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Wiley Rutledge

Wiley Blount Rutledge, Jr. (July 20, 1894 – September 10, 1949), was an American jurist, law professor, and academic administrator who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1943 until his death.^[1]^[2] Born in Cloverport, Kentucky, Rutledge pursued higher education at Maryville College in Tennessee before transferring to the University of Wisconsin, where he earned a bachelor's degree in 1914, followed by a law degree from the University of Colorado in 1922.^[3]^[4] His early career included brief private law practice and high school teaching, but he soon shifted to legal academia, teaching at the University of Colorado and Washington University in St. Louis, where he served as dean from 1930 to 1935, before becoming dean of the University of Iowa College of Law in 1935.^[3]^[5] In 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed him to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, from which he advanced to the Supreme Court in 1943 as the successor to James F. Byrnes.^[6] On the Court, Rutledge aligned with the liberal wing of the Roosevelt-appointed justices, consistently advocating for robust federal regulatory authority, civil liberties protections, and sympathy toward criminal defendants, voting in favor of defendants in 80 percent of criminal cases during his tenure.^[7]^[8] His jurisprudence emphasized judicial restraint in deferring to administrative agencies while prioritizing individual rights against government overreach, particularly in dissents critiquing wartime executive actions, such as his notable opposition in In re Yamashita (1946), where he condemned the conviction of a Japanese general under what he viewed as flawed military commission procedures.^[9]^[10] Rutledge's brief six-year service ended prematurely due to a cerebral hemorrhage at age 55, leaving a legacy of principled stands on constitutional limits amid expanding federal power.^[1]^[11]

Early Life and Education

Family Background and Childhood

Wiley Blount Rutledge Jr. was born on July 20, 1894, in Cloverport, Kentucky, near Tar Springs, to Wiley Blount Rutledge Sr., a Baptist minister, and Mary Lou Wigginton Rutledge.^[3]^[5] The family lived modestly, as was typical for a preacher's household in rural Kentucky, with Rutledge Sr. serving in various Southern Baptist congregations.^[3] Shortly after Rutledge's birth, his mother contracted tuberculosis, prompting the family to relocate southward in hopes of milder climate; they settled first in Tennessee.^[5] Rutledge spent much of his early childhood in eastern Tennessee's Appalachian mountains, where his father's itinerant ministry led to frequent moves among small communities.^[12] A brother died in infancy, and his sister Margaret was born in 1897, but the household remained close-knit amid these transitions.^[3] In 1901, the family moved again to Asheville, North Carolina, seeking relief for his mother's worsening health, though she succumbed to the disease in 1903 when Rutledge was nine years old.^[3]^[13] This loss profoundly shaped his youth, as his father continued preaching while raising the children, instilling values of faith and resilience but also exposing Rutledge to the hardships of frequent relocation and economic precarity.^[5] Despite the instability, Rutledge's upbringing in these Southern locales fostered an unpretentious worldview, influenced by the egalitarian rural folk among whom he lived, where social distinctions were minimal beyond local ties.^[12] His father's remarriage later introduced half-siblings, but Rutledge's formative years were marked primarily by the dual legacy of religious devotion and personal adversity following his mother's death.^[3]

Academic Training and Formative Experiences

Rutledge pursued his undergraduate studies initially at Maryville College in Tennessee, attending for two years before transferring to the University of Wisconsin–Madison.^[14] There, he focused on chemistry, reflecting an early career interest in scientific fields, and graduated with an A.B. degree in 1914.^[15] ^[6] Following graduation, he taught high school in Indiana, New Mexico, and Colorado from 1915 to 1922, experiences that provided practical exposure to educational systems and regional socioeconomic conditions across the Midwest and Southwest.^[6] ^[5] These teaching years coincided with Rutledge's entry into legal education, which he approached part-time while employed. He began studying law at Indiana University Maurer School of Law, balancing coursework with his teaching duties in Indiana.^[7] In the fall of 1920, he enrolled at the University of Colorado Law School in Boulder, completing his LL.B. degree in 1922.^[3] This peripatetic phase, marked by self-funded education and itinerant teaching amid post-World War I economic challenges, honed his resilience and commitment to public service-oriented professions.^[9] Rutledge's formative academic period emphasized pragmatic learning over elite institutional prestige, as he navigated multiple institutions without familial wealth or early professional networks. His chemistry background at Wisconsin may have influenced a analytical approach to legal reasoning, though he pivoted to law amid teaching demands that underscored the need for advocacy skills in underserved communities.^[13] These experiences laid groundwork for his later academic career, where he prioritized accessible legal education and progressive reforms in teaching methodologies.^[5]

