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Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process

The Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process, often abbreviated as the WBF process or simply the Bergeron process, is a key microphysical mechanism in atmospheric science that describes the preferential growth of ice crystals within mixed-phase clouds—those containing both supercooled liquid water droplets and ice particles—at temperatures between 0°C and -40°C, where ice crystals rapidly accrete water vapor through deposition while nearby supercooled droplets evaporate, ultimately leading to cloud glaciation and precipitation formation.^[1]^[2] This process arises from a fundamental thermodynamic difference: at subfreezing temperatures, the saturation vapor pressure over ice is lower than over supercooled liquid water, meaning that in an environment where the ambient relative humidity is supersaturated with respect to ice but subsaturated with respect to water, water vapor diffuses toward ice crystals faster than it does toward liquid droplets, causing the latter to shrink and the former to enlarge.^[1]^[2] For the process to initiate and sustain, mixed-phase clouds must exist with sufficient liquid water content and at least a few ice nuclei to seed crystal formation, often triggered by heterogeneous ice nucleation on aerosols; once underway, growing ice crystals can fall through the cloud, collecting droplets via riming or further deposition, and produce snowflakes or other frozen precipitation that may melt into rain upon reaching warmer air layers—a pathway known as the "cold-rain process."^[2]^[3] The concept was first theorized by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1911, who recognized the instability of coexisting ice and supercooled water phases in his work on atmospheric thermodynamics.^[2] Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron advanced the idea in 1935 during proceedings of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, linking it to observations of frost formation and precipitation in layered clouds, emphasizing the role of ice supersaturation.^[2]^[4] German physicist Walter Findeisen provided the definitive theoretical framework and experimental validation in 1938 using cloud chamber simulations, demonstrating enhanced ice growth rates in mixed conditions and integrating it into broader colloidal meteorology.^[2]^[5] Beyond its historical significance, the WBF process plays a pivotal role in global weather and climate dynamics, as it governs the phase partitioning of cloud water—shifting liquid-dominated clouds toward ice, which alters radiative properties by increasing cloud reflectivity and longevity while enabling precipitation in mid-latitude and polar regions.^[2] In numerical weather prediction and climate models, such as general circulation models (GCMs), accurate parameterization of the WBF process is essential for simulating cloud feedbacks, aerosol interactions, and extreme weather events, though challenges persist in resolving sub-grid-scale mixing and ice nucleation variability that can limit or enhance its efficiency.^[2]^[6] Studies have shown its relevance in Arctic mixed-phase clouds, where it influences sea ice melt rates and atmospheric circulation, underscoring ongoing research into its interactions with global warming.^[7]

Historical Development

Discovery and Key Contributors

The Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process originated with the foundational thermodynamic insights of Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist and polar explorer. During his early Arctic expeditions to Greenland in 1906–1908, where he served as the expedition's physicist and meteorologist, Wegener conducted observations of atmospheric phenomena, including hoarfrost formation. These experiences informed his 1911 publication, Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre, in which he argued that the coexistence of supercooled liquid water droplets and ice crystals in clouds is thermodynamically unstable. Wegener posited that ice crystals would preferentially grow through vapor deposition at the expense of surrounding droplets due to the lower saturation vapor pressure over ice relative to supercooled water, providing the initial conceptual basis for the process.^[8] Tor Bergeron, a Swedish meteorologist associated with the Bergen School of Meteorology in Norway, advanced Wegener's ideas through observational and theoretical work in the 1920s and early 1930s. In the winter of 1922, while recovering from tuberculosis at a health resort in Voksenkollen near Oslo, Bergeron observed the rapid clearance of supercooled fog and the deposition of frost on trees at temperatures between -5°C and -10°C, attributing this to the growth of ice crystals via water vapor diffusion from liquid droplets. He incorporated these findings into his 1928 doctoral dissertation, Über die dreidimensionale verknüpfende Wetteranalyse, where he linked ice crystal growth to broader precipitation mechanisms in mixed-phase clouds. Bergeron further refined and publicized the concept during lectures at the Bergen School and in his 1933 presentation at the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics assembly in Lisbon, emphasizing how ice crystals serve as the primary initiators of rain, snow, and hail formation by aggregating vapor from coexisting water droplets.^[8] Walter Findeisen, a German meteorologist, provided critical experimental validations and theoretical refinements in the late 1930s, solidifying the process's understanding. Building on Wegener and Bergeron's work, Findeisen's 1932 doctoral thesis examined droplet size distributions in clouds, but his seminal 1938 paper, Kolloid-meteorologische Vorgänge bei der Niederschlagbildung, offered a comprehensive synthesis, including detailed calculations of vapor diffusion rates and the role of ice nuclei. Using a novel 2 m³ cloud chamber equipped with adiabatic expansion capabilities, Findeisen experimentally demonstrated the preferential growth of ice crystals over liquid droplets in mixed-phase conditions, confirming the process's efficiency for precipitation development. His contributions led to the process being eponymously named the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process, honoring the trio's collaborative advancements despite the challenges of the interwar period.^[9]^[8]

