by approximately 600,000 tonnes in the interconnector's first year of full operation, equivalent to removing 280,000 petrol cars from roads for that period. The claimed benefits extend to minimizing renewable energy curtailment, where excess generation—particularly from offshore wind—is otherwise wasted due to grid constraints; Viking Link's 1.4 bidirectional capacity allows for flexible power flows to balance supply across borders, supporting both the 's and Denmark's net-zero targets by optimizing existing without requiring additional domestic capacity. As Denmark's features higher renewable penetration, the link is asserted to provide the with access to low-carbon imports, enhancing overall system decarbonization while improving security of supply through diversified energy sources. During construction, the project achieved sustainability certifications such as Infrastructure "Very Good," incorporating measures like hydrogen fuel cell use for vessels and carbon-saving initiatives that reduced embodied emissions by specified amounts, though these pale in comparison to operational projections. Overall, advocates position Viking Link as a key enabler of a "super-grid" for green energy exchange, with environmental gains tied directly to its role in prioritizing renewables over thermal generation in real-time market dynamics.

Actual Environmental Costs and Assessments

The construction of Viking Link's 630 km subsea (HVDC) cable involved seabed plowing, trenching, and rock placement in areas unsuitable for burial, resulting in temporary physical disturbance to benthic over a narrow corridor typically 5-10 meters wide. This activity caused sediment resuspension, potential smothering of infaunal communities, and crushing or of epibenthic such as the ocean quahog (), with assessments classifying the magnitude as low to moderate adverse but localized and reversible through natural recolonization within 1-3 years. Benthic surveys along the route identified diverse including circalittoral muds and sands supporting polychaetes, bivalves, and crustaceans, but the disturbed area represented a negligible fraction of regional ecosystems, with no permanent habitat loss anticipated post-burial and mitigation via route optimization to avoid sensitive features. Operational electromagnetic fields (EMF) from the DC cable, peaking at levels below 100 μT at 1 meter above the seabed, pose minimal risk to marine life; studies indicate no detectable effects on navigation, prey detection, or migration in elasmobranchs or cetaceans, as the static fields dissipate rapidly and are comparable to natural geomagnetic variations. Similarly, cable heating effects are confined to sediments within 0.2-1 meter of the cable, raising temperatures by less than 2°C under typical burial depths (0.35-1.5 m) and load conditions, with ecological modeling concluding low sensitivity among tolerant infaunal species like clams and ghost shrimps, rendering population-level impacts negligible. Deeper burial to further mitigate heating would exacerbate initial disturbance, outweighing any marginal thermal benefits. Construction-phase emissions from vessels, cable manufacturing, and onshore works contributed to the project's embodied carbon footprint, though specific quantification remains limited; mitigation included zero-emission cells for converter station power, averting approximately 30 tonnes of CO₂ equivalents on access roads alone, and procurement of BREEAM-certified practices reducing virgin material use. The Marine Management Organisation's (EIA), supported by statutory consultations and benthic surveys completed by March 2016, determined overall effects on physical, biological, and human marine receptors as not significant after embedded mitigations like seasonal timing to avoid spawning and pre-lay grapnel runs to clear . Independent reviews, including those under the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009, affirmed licence issuance in October 2018 without evidence of irreversible damage, prioritizing empirical benthic recovery data over precautionary overstatements.

Operational Performance and Reliability

Viking Link entered initial commercial operation on December 29, 2023, initially limited to 800 MW to align with Danish requirements, with full 1.4 anticipated by 2026 following reinforcements. By April 2024, the had transferred 1,733 GWh of between the and Denmark. The project achieved a of 60 days of continuous by October 17, 2024, indicating early reliability in sustained power flow. However, its rigid bipole HVDC means that any cable fault results in complete outage of the , necessitating specialized fault equipment to reduce from unplanned events. Target system availability is modeled at 93.40%, accounting for fault risks. Operational records include planned maintenance outages, such as optimizations on the side, and unplanned interruptions, including an unexpected failure noted in October 2025 and another referenced in parliamentary discussions in April 2025. A scheduled outage program for 2025 outlines further maintenance periods to ensure long-term performance. As a relatively new asset, comprehensive long-term reliability data remains limited, though initial operations demonstrate functionality amid grid integration challenges.