Pre-Supreme Court Career

Legal Practice and Academic Roles

After graduating from the University of Colorado Law School in 1922, Rutledge practiced law for two years with a firm in Boulder, Colorado, handling general civil and criminal cases before transitioning to academia.^[3]^[14] In 1924, Rutledge joined the faculty of the University of Colorado School of Law as a professor, teaching courses in constitutional law and legal history, which marked the beginning of his fifteen-year academic career across multiple institutions.^[5]^[3] From 1926 to 1935, he served as a professor at Washington University School of Law in St. Louis, Missouri, ascending to the role of dean in 1931, during which he focused on curriculum reforms emphasizing practical legal training and administrative modernization amid the Great Depression.^[16]^[3] In 1935, Rutledge became dean of the State University of Iowa College of Law, a position he held until 1939 while continuing to teach, where he advocated for expanded clinical programs and interdisciplinary approaches to legal education, reflecting his progressive views on adapting law schools to societal needs.^[5]^[14]

Advocacy for Reforms and Liberal Causes

During his tenure as a professor and dean at Washington University School of Law in St. Louis from 1925 to 1935, Rutledge emerged as a vocal advocate for progressive reforms, particularly in criminal justice and labor protections. He campaigned against child labor abuses, urging Missouri's ratification of the federal Child Labor Amendment despite repeated legislative failures, and criticized the Supreme Court's invalidation of related New Deal measures as overly restrictive of congressional authority.^[17]^[18] Rutledge also pushed for revisions to Missouri's criminal code to enhance defendants' access to counsel and supported the inclusion of women on juries, viewing these as essential to fairer judicial processes amid widespread systemic inefficiencies.^[13] His involvement with the St. Louis Commission for Social Justice and the Civil Liberties Committee further demonstrated his commitment to mitigating racial and religious tensions through public policy interventions, prioritizing individual rights over majority sentiments even when politically unpopular.^[12]^[17] As dean of the University of Iowa College of Law from 1935 to 1939, Rutledge continued his advocacy by fostering inclusivity in legal education and practice, actively recruiting and supporting African-American, Jewish, and female students in an era of limited opportunities for minorities.^[17] He warned the legal profession against complacency and monopolistic tendencies that restricted access to justice, proposing reforms to bar admission standards to better serve the poor and unemployed through expanded legal aid.^[17]^[13] A staunch defender of the New Deal, Rutledge publicly endorsed President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1937 judicial reorganization plan, arguing it was necessary to counteract the Supreme Court's obstruction of administrative innovations essential to democratic governance and economic recovery.^[17]^[19] Rutledge's efforts extended to curricular innovations in legal education, which he saw as vehicles for broader social reform. At Washington University, he established a legal aid clinic to provide practical training while addressing indigent clients' needs, consolidated the curriculum for interdisciplinary focus, and introduced a master of laws program to elevate professional standards.^[13] These initiatives reflected his belief in clinical and experiential learning to produce lawyers attuned to public welfare, rather than abstract theory divorced from real-world inequities.^[18] Throughout, Rutledge's positions aligned with civil liberties protections, emphasizing empirical needs for reform over ideological conformity, though his outspokenness occasionally strained relations with conservative faculty and local establishments.^[20]^[17]

Court of Appeals Service

President Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated Wiley Blount Rutledge Jr. on March 21, 1939, to fill a newly created sixth seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, citing his alignment with New Deal principles as recommended by journalist Irving Brant.^[1]^[17] The Senate confirmed the nomination on April 4, 1939, and Rutledge received his commission on May 2, 1939.^[1] He served in this role until February 15, 1943, when he was elevated to the Supreme Court, authoring opinions that emphasized individual rights, due process, and liberalization of District common law.^[1]^[17] Rutledge's judicial approach on the court focused on advancing protections for indigent defendants and broadening access to justice, including advocacy for legal aid.^[17] In Wood v. United States (1942), he reversed a conviction based on an uncounseled guilty plea, underscoring due process requirements in federal criminal proceedings.^[17] He also dissented in Bussey v. District of Columbia (1942), arguing on First Amendment grounds against restrictions on speech, a position later vindicated by the Supreme Court.^[17] In tort law, Rutledge contributed to modernizing doctrines applicable in the District. His opinion in Georgetown College v. Hughes (1942) rejected charitable immunity for hospitals, allowing tort suits against such institutions.^[17] Similarly, in McKenna v. Austin (1943), he permitted plaintiffs who had settled with one tortfeasor in an automobile collision to proceed against remaining defendants, departing from the traditional common law bar on such actions.^[17] These rulings reflected his commitment to equitable remedies over rigid precedents.^[17] Rutledge further influenced administrative and communications law through National Broadcasting Co. v. FCC (1942), where, in a 4-2 en banc decision, he expanded the definition of "person aggrieved" under the Communications Act, facilitating broader challenges to FCC decisions; the Supreme Court affirmed this interpretation.^[17] Overall, his tenure shaped non-statutory law in areas like torts and jurisdiction while supporting home rule for the District, demonstrating a pragmatic yet rights-oriented jurisprudence.^[17]