Evolution of Understanding

Following the foundational theoretical proposal by Alfred Wegener in 1911, further developed by Tor Bergeron in the 1930s, and experimentally validated by Walter Findeisen in 1938, the understanding of the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process advanced significantly through post-World War II observations. In the 1950s, airborne radar measurements provided initial empirical confirmation of ice crystal growth in mixed-phase clouds, revealing precipitation formation mechanisms consistent with differential vapor deposition even in clouds extending below the freezing level. These aircraft-based studies, conducted at altitudes around 14,000 feet, captured radar echoes from ice particles and small snowflakes, demonstrating the process's role in rapid particle enlargement.^[10]^[11] By the 1960s and 1970s, more sophisticated aircraft instrumentation, including early cloud probes, enabled direct in-situ measurements of ice nuclei and crystal concentrations in supercooled clouds, quantifying the depletion of liquid droplets and supporting the process's efficiency in precipitation development. Radar networks during this period tracked echo evolution in orographic and stratiform clouds, corroborating observational evidence of ice supersaturation and crystal fallout. Concurrently, Neville H. Fletcher's seminal 1962 analysis integrated the process into cloud classification schemes, linking ice nucleation thresholds (around -10°C to -20°C for typical atmospheric nuclei) to the onset of differential growth and emphasizing its dependence on heterogeneous nucleation sites.^[14] Laboratory experiments in the 1970s further refined comprehension by simulating mixed-phase conditions to measure differential growth rates, showing ice crystals enlarging at rates up to 10-100 times faster than coexisting droplets under ice-supersaturated environments. These controlled setups, using cloud chambers to replicate vapor gradients, highlighted ventilation effects and particle spacing as modulators of growth efficiency.^[15] The 1980s marked a transition from qualitative observations to quantitative frameworks, with early numerical cloud models incorporating parameterized vapor deposition equations to simulate the process's dynamics. Pioneering simulations, such as those resolving ice microphysics in convective systems, demonstrated how the process drives net water transfer toward ice phases, establishing benchmarks for precipitation efficiency in layered clouds. These models, often one-dimensional or bulk schemes, laid groundwork for integrating the mechanism into mesoscale forecasts without resolving individual particle interactions.^[16]

Physical Mechanism

Required Environmental Conditions

The Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process operates within mixed-phase clouds, where supercooled liquid water droplets coexist with a smaller number of ice crystals, typically at temperatures ranging from 0°C to -40°C. This temperature interval allows for the persistence of supercooled liquid water while enabling ice formation and growth, with the process being most efficient between -10°C and -20°C due to the pronounced difference in saturation vapor pressures over ice and liquid. The initial scarcity of ice crystals relative to liquid droplets is crucial, as it permits the buildup of supersaturation with respect to ice before widespread glaciation occurs. A key prerequisite is an ambient relative humidity positioned between saturation over ice (e_{si}) and saturation over water (e_{sw}), where e_{si} < e_{sw} for temperatures below 0°C, creating a subsaturated environment for liquid droplets but supersaturated conditions for ice. This vapor pressure disequilibrium drives the preferential deposition onto ice without immediate droplet growth, though in practice, mixed-phase clouds often hover near water saturation due to dynamic influences. Cloud dynamics play an essential role in initiating and sustaining the WBF process, particularly through vertical air motions that maintain the necessary supersaturation with respect to ice. The process is efficient when the vertical velocity w lies between a downdraft threshold u_z^0 (where liquid droplets evaporate while ice grows) and an updraft threshold u_z^* (where both phases can grow without excessive liquid supersaturation dominating). These thresholds depend on particle concentrations, sizes, and thermodynamic parameters, typically on the order of 0.1 to several m/s for common cloud conditions. Vertical velocities in observed mixed-phase clouds often have standard deviations of 0.06–0.52 m/s, ensuring the persistence of the mixed-phase regime against rapid glaciation or liquidation.