Controversies and Criticisms

Local and Regulatory Opposition

The onshore section of Viking Link in , , encountered significant local opposition primarily from residents, farmers, and environmental groups concerned about the visual and agricultural impacts of the 65 km underground cable route and converter station at Bicker Fen. District Council initially rejected the development consent order application in May 2018, citing inadequate mitigation for landscape disruption and potential harm to local and farming productivity along the route through rural areas. Following Viking Link's appeal, the council withdrew its objection, allowing the Planning Inspectorate to grant approval on January 9, 2019, after revisions including enhanced burial of cables to minimize surface disruption and commitments to restore post-construction. Local stakeholders, including landowners, raised ongoing concerns during the process confirmed in February 2020, focusing on compensation for temporary land access and long-term effects on , though no formal objections blocked the order. In , regulatory hurdles were minimal, with Energinet securing necessary approvals for the Revsing converter station without reported local protests, though broader criticism emerged regarding the project's potential to prioritize exports over domestic supply stability amid rising energy demands. Overall, opposition centered on localized environmental and economic disruptions rather than outright project rejection, with underground cabling adopted to address visual concerns effectively.

Strategic Risks and Energy Dependency

The commissioning of Viking Link in December 2023 has coincided with a marked increase in the United Kingdom's imports, underscoring a shift toward greater reliance on cross-border supplies that heightens dependency. In the first half of 2024, the net value of power imports surged by more than 80% year-over-year, driven in part by flows through new interconnectors like Viking Link, which began operating at an initial capacity of 800 MW before ramping toward its full 1.4 GW potential. Power flows have predominantly directed Danish surplus—often from variable generation—toward the during periods of domestic shortfall, as evidenced by market analyses showing opportunities favoring exports from Denmark's DK1 bidding zone to . This dynamic aligns with the 's broader expansion of interconnector capacity from approximately 4 GW pre-2023 to projected levels exceeding 18 GW by 2030, reducing incentives for baseload domestic capacity amid the phase-out of and delays in projects. Such dependency introduces strategic vulnerabilities, particularly given the cable's 760 km subsea exposure in the , a region increasingly targeted by hybrid threats including deliberate . Undersea infrastructure like Viking Link faces risks from state-linked actors, as demonstrated by recent incidents in the involving cable cuts attributed to vessels with opaque ownership, amid warnings of escalating - and China-backed disruptions to European energy and data links. interconnectors, including those powering offshore wind integration, are highlighted as prime targets due to their shallow-water routing and limited real-time monitoring, with potential outages cascading into grid instability during . Repair timelines for severed HVDC cables can extend weeks to months, exacerbating shortages in an import-reliant system where simultaneous European generation dips—such as during low-wind "" events—could withhold relief. While proponents, including project operators National Grid and Energinet, assert that interconnectors enhance security through diversified sourcing and real-time balancing, empirical patterns reveal a causal : the UK's diminished and fleet amplifies exposure to exogenous factors like Danish variability or continental Europe's -dependent backups, which supplied much of Denmark's grid stability during 2023-2024 transitions. Geopolitically, reliance on NATO-ally mitigates immediate alliance risks, yet the interconnector's integration into a pan-European —prone to synchronized crises, as in the 2022 gas shortfall—undermines long-term sovereignty, prioritizing price signals over resilient, dispatchable domestic generation. This approach, embedded in net-zero policies, has drawn scrutiny for overlooking first-order dependencies on foreign intermittency amid rising global tensions over .

Policy and Subsidization Debates

The Viking Link operates under 's cap and floor regulatory regime for National Grid's 50% revenue share, designed to mitigate risks by setting annual allowed revenue bounds. Following the Post Construction Review completed on July 11, 2025, the regime establishes a revenue floor of £76.08 million—below which consumers fund top-up payments via network charges—and a cap of £121.13 million, with any excess returned to consumers. This 25-year framework, finalized after initial and final project assessments in 2016 and 2020 respectively, aims to incentivize construction of infrastructure amid uncertain market revenues from price arbitrage. Energinet's Danish share is subject to separate national regulation, reflecting public ownership and alignment with grid integration goals. Supporters, including project owners National Grid and Energinet, maintain that the regime facilitates net zero objectives by enabling Denmark's export of surplus wind-generated to the , with modeled savings exceeding £500 million for British consumers over the first 10 years through access to lower wholesale prices. Ofgem's assessments incorporate benefits like enhanced system flexibility and reduced carbon intensity, justifying the risk-sharing as a temporary measure to bridge market gaps in interconnectors. Critics, however, characterize the top-up provisions as a consumer-funded that distorts market incentives, potentially elevating bills if Danish-UK price differentials underperform expectations or if exports predominate during UK shortages. Operational data from early 2024 shows bidirectional flows, with the UK importing 76% of the time but exporting during periods of high domestic prices, prompting debate over whether the link reliably delivers benefits or instead exacerbates volatility exposure. Policy contention centers on balancing expansion for renewable integration against , with advocates emphasizing diversified supply security and opponents highlighting risks from Denmark's intermittent amid geopolitical uncertainties. The regime's structure, while not a direct , has drawn parallels to broader renewable support mechanisms, where guaranteed returns are scrutinized for inflating system costs without commensurate reliability gains. Danish policy discourse remains subdued, focusing on export revenues bolstering national wind ambitions rather than subsidization burdens.