Nomination and Confirmation

FDR's Selection Process

Following Associate Justice James F. Byrnes's resignation on October 27, 1942, to lead wartime economic mobilization as director of the Office of Economic Stabilization, President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated a selection process aimed at appointing a reliable supporter of New Deal policies to maintain the Court's liberal tilt during World War II.^[21] Byrnes's departure created urgency for a nominee who could provide ideological continuity and long-term service, given the advancing age of several justices. Roosevelt considered prominent jurists, including Second Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Learned Hand, who was strongly recommended by Justice Felix Frankfurter and others for his intellectual stature.^[22] However, at 72 years old, Hand was overlooked in favor of a younger candidate to ensure enduring influence on the Court. Wiley Rutledge, aged 48 and serving on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia since his 1939 appointment by Roosevelt, emerged as the choice due to his demonstrated liberal jurisprudence, including robust defenses of administrative agencies and civil liberties in key opinions.^[23] Rutledge's background further appealed to Roosevelt: as a former law dean at the University of Iowa and Colorado, he had been an early and vocal advocate for New Deal reforms, aligning closely with the administration's priorities.^[5] His Midwestern roots from Iowa provided geographic diversity to a Court dominated by Eastern appointees, a factor Roosevelt had previously emphasized in judicial selections to broaden representation.^[24] After consultations with advisors and review of Rutledge's appellate record, Roosevelt formally nominated him on January 11, 1943, marking his eighth and final Supreme Court appointment.^[25]

Senate Debates and Political Context

Rutledge's nomination to the Supreme Court was transmitted to the Senate on January 11, 1943, following President Franklin D. Roosevelt's selection of him to succeed Associate Justice James F. Byrnes, who had resigned to direct the Office of Economic Stabilization amid World War II.^[14] The Senate Judiciary Committee conducted hearings and reported the nomination favorably on February 1, 1943, by a vote of 11-0, with four senators abstaining.^[26] Floor debate in the Senate was limited, focusing primarily on Rutledge's qualifications rather than ideological concerns.^[15] The sole notable opposition came from Senator William Langer (R-ND), who delivered a thirty-minute speech criticizing Rutledge's lack of experience in private legal practice, asserting that "the nominee has never tried a lawsuit in his life" and portraying him as overly academic in background.^[15] Despite this, Langer's objections did not garner broader support, and the Senate confirmed Rutledge by voice vote on February 8, 1943, without recorded dissent.^[7] This swift approval reflected Rutledge's established record as a judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia since 1939 and his prior academic roles, which underscored his legal scholarship.^[14] In the broader political context, confirmation occurred during World War II, with Democrats holding a 57-38 majority in the Senate after the 1942 elections, facilitating Roosevelt's judicial appointments. Rutledge's support for New Deal policies and the earlier court-packing plan elicited no significant backlash from anti-New Deal factions, likely due to the wartime emphasis on national unity and the administration's success in prior nominations like those of Hugo Black and William O. Douglas.^[12] His nomination aligned with Roosevelt's effort to bolster the Court's liberal wing, yet proceeded without the controversies that marked earlier attempts to reshape the judiciary.

Supreme Court Tenure

Overall Jurisprudential Approach

Wiley Blount Rutledge's jurisprudential approach on the Supreme Court was marked by pragmatic liberalism, emphasizing flexible constitutional interpretation to accommodate the complexities of a modern industrial society while safeguarding individual liberties. Influenced by sociological jurisprudence, he viewed judicial decision-making not through rigid binaries of activism versus restraint, but as a reflection of competing judicial values applied to evolving social realities. This perspective, honed during his tenure on the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals, prioritized empirical adaptation over formalistic adherence to precedent, enabling support for expansive federal authority in economic regulation without compromising core democratic protections.^[17] Rutledge aligned with the Court's liberal wing, often joining Justices Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, and Frank Murphy in advocating advanced social justice reforms, including robust enforcement of civil rights and First Amendment freedoms. His opinions reflected a commitment to judicial oversight of executive actions, particularly in challenging unchecked administrative power and wartime measures that threatened personal autonomy, as seen in his dissents critiquing indefinite detention without due process. Yet, he endorsed the New Deal's expansion of governmental scope, interpreting the Commerce Clause broadly to validate regulatory frameworks addressing interstate economic interdependence.^[10]^[13] In practice, Rutledge's method involved balancing deference to legislative intent with vigilant protection against rights erosions, rejecting absolutist textualism in favor of contextual reasoning that weighed causal impacts on societal welfare. This approach manifested in his willingness to dissent forcefully—comprising about 20% of his votes—when majority rulings, such as those upholding Japanese American internment, deviated from first-order principles of equal protection and procedural fairness. Scholars note his influence extended through clerkships, shaping successors like John Paul Stevens toward similar emphases on judicial conscience in security contexts.^[27]^[28]