Vapor Deposition Dynamics

The Bergeron–Findeisen effect, central to the vapor deposition dynamics in mixed-phase clouds, arises because the saturation vapor pressure over ice is lower than over supercooled water at temperatures below 0°C, creating a net flux of water vapor from the ambient air toward ice crystals while supercooled droplets evaporate to sustain this gradient. This differential drives the preferential growth of ice crystals at the expense of liquid droplets, with the ambient vapor density typically lying between the saturation values over ice (ρ_{v,i}) and water (ρ_{v,w}). The mass growth rate of an individual ice crystal by vapor diffusion is governed by the equation

\frac{dm_i}{dt} = 4\pi C_i D_v (\rho_{v,\text{amb}} - \rho_{v,i}),

where m_i is the ice crystal mass, C_i is the capacitance (dependent on crystal shape and size, approximately equal to the radius for spherical equivalents), D_v is the diffusion coefficient of water vapor in air, \rho_{v,\text{amb}} is the ambient vapor density, and \rho_{v,i} is the vapor density at the crystal surface (equal to saturation over ice under equilibrium). This formulation assumes quasi-stationary diffusion in the continuum regime and neglects thermal effects for simplicity; the growth is supersaturation-driven relative to ice, accelerating as the vapor pressure difference increases.^[18] Simultaneously, surrounding supercooled droplets experience net evaporation, depleting their mass as vapor diffuses away to the ice crystals. The radius change rate for a water droplet is approximated by

\frac{dr_w}{dt} = -\frac{D_v (\rho_{v,\text{amb}} - \rho_{v,w})}{r_w \rho_w},

where r_w is the droplet radius, \rho_w is the liquid water density, and \rho_{v,w} is the saturation vapor density over water; the negative sign reflects evaporation when \rho_{v,\text{amb}} < \rho_{v,w}. This inverse dependence on radius implies smaller droplets evaporate faster, potentially leading to their complete disappearance before larger ones. In dynamic cloud environments, ventilation effects enhance deposition rates by increasing the effective diffusion flux around falling ice crystals. The ventilation coefficient f_v modifies the growth equation as \frac{dm_i}{dt} = 4\pi C_i D_v f_v (\rho_{v,\text{amb}} - \rho_{v,i}), where f_v \approx 1 + 0.27 \text{Re}^{1/2} \text{Sc}^{1/3} for moderate Reynolds (Re) and Schmidt (Sc) numbers, with values exceeding 1 for crystals with significant fall speeds. At low temperatures (below −40°C), kinetic effects further amplify growth for ice particles in general, as molecular collisions at the ice surface limit accommodation; the deposition coefficient \alpha_D (typically 0.5–1 at warmer temperatures) decreases, but enhanced kinetic jump distances in the free-molecular regime can increase effective growth rates by up to 20–50% compared to continuum predictions.

Ice Crystal Formation and Growth

Nucleation Processes

The formation of initial ice crystals in mixed-phase clouds, essential for initiating the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process, primarily occurs through heterogeneous nucleation on ice nuclei (IN), which are insoluble particles that lower the energy barrier for ice embryo formation.^[19] Heterogeneous nucleation dominates in clouds at temperatures between 0°C and -40°C, where supercooled liquid droplets coexist, allowing IN such as mineral dust, biological particles, and artificially introduced agents like silver iodide to serve as templates for ice crystallization.^[20] For example, mineral dust particles from desert regions act as effective IN by providing lattice structures similar to ice, facilitating nucleation at relatively warm temperatures down to -20°C.^[19] Specific biological IN, such as the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae, exhibit high nucleation activity through ice-nucleating proteins on their surface, enabling ice formation at temperatures as warm as -2°C, which is critical for initiating glaciation in shallow convective clouds.^[21] Silver iodide, commonly used in cloud seeding, promotes heterogeneous nucleation at temperatures around -10°C due to its crystallographic similarity to ice, making it a benchmark for artificial IN efficiency. These IN activate via different modes: immersion freezing, where the nucleus is engulfed within a supercooled droplet and triggers freezing upon reaching a critical temperature or supersaturation; contact freezing, involving collision between the IN and a droplet; and deposition nucleation, where water vapor directly deposits onto the IN surface at ice supersaturations exceeding 10-20%.^[20] Critical supersaturation thresholds for IN activation vary by particle type, typically requiring ice supersaturations of 5-15% for mineral dust and biological IN to overcome the nucleation barrier.^[19] In the absence of sufficient heterogeneous IN, homogeneous nucleation becomes relevant at colder temperatures, where supercooled water droplets spontaneously freeze without foreign particles, forming ice at approximately -35°C to -40°C due to the high free energy required for embryo formation in pure liquid.^[22] This process is rare in most mixed-phase clouds because heterogeneous nucleation typically occurs first, but it sets a lower limit for ice formation in pristine environments. Typical atmospheric IN concentrations range from 0.01 to 100 L⁻¹, depending on aerosol loading and temperature, with lower values (0.01–1 L⁻¹) in remote regions and higher (10–100 L⁻¹) in polluted or dusty air masses; these concentrations determine the initial ice crystal number and thus seed the mixed-phase conditions necessary for the process.^[23] Once nucleated, these ice crystals can grow by vapor deposition, as detailed in subsequent sections.