Recent Developments

Post-Commissioning Reviews

Viking Link entered commercial operation on 29 December 2023 at an initial capacity of 800 MW in both directions, constrained by stability requirements in the Danish Energinet's grid. The UK's Office of Gas and Electricity Markets () determined the full commissioning date as 19 August 2024, after verifying satisfaction of regulatory criteria including operational testing and compliance. Ofgem's Post Construction Review, with its decision published on 11 July 2025, assessed the project's final costs and regulatory adjustments under the cap-and-floor regime. was finalized at £691.9 million (in 2019-20 prices), a reduction of £12.2 million from the developer's submission due to disallowances for inefficient expenditures such as £2.0 million in vessel standby costs, £4.0 million for extensions, and £3.9 million in disputed premiums. Operating expenditure remained at £913.6 million as submitted, exceeding earlier Final Project Assessment estimates due to updated lifecycle projections. The review set the annual revenue cap at £121.13 million and floor at £76.08 million (2019-20 prices), confirming National Grid Viking Link Limited's compliance with licence conditions and no major deviations from efficient delivery benchmarks. The European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) evaluated operational performance in its 2024 HVDC Utilisation and Availability Statistics, reporting 80% technical availability for the link, with 20% downtime from unplanned outages and . Utilization was subdued at 52% overall, including 28% unused technical attributable to ongoing delays in Danish AC grid reinforcements in western ; total energy transferred reached 3.2 TWh, with 2.5 TWh flowing westbound from to Great Britain (41% of technical ) versus 0.7 TWh eastbound (11%). Nine disturbance events occurred, comprising eight minor outages and one four-day shutdown from a system fire, alongside 14 days of planned annual in . Capacity ramp-up progressed to 1000 MW eastbound and 1100 MW westbound by late 2024, short of the 1400 MW design rating pending full Danish enhancements projected for completion in 2025. These reviews highlight effective regulatory oversight and technical delivery but underscore integration challenges limiting early-year throughput, with directional flows dominated by Danish renewable exports aiding import needs amid variable domestic generation.

Performance Metrics and Future Outlook

Viking Link achieved commercial operation on December 29, 2023, with an initial export capacity capped at 800 MW in both directions due to constraints in the Danish grid system, limiting full utilization of its 1,400 MW design capacity. In its first three quarters of operation through September 2024, the interconnector transferred approximately 5,000 GWh of electricity, with roughly 80% flowing from Denmark to the United Kingdom, reflecting Denmark's surplus renewable generation during periods of high wind output. For 2024 overall, ENTSO-E reported Viking Link's available technical capacity at 80%, though 28% of technical capacity remained unused, resulting in 0.7 transmitted—equivalent to 11% of the maximum possible under prevailing limits. This partial utilization stems from the 800 MW operational cap and grid integration challenges on the Danish side, including delays in expanding the West 400 grid. Ofgem's July 2025 post-construction review affirmed the project's adherence to cap-and-floor regulatory parameters, with annual revenue caps at £111.55 million and floors at £61.70 million (in 2019-20 prices), supporting amid these constraints. Looking ahead, Viking Link is slated to reach its full 1,400 MW capacity by , contingent on completion of Danish grid reinforcements, enabling it to supply electricity equivalent to the annual needs of up to 2.5 million households. Projections indicate over £500 million in cumulative savings for consumers over the first decade through of price differentials and enhanced renewable integration. The interconnector positions itself as a foundational element in potential supergrid expansions, though realization depends on coordinated international grid investments and policy alignment to mitigate ongoing transmission bottlenecks.

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