First Amendment and Free Speech Rulings

Rutledge championed expansive First Amendment protections, advocating for a "preferred position" doctrine that subjected government restrictions on speech, press, assembly, and religion to heightened judicial scrutiny due to their foundational role in democratic self-governance.^[29]^[30] This approach reflected his view that such freedoms warranted priority over competing interests, as articulated in concurrences and opinions emphasizing their "sanctity and sanction not equal to that accorded other freedoms and protections of the Constitution."^[31] In West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (319 U.S. 624, 1943), Rutledge joined the 6-3 majority opinion overruling Minersville School District v. Gobitis (1940) and invalidating a state requirement that public school students salute the flag, holding that compulsory participation constituted an unconstitutional infringement on free speech and thought.^[32]^[9] The decision protected Jehovah's Witnesses' objections rooted in religious conscience, affirming that "no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion."^[33] Rutledge supported protections for religious proselytizing in Jehovah's Witnesses cases, joining reversals of local ordinances imposing license taxes or fees on literature distribution. In Murdock v. Pennsylvania (319 U.S. 105, 1943), the Court struck down a municipal ordinance requiring payment for soliciting orders to distribute religious tracts, with Rutledge concurring that such measures impermissibly taxed the exercise of First Amendment rights rather than mere commercial activity.^[34] Similarly, in Jamison v. Texas (318 U.S. 413, 1943), he backed the invalidation of a conviction for distributing handbills without a permit, rejecting street-use restrictions as overbroad burdens on free expression.^[35] In Thomas v. Collins (323 U.S. 516, 1945), Rutledge authored the majority opinion declaring a Texas labor-organizer registration law an invalid prior restraint on speech, as it compelled disclosure and licensing before union solicitation, violating protections for advocacy and assembly.^[31] He stressed that the First Amendment safeguards "the dissemination of ideas" essential to labor organizing, distinguishing it from unprotected fraud or defamation.^[29] Rutledge also concurred in United States v. Congress of Industrial Organizations (335 U.S. 106, 1948), upholding a union's expenditure for political advocacy in elections without Hatch Act disclosure, reinforcing that First Amendment freedoms precluded undue regulation of non-partisan informational speech to lawmakers.^[30] In Musser v. Utah (333 U.S. 95, 1948), he dissented in part, arguing that a vague advocacy statute against advocating overthrow risked chilling protected political expression under the First and Fourteenth Amendments.^[36] These rulings underscored his commitment to shielding minority and dissident speech from local or federal encroachments, often prioritizing individual liberty over public order claims.^[37]

Criminal Procedure and Individual Rights Cases

Rutledge consistently advocated for expansive protections in criminal procedure, emphasizing the incorporation of Bill of Rights guarantees against state action through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. He viewed procedural safeguards as essential to preventing arbitrary state power and ensuring fair trials, often dissenting when the Court limited federal standards' application to states. During his tenure, Rutledge sided with criminal defendants in a substantial majority of cases, prioritizing empirical evidence of systemic abuses in state courts over deference to local practices.^[11]^[7] In Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25 (1949), the Supreme Court ruled 6–3 that the Fourth Amendment's bar on unreasonable searches and seizures binds states via due process but that the federal exclusionary rule—requiring suppression of illegally obtained evidence—does not apply in state proceedings. Rutledge dissented, joined by Murphy, asserting that the exclusionary rule forms an integral part of the Fourth Amendment's remedial scheme, without which the right against unreasonable searches remains illusory and state violations unremedied. He argued that historical practice and the amendment's purpose demand uniform enforcement to deter official misconduct effectively.^[38]^[39] Rutledge's commitment to self-incrimination protections was evident in Adamson v. California, 332 U.S. 46 (1947), where the Court upheld a state prosecutor's comment on the defendant's failure to testify, rejecting full incorporation of the Fifth Amendment. Joining Justice Black's dissent, Rutledge contended that the privilege against self-incrimination constitutes a fundamental liberty safeguarded by due process, rendering state-sanctioned inferences from silence coercive and violative of core accusatorial principles. He criticized the majority's selective incorporation as undermining the Bill of Rights' uniformity and allowing states to erode federal protections incrementally.^[40]^[11] On the right to counsel, Rutledge was the sole justice to support defendants in every Supreme Court case involving the Sixth Amendment during his service, viewing appointed counsel as indispensable for indigent defendants facing complex proceedings. In Uveges v. Pennsylvania, 335 U.S. 437 (1948), he concurred in reversing a conviction for lack of counsel, stressing that due process demands effective representation to counter prosecutorial advantages and evidentiary pitfalls, particularly in capital cases. This stance reflected his broader critique of state courts' frequent denial of counsel, which he saw as breeding reversible errors and eroding public trust in justice.^[11]