Ice Multiplication Mechanisms

Ice multiplication mechanisms refer to secondary processes that generate additional ice crystals from pre-existing ones, amplifying ice concentrations beyond primary nucleation rates in mixed-phase clouds. These mechanical fragmentation pathways enhance the efficiency of the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process by rapidly increasing the number of ice particles available for vapor deposition. While initial nucleation provides the seed crystals, multiplication occurs through physical breakup under specific dynamic and thermal conditions. One key mechanism is riming-splintering, where ice crystals or graupel particles accrete supercooled liquid droplets, leading to splintering upon impact or during the freezing of accreted mass. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that this process produces up to several hundred fragments per milligram of rime accreted, particularly effective at temperatures between -5°C and -10°C, where the formation of a brittle ice shell around freezing droplets facilitates fragmentation.^[24] This splintering is driven by the mechanical stress from rapid freezing and collision, releasing small ice shards that serve as new nuclei.^[25] Dendritic breakup involves the mechanical fracture of branching ice crystals under aerodynamic stress, shear, or their own weight, commonly observed in plate-like or dendritic habits formed at temperatures around -10°C to -15°C. These complex structures, with extended arms, are prone to shattering during collisions with other particles or turbulent airflow, generating multiple smaller fragments per event. Observations and modeling indicate that such breakups contribute significantly to ice production in regions with high particle concentrations and moderate turbulence.^[26] The Hallett-Mossop process, a variant of rime splintering, occurs in temperature gradients between -3°C and -8°C, where shearing forces on growing ice surfaces or frozen droplets cause prolific splintering. This mechanism is activated when ice particles traverse zones of varying temperature, promoting the ejection of small ice splinters from the edges of riming particles or growing crystals. It is particularly relevant in convective clouds with vertical motion, leading to enhanced secondary ice formation through repeated fragmentation cycles.^[24] In situ observations of mixed-phase clouds have documented ice crystal concentrations up to ~10³ L⁻¹, representing multiplication factors of up to ~10⁴ from initial levels near 0.01 L⁻¹ to over 100 L⁻¹ within minutes, underscoring the profound impact of these mechanisms on cloud microphysics.^[27] However, a 2024 laboratory study found limited evidence for efficient rime-splintering under controlled conditions, suggesting potential refinements needed in parameterizations of these processes.^[25]

Particle Interaction Processes

Aggregation

Aggregation in the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process refers to the collision and subsequent sticking of ice crystals, serving as a key non-vapor growth mechanism that enlarges particles beyond diffusional growth limits. This process is primarily driven by collision-coalescence, where ice particles of varying sizes and shapes encounter each other due to differential settling velocities induced by gravity in the turbulent environment of mixed-phase clouds. Additionally, electrostatic charges on ice crystals can enhance collision probabilities by altering trajectories through Coulomb forces, particularly in regions with charge separation from vapor growth or fragmentation.^[28]^[29] The sticking efficiency, which determines the fraction of collisions resulting in permanent aggregation, exhibits a strong temperature dependence, peaking around -15°C. At this temperature, dendritic habits dominate, promoting interlocking upon contact, while thin quasi-liquid films on ice crystal surfaces further enhance adhesion through sintering or van der Waals forces, especially for branched habits like dendrites and side planes. These conditions favor the formation of loose aggregates, contrasting with lower efficiencies at colder temperatures where surfaces remain drier and less adhesive. Observations and parameterizations confirm sticking efficiencies ranging from 0.1 to 1.0, with higher values near the peak temperature enhancing aggregate development. Ice multiplication processes can increase the abundance of small crystals available for such collisions, amplifying aggregation rates in supersaturated environments.^[30]^[31] The rate of aggregation is quantified by the aggregation kernel, given by

K_{\text{agg}} = E_{\text{agg}} \frac{\pi}{4} (r_1 + r_2)^2 |v_1 - v_2|,

where E_{\text{agg}} is the sticking efficiency (0.1–1.0), r_1 and r_2 are the radii of the colliding ice particles, and |v_1 - v_2| is the magnitude of their relative velocity, often dominated by differential settling. This formulation captures the geometric cross-section for collision modulated by efficiency factors and is widely used in microphysics models to simulate ice growth. Resulting aggregates, commonly observed as snowflakes, exhibit low bulk densities of 0.05–0.2 g cm⁻³ due to their porous, branched structures, which further influence fall speeds and radiative properties in clouds.^[32]^[30]^[33]

Accretion

Accretion, also known as riming, involves the collision and freezing of supercooled liquid water droplets onto falling ice crystals within mixed-phase clouds, contributing to the overall growth of ice particles under the supersaturation conditions favored by the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process. This mechanism is distinct from vapor deposition, as it directly incorporates liquid mass into the ice structure, altering particle density, shape, and terminal velocity.^[34] The collision efficiency (E_\text{col}) governing ice-droplet impacts varies with ice crystal habit and droplet size. Plate-like and broad-branched crystals generally achieve higher E_\text{col} (up to ~1.0) than columnar crystals due to their larger projected areas and flow fields that better capture droplets.^[35] For small droplets, E_\text{col} is negligible (<0.1), but it rises sharply and exceeds 0.5 for droplet radii greater than 10 μm, enabling efficient collection of typical cloud droplets in this size range.^[35] Upon collision, the supercooled droplets rapidly freeze on the colder ice surface, accreted as a layer of rime that adds mass and increases the particle's fall speed, promoting further interactions. The mass growth rate for an individual ice particle is approximated by

\frac{dm_i}{dt} = E_\text{col} \pi r_i^2 |v_i - v_w| \rho_w N_w,

where m_i is the ice mass, r_i the effective ice radius, v_i and v_w the terminal velocities of the ice particle and droplet, \rho_w the liquid water density, and N_w the droplet number concentration; this rate scales with relative velocity and droplet abundance. Continued riming transforms pristine crystals into denser, irregular structures, with the added frozen droplets enhancing the particle's momentum and collection cross-section.^[36] Prolonged or intense riming leads to the formation of graupel, characterized by conical or lump-like aggregates of rime layers over the original crystal skeleton, typically 2–5 mm in diameter.^[37] In environments with high liquid water content and vigorous updrafts, such as convective storms, graupel particles can grow rapidly and act as embryos for larger hailstones, transitioning from soft rime to denser, layered hail through sustained accretion.^[38] Riming efficiency shows a marked temperature dependence, with optimal collection below -10°C where the process is more effective than at warmer subfreezing levels. This enhancement arises from faster freezing of impacted droplets at greater supercooling degrees, shortening the solidification time and improving sticking to the ice surface.^[39]

Role in Precipitation Formation

Development of Precipitating Particles

In the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process, initial growth of ice crystals occurs primarily through vapor deposition, where supersaturation with respect to ice drives the uptake of water vapor from the surrounding environment, often at the expense of evaporating supercooled liquid droplets. This phase allows nascent ice particles, starting from nuclei on the order of micrometers, to expand rapidly to sizes where sedimentation becomes significant, typically reaching a critical diameter of approximately 100 μm for pristine crystals. At this threshold, the particles acquire sufficient mass relative to drag to begin falling out of the cloud layer under typical updraft conditions. The terminal fall speeds of these growing ice particles vary markedly with size, shape, and environmental factors. For pristine ice crystals, fall speeds range from 10 to 100 cm/s, influenced by crystal habit—such as plates or columns—and the Reynolds number, which accounts for aerodynamic drag and particle orientation during descent. As particles aggregate or accrete, forming snowflakes or rimed structures like graupel, their fall speeds increase to 50–200 cm/s for snowflakes and 200–800 cm/s for graupel, enabling faster removal from the cloud. These dynamics are governed by power-law relationships between particle dimension, mass, and drag coefficient, as established in laboratory and field measurements.^[40] The combined effects of vapor deposition followed by aggregation and accretion propel ice particles toward precipitation sizes of 1–10 mm in diameter, where fallout efficiency heightens due to enhanced terminal velocities and reduced susceptibility to turbulent suspension. This sequential growth integrates the differential vapor uptake of the WBF process with collision-based mechanisms, transforming small crystals into viable precipitating entities. Ultimately, the WBF process facilitates cloud glaciation by progressively depleting liquid water content through droplet evaporation, shifting the cloud composition toward an ice-dominated state that alters radiative properties and precipitation potential.