Wartime National Security Decisions

Rutledge joined the Supreme Court majority in Hirabayashi v. United States (June 21, 1943), unanimously upholding a military-imposed curfew on Japanese Americans in designated West Coast zones as a wartime security measure justified by potential espionage risks.^[41]^[42] In a concurrence, he emphasized the judiciary's role in reviewing the factual basis for such orders while deferring to executive assessments of military necessity during active invasion threats.^[41] In Korematsu v. United States (December 18, 1944), Rutledge provided the decisive fifth vote in the 6-3 decision affirming the constitutionality of Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34, which mandated the removal of Fred Korematsu and other Japanese Americans from military areas, citing congressional and executive war powers to prevent sabotage amid the Pacific theater's exigencies.^[42]^[41] Although he did not write separately, internal conference notes indicate Rutledge's vote shifted from initial uncertainty, influenced by classified intelligence on Japanese American disloyalty risks and consistency with Hirabayashi, despite his private reservations about racial classifications' inherent inequities.^[42] The same day as Korematsu, the Court in Ex parte Endo (December 18, 1944) unanimously ruled 9-0 that the War Relocation Authority lacked statutory authority to indefinitely detain Mitsuye Endo, a concededly loyal Japanese American citizen, effectively signaling the internment program's practical end by requiring release absent individualized security threats.^[41]^[42] Rutledge joined the majority without separate opinion, aligning with the view that wartime detention powers extended only to those posing demonstrable risks, not blanket loyalty presumptions. Postwar, in In re Yamashita (February 4, 1946), Rutledge dissented alongside Justice Murphy from the 6-2 affirmance of General Tomoyuki Yamashita's death sentence by a U.S. military commission in Manila for atrocities committed by his troops in the Philippines during 1944-1945.^[41] He argued the trial violated due process under the Fifth Amendment and international law, as charges lacked specificity on command responsibility, evidence was hearsay-dominated without confrontation rights, and the commission applied retroactive standards absent Yamashita's direct knowledge or prevention capacity—conditions Rutledge deemed insufficient for liability even in occupation scenarios.^[41]^[42] Rutledge warned that endorsing such proceedings risked eroding fundamental trial safeguards, insisting regular courts or properly constituted tribunals were feasible after hostilities ceased on September 2, 1945.^[41]

Economic and Commerce Clause Opinions

Rutledge's jurisprudence on the Commerce Clause emphasized pragmatic, case-by-case evaluation of practical economic effects over rigid doctrinal labels, such as distinguishing "local" from "interstate" activities.^[11] He consistently upheld broad congressional authority to regulate interstate commerce for national economic and social objectives, reflecting sympathy for New Deal-era expansions of federal power, while permitting state regulations where substantial local interests predominated without undue burdens on interstate flows.^[11] In 28 Commerce Clause cases during his tenure, he voted to sustain state taxation or regulation in 20 instances, authoring 14 opinions primarily addressing state impositions on interstate commerce.^[11] This balancing approach rejected overly formalistic distinctions, prioritizing empirical impacts on commerce volumes, costs, and efficiencies.^[11] In Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona (325 U.S. 761, 1945), Rutledge concurred in the 5-4 decision striking down Arizona's statute limiting freight train lengths to 14 cars, deeming it an excessive burden on interstate commerce despite purported safety aims, as evidence showed minimal accident reductions relative to operational inefficiencies across state lines.^[43] His concurrence underscored the need to weigh localized safety claims against national rail efficiencies, avoiding state-by-state fragmentation of commerce.^[43] Similarly, in Prudential Insurance Co. v. Benjamin (328 U.S. 408, 1946), he joined the majority upholding South Carolina's higher fees on out-of-state insurers, reasoning that the measure addressed local fiscal burdens from non-resident companies' operations without discriminating against interstate business per se. Rutledge dissented in Nippert v. City of Richmond (327 U.S. 416, 1946), where the Court invalidated a municipal ordinance taxing solicitors of out-of-state orders as discriminatory under the Commerce Clause; he argued the tax targeted transient commercial activities with negligible interstate impact, serving legitimate local revenue needs without protectionist intent. In Freeman v. Hewit (329 U.S. 249, 1946), his solo concurrence in upholding a Virginia use tax on goods bought out-of-state reinforced practical-effect scrutiny, dismissing formal "sale" labels in favor of assessing whether the levy captured value accrued locally. He also dissented in McLeod v. J.E. Dilworth Co. (322 U.S. 327, 1944), advocating for state taxing power over interstate transactions where economic incidence fell within state borders. On federal economic regulation, Rutledge supported expansive Commerce Clause interpretations enabling antitrust enforcement and labor protections. In Mandeville Island Farms v. American Crystal Sugar Co. (334 U.S. 219, 1948), he authored the unanimous opinion upholding Sherman Act application to sugar beet pricing agreements affecting interstate markets, rejecting narrow "direct effects" tests in favor of aggregate economic influences on supply and prices. His decisions aligned with pro-labor stances, sustaining Fair Labor Standards Act applications and National Labor Relations Board authority over 93% and 96% of relevant cases, respectively, viewing commerce power as adaptable to modern industrial realities.^[11] In Interstate Oil Pipe Line Co. v. Stone (337 U.S. 662, 1949), shortly before his death, he joined upholding Mississippi's pipeline tax, applying functional analysis to affirm state fiscal claims on instrumentalities of commerce. Overall, Rutledge's framework prioritized causal economic realism, enabling federal interventions for systemic stability while cabining state overreach.^[11]