Pathways to Surface Precipitation

As ice particles generated through the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process descend from cold cloud regions, they encounter varying sub-cloud environmental conditions that determine the final precipitation type reaching the surface. In scenarios where a deep warm layer exists above the 0°C melting level, typically at altitudes of 1-3 km, these particles fully melt into liquid raindrops upon falling through temperatures exceeding 0°C, provided the layer's depth—often 650-1300 m or more—allows complete phase transition based on particle mass and lapse rates ranging from -5°C/km to -15°C/km.^[41]^[42] This pathway is common in mid-latitude winter storms transitioning from snow to rain as surface temperatures rise above freezing.^[42] Partial melting occurs in shallower warm layers, where ice particles partially liquefy before entering a colder sub-cloud layer below 0°C, leading to refreezing and the formation of sleet—small, translucent ice pellets typically 2-5 mm in diameter.^[43] This refreezing process is facilitated by the presence of residual ice nuclei within the partially melted particles, requiring a cold layer depth of 200-550 m at temperatures of -5°C to -10°C for complete solidification into ice pellets.^[41] In drier sub-cloud environments with low relative humidity, falling ice particles may instead undergo sublimation or evaporation before reaching the ground, producing virga—visible shafts of precipitating ice that dissipate into fall streaks without accumulating at the surface.^[44] Under convective conditions with intense updrafts, such as in supercell thunderstorms, ice particles experience rapid accretion of supercooled liquid water, growing into hailstones larger than 5 mm through repeated cycles of ascent and descent in updrafts exceeding 20 m/s (approximately 45-72 km/h).^[45] These strong vertical motions, often sustained in cumulonimbus clouds, allow hail embryos—initially frozen droplets or small graupel—to collide with supercooled water, forming layered structures via wet or dry growth regimes, with larger hail (e.g., golf ball-sized at 4.4 cm) requiring updrafts up to 29 m/s.^[45] Hail typically develops at higher altitudes in regions of extreme instability, like the Great Plains.^[42] Freezing rain arises when ice particles fully melt in an elevated warm layer (1-3 km altitude) into supercooled raindrops that remain liquid through a shallow cold layer near the surface, only to refreeze upon impact with sub-freezing ground or objects below 0°C, forming glaze ice accumulations.^[41] This contrasts with ice pellets, as the cold layer is insufficiently deep (less than 200 m) or warm enough to prevent in-air refreezing, allowing droplets with minimal ice fractions (e.g., 0.01) to supercool until surface contact.^[41] Particle fall speeds, influenced by size and shape from prior growth stages, modulate the time available for these phase changes during descent.^[42]

Significance and Modern Applications

Impacts on Weather and Climate

The Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process plays a critical role in enhancing precipitation efficiency within extratropical cyclones, particularly in frontal systems where mixed-phase clouds dominate. By facilitating the rapid growth of ice crystals at the expense of supercooled liquid droplets, the process promotes the formation of larger precipitating particles that can fall through warmer cloud layers, often melting into rain. In mid-latitude winter storms, this ice-phase mechanism contributes significantly to overall precipitation through the glaciation and subsequent melting of ice crystals.^[46]^[47] On climatic scales, the WBF process influences radiative feedbacks in mixed-phase clouds, which are prevalent between 0°C and -40°C. Glaciation driven by the process reduces the liquid water path while increasing the ice water path, leading to decreased cloud albedo and enhanced longwave radiative forcing, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes where net warming effects range from 0.18 to 0.76 W/m². In the Arctic, this contributes to amplification of warming by altering the lifecycle of persistent mixed-phase clouds, sustaining low-level stratus that trap heat and exacerbate sea ice loss through modified precipitation patterns.^[48]^[49] The process also underpins several weather hazards by enabling the development of heavy precipitation in mixed-phase environments. In wintertime synoptic systems, WBF-initiated ice crystal growth followed by aggregation results in intense snowfall rates, often exceeding 5 cm/h in mid-latitude storms. In convective scenarios, such as supercell thunderstorms, the process supports hail formation in the mixed-phase region through accretion of supercooled droplets onto ice particles, producing hailstones up to several centimeters in diameter. Additionally, by influencing droplet evaporation and cloud persistence, it can exacerbate supercooled fog formation, reducing visibility to below 1 km in affected areas.^[50]^[38] Observational evidence from satellite missions underscores the global prevalence of the WBF process in mixed-phase clouds. Data from the CALIPSO lidar reveal that such clouds, where the process dominates ice growth, comprise 30–50% of cloud layers in mid- to high-latitude regions, with supercooled liquid coexisting with ice in nearly 50% of low-level Antarctic clouds during austral summer. These observations highlight the process's role in ~13% of Arctic liquid-containing clouds producing snowfall, confirming its efficiency in natural settings despite model biases that overestimate glaciation rates.^[51]^[52]

Modeling Parameterizations and Limitations

In bulk microphysics schemes used in numerical weather prediction and climate models, the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process is typically parameterized within two-moment frameworks that prognose both the mass mixing ratio and number concentration of ice particles to capture the evolution of particle size distributions. For instance, the Morrison double-moment scheme implemented in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model represents ice growth via vapor deposition as the primary mechanism driving the WBF process, where supercooled droplets evaporate to sustain supersaturation with respect to ice. Similarly, the ICON model's two-moment scheme incorporates comparable formulations, emphasizing the transfer of vapor from liquid to ice phases in mixed-phase clouds. The ice mass mixing ratio growth rate in these schemes is often expressed as