Personal Life and Death

Family Dynamics and Private Interests

Rutledge married Annabel Person on August 28, 1917, in Clovis, New Mexico, shortly before entering military service during World War I.^[44] The couple relocated frequently due to his academic career, first settling in Boulder, Colorado, where Rutledge taught at the University of Colorado Law School from 1922 to 1930; their first child, daughter Mary Lou, was born there on November 5, 1921, in a local hospital, named in honor of Rutledge's late mother.^[3] They later had two more children: daughter Jean Ann in 1925 and son Neal in 1927.^[45] Family life involved adapting to these moves, including to Iowa City for his deanship at the University of Iowa from 1930 to 1935 and then to Washington, D.C., following his federal judicial appointment in 1939, though specific interpersonal dynamics remain sparsely documented in contemporary accounts.^[46] In private pursuits, Rutledge maintained an interest in outdoor recreation, particularly fishing, as shown by his acquisition of a Colorado fishing license on August 31, 1922, purchase of specialized fishing shoes, and withdrawal of funds specifically for a fishing expedition during his early years in Boulder.^[3] He also sustained a longstanding engagement with public speaking, rekindling this avocation after completing his legal education and entering private practice in 1922, which complemented his teaching roles but extended into personal expression beyond professional duties.^[18] These interests provided outlets amid his demanding career, reflecting a balance between familial responsibilities and individual leisure, though Rutledge's personal writings offer limited elaboration on deeper familial interactions or conflicts.

Health Decline and Untimely Demise

In August 1949, during the Supreme Court's summer recess, Rutledge vacationed in Ogunquit, Maine, when he suffered a sudden circulatory ailment on August 22.^[15] He was promptly transferred to York Hospital, where his condition was initially described as serious yet showing signs of improvement by August 29.^[47] However, his health deteriorated into periodic comas over the following days.^[48] Rutledge succumbed to a cerebral hemorrhage on September 10, 1949, at the age of 55, marking an abrupt end to his judicial service after just six years on the Court.^[15] ^[48] The hemorrhagic stroke, a form of brain bleed often linked to underlying vascular pressures, terminated his tenure prematurely, depriving the Court of a voice noted for its rigorous dissents in civil liberties matters.^[7] No prior chronic conditions were publicly detailed as precipitating factors, though contemporaries attributed his intense work ethic—characterized by exhaustive preparation and late-night deliberations—to potential contributions toward such vascular events.^[27] His death prompted immediate considerations for succession under President Truman, underscoring the Court's vulnerability to sudden vacancies amid post-war caseload demands.^[48]

Judicial Philosophy

Pragmatic Liberalism and Judicial Flexibility

Rutledge espoused a pragmatic form of liberalism on the Supreme Court, emphasizing adaptation of legal principles to practical exigencies while advancing individual rights and effective governance. Appointed amid the New Deal's expansion, he supported broad federal powers under the Commerce Clause, viewing economic regulation as essential for addressing national crises like the Great Depression, rather than confining interpretation to narrow historical bounds. This stance reflected his conviction that constitutional provisions must yield to empirical realities of interstate commerce's interconnectedness, as articulated in his endorsement of administrative agencies' regulatory roles to mitigate market failures.^[11]^[49] In his 1947 monograph A Declaration of Legal Faith, Rutledge outlined a judicial ethos balancing doctrinal stability with flexibility, arguing that law serves justice only when judges apply it dynamically to contemporary facts, eschewing mechanical formalism for reasoned evolution. He critiqued overly rigid precedents that ignored societal transformations, positing instead a "faith" in law's capacity to foster liberty through pragmatic adjustment, as seen in his advocacy for federal responses to labor exploitation and economic disparity. This philosophy informed his alignment with the Roosevelt Court's shift toward deference in economic matters, prioritizing functional outcomes over absolutist textualism.^[50]^[51] Rutledge's flexibility extended to civil liberties, where he urged contextual interpretation to protect speech and due process amid wartime pressures, dissenting against blanket suppressions in favor of case-specific balancing. Yet his pragmatism tempered activism; he occasionally upheld executive actions when empirically justified by security imperatives, demonstrating a non-ideological willingness to weigh evidence over abstract theory. Scholars note this blend avoided pure judicial restraint, enabling liberal ends through adaptive means, though critics later faulted it for occasional deference to state power in rights disputes.^[18]^[11]

Alignment with New Deal Expansionism

Rutledge's alignment with New Deal expansionism was evident in his pre-judicial career, where he championed federal economic intervention as dean of the University of Iowa College of Law from 1935. He publicly endorsed President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1937 court-packing proposal—one of the few law deans to do so—aimed at neutralizing judicial barriers to New Deal legislation expanding federal regulatory authority over the economy.^[17] This stance reflected his broader sympathy for progressive reforms, including protections for workers and opposition to monopolies, drawing from sociological jurisprudence and influences like Louis D. Brandeis.^[17] Upon ascending to the Supreme Court in 1943, Rutledge continued this alignment by supporting broad federal power to regulate the economy, particularly through pragmatic interpretations of the Commerce Clause that prioritized practical economic effects over formalistic limits.^[30] He voted in favor of federal regulation in 74% of relevant cases and upheld congressional authority under statutes like the Fair Labor Standards Act and National Labor Relations Act, facilitating New Deal-style labor and wage controls.^[11] In United States v. Southeastern Underwriters Ass'n (1944), Rutledge joined the majority extending Commerce Clause scrutiny to the insurance industry, affirming federal oversight of previously unregulated sectors to address economic instability.^[30] Rutledge also endorsed the administrative state central to New Deal expansionism, supporting agency actions in 69% of non-unanimous decisions involving regulatory enforcement.^[11] His opinions emphasized federal supremacy when Congress exercised its commerce authority, as in Oklahoma Press Publishing Co. v. Walling (1946), where he backed application of wage-hour laws to media enterprises, rejecting exemptions based on First Amendment claims to preserve economic regulation.^[11] While occasionally upholding state regulatory measures affecting interstate commerce—such as in 10 of 14 relevant opinions—Rutledge advocated balancing local interests against national economic needs without unduly constraining federal power.^[11] This approach aligned him closely with the Roosevelt-appointed liberal bloc, with agreement rates of 70.6% with Justice Hugo Black and 74.7% with Justice Frank Murphy on key issues.^[11]

Legacy and Assessments

Influence on Civil Liberties Doctrine

Rutledge's jurisprudence emphasized a "preferred position" for First Amendment freedoms, advocating heightened judicial scrutiny of laws impinging on speech, assembly, and religion to safeguard them against government overreach.^[29] Joining the Court in 1943 amid evolving doctrines on individual rights, he aligned with Justices Black, Douglas, and Murphy to form a bloc insistent on robust civil liberties protections, often dissenting from majorities perceived as insufficiently protective.^[29] His opinions introduced concepts like the "chilling effect" of regulatory burdens and strict historical interpretation of constitutional limits on state power, influencing mid-century expansions of due process and incorporation principles.^[52] In Thomas v. Collins, 323 U.S. 516 (1945), Rutledge authored the 5-4 majority opinion striking down a Texas statute requiring labor organizers to secure an annual license before soliciting union memberships, ruling it imposed an invalid prior restraint on protected speech and assembly activities.^[53] He articulated that such licensing schemes, lacking narrow tailoring and clear standards, deterred exercise of core First Amendment rights through fear of prosecution, thereby establishing doctrinal tools for evaluating regulatory impacts on advocacy and organizing.^[52] This framework bolstered protections for labor speech and foreshadowed stricter review of content-neutral restrictions in subsequent cases.^[29] Rutledge's dissent in Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947), profoundly shaped Establishment Clause doctrine by rejecting a New Jersey program reimbursing parents for bus fares to parochial schools, arguing it constituted forbidden public aid to religious education in violation of the First Amendment as applied to states via the Fourteenth.^[54] Joined by Justices Jackson, Frankfurter, and Burton, he invoked James Madison's Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments (appended to the opinion) to underscore the Framers' intent for absolute separation, warning that any fiscal support eroded the "high and impregnable" wall between church and state.^[55] Though the majority upheld the reimbursement under accommodation principles, Rutledge's historical and textual analysis reinforced strict non-establishment standards, informing later decisions limiting indirect aid to religion.^[29] On Fourth Amendment incorporation, Rutledge dissented in Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25 (1949), rejecting the 6-3 majority's refusal to extend the federal exclusionary rule—barring use of evidence from unreasonable searches—to state courts, insisting that due process under the Fourteenth Amendment demanded this remedy to effectively enforce search protections against arbitrary state action.^[38] He critiqued alternative deterrents as inadequate, arguing the rule's fundamental role in preserving liberty from official invasion, a view that anticipated and intellectually supported the Court's reversal in Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961).^[56] These contributions underscored Rutledge's pragmatic yet liberty-centric approach, prioritizing empirical deterrence of abuses over formalistic distinctions between federal and state spheres.^[57]