\frac{dq_i}{dt} = \frac{4\pi C_i D_v (\rho_{v,amb} - \rho_{v,i}) N_i}{\rho_{air}},

where q_i is the ice mixing ratio, C_i is the capacitance of ice particles (dependent on shape assumptions like spherical or hexagonal), D_v is the water vapor diffusivity, \rho_{v,amb} and \rho_{v,i} are the ambient and ice-saturated vapor densities, N_i is the ice number concentration, and \rho_{air} is air density; this form derives from diffusion-limited growth theory adapted for bulk distributions.^[6] Despite these advancements, parameterizations exhibit limitations, particularly in underestimating the WBF process under entrainment-mixing conditions, where inhomogeneous mixing can enhance local supersaturations and accelerate ice growth beyond model predictions, as highlighted in large-eddy simulations from 2020–2021 studies. Additionally, many schemes neglect kinetic growth effects at cold temperatures below -40°C, where molecular accommodation coefficients reduce deposition rates, leading to overestimations of ice formation in polar environments. These shortcomings contribute to biases in simulated cloud lifetimes and precipitation efficiency. Recent developments have addressed some dependencies, such as the 2024 evaluation of ICON in large-eddy mode, which improved WBF representations by incorporating updraft velocity effects on nucleation and growth, enhancing agreement with in-situ observations from the CLOUDLAB campaign. A January 2025 evaluation of mid-to-high-latitude surface snowfall and cloud phase biases in CMIP6 models and ERA5 reanalysis, using CloudSat–CALIPSO observations, reveals persistent overestimations of supercooled liquid-containing cloud frequencies and associated snowfall rates in polar regions, highlighting the need for refined microphysical parameterizations including WBF processes. Observational gaps further complicate validation, as sub-grid scale WBF dynamics—such as rapid local glaciation—are challenging to resolve with radar and lidar, which struggle with distinguishing ice habits and small-scale mixing in mixed-phase layers, limiting direct comparisons to model outputs.^[6]^[53]

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High-speed cryo-microscopy reveals that ice-nucleating proteins of ...
Jul 3, 2024 · The bacteria Pseudomonas syringae has been isolated from leaf litter and found to nucleate ice at temperatures up to ∼–2°C (14–16), a high ...
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A New Look at Homogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water ...
The classical theory for homogeneous ice nucleation in supercooled water is investigated in the light of recent data published in various physico-chemical ...
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Overview of Ice Nucleating Particles in - AMS Journals
Jan 1, 2017 · How primary ice nucleation affects total ice crystal number concentrations in clouds and the discrepancy between INP concentrations and ice ...
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Production of secondary ice particles during the riming process
May 3, 1974 · Production of secondary ice particles during the riming process. J. HALLETT &; S. C. MOSSOP. Nature volume 249, pages 26–28 ...
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Secondary ice production – no evidence of efficient rime-splintering ...
May 7, 2024 · We report on an experimental study of rime splintering conducted in a newly developed setup under conditions representing convective mixed-phase clouds.
[24]
Ice Multiplication by Breakup in Ice–Ice Collisions. Part I: Theoretical ...
Another mechanism of ice multiplication, measured by Vardiman (1978) and Takahashi et al. (1995), is fragmentation mechanically on impact in ice–ice collisions.
[25]
Mystery of ice multiplication in warm‐based precipitating shallow ...
May 21, 2010 · Ice particle concentrations can increase from less than 0.01 L−1 to more than 100 L−1 within 10 minutes in clouds with cloud top temperatures ...
[26]
The Influence of Electric Fields on the Aggregation of Ice Crystals
Chang and J. D. Locatelli, 1974: The dimensions and aggregation of ice crystals in natural clouds. ... Charge transfer between model ice crystals in an electric ...Missing: electrostatic facilitate<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
A Numerical Study of the Effect of Electric Charges on the Efficiency ...
Abstract A theoretical model is presented which allows determination of the efficiency with which electrically charged, simple planar ice crystals collide ...Missing: electrostatic facilitate
[28]
A Parameterization of Sticking Efficiency for Collisions of Snow and ...
Dec 1, 2015 · A new parameterization of sticking efficiency for aggregation of ice crystals onto snow and graupel is presented.B. Empirical Determination... · 1) Graupel Collisions With... · 2) Snow Collisions With Ice...
[29]
Rapid ice aggregation process revealed through triple-wavelength ...
We have identified a region of an ice cloud where a sharp transition of dual-wavelength ratio occurs at a fixed height for longer than 20 min.
[30]
A two-moment cloud microphysics parameterization for mixed-phase ...
Oct 18, 2005 · A two-moment microphysical parameterization for mixed-phase clouds was developed to improve the explicit representation of clouds and precipitation in ...
[31]
[PDF] The Estimation of Snowfall Rate Using Visibility - OpenSky
Depending on the amount of riming, aggregation, and/or melting, the bulk density of a snowflake varies between 0.005 and. 0.2 g cm23 (Fig. ... 0.05 g cm23, the ...
[32]
Riming of Graupel: Wind Tunnel Investigations of Collection Kernels ...
Aug 1, 2009 · For this study, ice particles were freely floated in the vertical wind tunnel in Mainz while a cloud of supercooled droplets was generated ...
[33]
Collision Efficiencies of Ice Crystals at Low–Intermediate Reynolds ...
The collision efficiencies are determined by solving the equation of motion for a cloud droplet under the influence of the flow field of the falling ice crystal ...
[34]
Initial stages of the riming process on ice crystals - AGU Journals
May 8, 2009 · The results obtained show that the minimum dimension of ice crystals involved in riming is around 60 μm in diameter for hexagonal plates and 30 ...
[35]
Severe Weather 101: Hail Types
Graupel are soft, small pellets formed when supercooled water droplets (at a temperature below 32°F) freeze onto a snow crystal, a process called riming. If the ...
[36]
Microphysical Pathways Active Within Thunderstorms and Their ...
Feb 8, 2023 · Hail riming occurs either at the same altitude and lower than graupel riming. ... hail totals: riming efficiency and hail embryo size. The riming ...
[37]
Determining Winter Precip - National Weather Service
Ice (rime) splintering is the primary ice multiplication mechanism and is common at temperatures from 0 to -10 C with a peak at about -5 C. Splintering occurs ...
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https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022JD036965
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Freezing Rain: An Observational and Theoretical Study in
The hydrometeors in a freezing rain event do not refreeze and, consequently, reach the surface as supercooled droplets, while ice pellets do refreeze in the ...Missing: altitudes | Show results with:altitudes
[40]
[PDF] Chapter 7: Precipitation Processes - UCI ESS
– Sleet begins as ice crystals which melt into rain through a mid-level inversion before solidifying in colder near surface air. – Freezing Rain forms ...
[41]
Observations of ice pellets during a winter storm - ScienceDirect.com
The precipitation begins as snow aloft, and either partially or completely melts in the warm layer. The particles then refreeze in the cold layer next to the ...
[42]
MU Radar and Lidar Observations of Clear-Air Turbulence ...
According to the Glossary of Meteorology, virga (also called fall streaks) are defined as streaks of rain or ice crystals that evaporate or sublimate before ...<|separator|>
[43]
Thunderstorm Hazards - Hail - NOAA
Feb 28, 2024 · Hail is precipitation that is formed when updrafts in thunderstorms carry raindrops upward into extremely cold areas of the atmosphere.Missing: accretion | Show results with:accretion
[44]
Predicting global atmospheric ice nuclei distributions and their ...
... mixed-phase clouds, 11 which are responsible for most of the precipitation in mid-latitudes 11,14 and are important in the marine atmosphere. ... percentage ...
[45]
Mixed‐Phase Clouds and Precipitation in Southern Ocean Cyclones ...
Feb 24, 2021 · Seeding of lower SLW layers from above leads to periods with either larger ice particles or greater ice precipitation rates. Periods of ...
[46]
Dust Radiative Effects on Climate by Glaciating Mixed‐Phase Clouds
Jun 7, 2019 · Mineral dust plays an important role in the primary formation of ice crystals in mixed-phase clouds by acting as ice nucleating particles ...
[47]
Atmospheric and Surface Processes, and Feedback ... - AMS Journals
Jul 27, 2022 · As expected, the evaluation pointed to the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process as a key determinant of the life cycle of Arctic mixed-phase ...
[48]
Chapter 7: Precipitation Processes - UH Pressbooks
We will discuss two primary rain formation theories. Collision-Coalescence Process; Ice Phase Processes (Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen). Collision-Coalescence ...
[49]
Impact of Antarctic mixed-phase clouds on climate - PNAS
Combined with a representation of the vapor deposition (the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process), the result is a rapid transition between ice and liquid at −20 ...
[50]
Observational Evidence Linking Arctic Supercooled Liquid Cloud Biases in CESM to Snowfall Processes
### Observational Evidence from CALIPSO on WBF Process in Arctic/Global