Conservative Critiques of Activism and Security Views

Conservative legal thinkers have faulted Rutledge's pragmatic approach to constitutional interpretation for embodying judicial activism, particularly in his consistent defense of expansive federal regulatory authority under the New Deal framework. Rutledge viewed the administrative process as essential to democratic governance, arguing against judicial restrictions on agencies like the National Labor Relations Board, which he upheld in decisions expanding commerce clause jurisdiction to intrastate activities affecting interstate commerce.^[11] This stance, rooted in his pre-Court advocacy for administrative flexibility during economic crises, prioritized policy outcomes over strict textual limits, enabling what critics term an unchecked growth in executive-branch rulemaking that bypassed legislative checks.^[17] In national security contexts, Rutledge's insistence on rigorous due process protections drew conservative rebukes for potentially constraining wartime executive actions necessary for public safety. His dissent in Korematsu v. United States (1944), rejecting the internment of Japanese Americans as a violation of equal protection absent individualized suspicion, was contemporaneously viewed by supporters of the majority as overly idealistic, risking intelligence failures amid Pearl Harbor's aftermath and ongoing Pacific threats.^[58] Similarly, in In re Yamashita (1946), Rutledge dissented against affirming the conviction of Japanese General Tomoyuki Yamashita for atrocities under his command, contending that the military commission admitted hearsay and denied adequate defense preparation, thereby eroding command responsibility principles vital for deterring military excesses in conflict.^[59] Critics argued this formalistic emphasis on procedural safeguards for foreign adversaries overlooked causal links between command failures and mass civilian deaths, such as the Manila massacre, prioritizing individual rights over accountability to victims and strategic imperatives.^[60] Such positions reflected Rutledge's broader civil libertarianism, which conservatives contended deferred insufficiently to the political branches' assessments of existential threats.

Modern Reappraisals and Enduring Debates

In contemporary legal scholarship, Rutledge's dissents against expansive executive detention powers during World War II have undergone significant reappraisal, positioning him as a prescient advocate for judicial constraints on wartime authority. Scholars argue that his 1948 opinion in Eisler v. United States, affirming broad habeas jurisdiction over executive actions, anticipated challenges to indefinite detentions and provided a framework echoed in post-9/11 cases involving Guantanamo Bay detainees. This view contrasts with mid-20th-century dismissals of his positions as overly idealistic, crediting his emphasis on procedural safeguards as influencing outcomes in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (2004) and related rulings that mandated congressional authorization for military commissions.^[61] Rutledge's jurisprudence on civil liberties, particularly his lone dissent in Korematsu v. United States (1944) rejecting racial exclusion orders as unconstitutional irrespective of military necessity, has gained traction amid repudiations of that decision.^[58] Modern analysts highlight how his insistence on individualized hearings over blanket deprivations prefigured critiques of mass surveillance and emergency powers, with his reasoning cited in discussions of Trump v. Hawaii (2018), where the Court formally disavowed Korematsu while upholding travel restrictions. This reappraisal frames Rutledge not as a marginal dissenter but as a foundational voice for due process in national security contexts, influencing justices like John Paul Stevens, who clerked for him in 1947 and later echoed his commitment to robust individual rights against governmental overreach. Enduring debates center on Rutledge's pragmatic balancing of liberties and security, with proponents of his "judicial conscience" approach praising its realism in wartime without abdicating review, as seen in his concurrence in Hirabayashi v. United States (1943) upholding curfews but demanding strict scrutiny.^[62] Critics, however, contend this flexibility enabled selective activism, permitting New Deal expansions while dissenting on security measures, a tension unresolved in scholarship questioning whether his method prioritized outcomes over textual limits.^[8] These discussions persist in analyses of executive power, where Rutledge's legacy underscores ongoing divides between deferential and interventionist judicial roles, particularly in evaluating empirical threats versus abstract rights.^[63] His understudied tenure relative to contemporaries like Hugo Black fuels debate on historical oversight, with recent works attributing this to his brief six-year service and early death in 1949, yet affirming his outsized impact on doctrines like the exclusionary rule and free exercise, where dissents later prevailed under the Warren Court.

References

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Rutledge, Wiley Blount | Federal Judicial Center
Born July 20, 1894, in Cloverport, KY Died September 10, 1949, in York, ME Federal Judicial Service: Associate Justice, U.S. Court of Appeals for the ...
[2]
Rutledge, Wiley B. | ArchivesSpace at the University of Iowa
Biography. Wiley Blount Rutledge was born July 20, 1894 in Cloverport, Kentucky. ... Supreme Court. Justice Rutledge died September 10, 1949, at age 55. The ...
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100 Years Later: A Look Back at U.S. Supreme Court Justice Wiley ...
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Wiley B. Rutledge, Jr. | Supreme Court, Associate Justice, Legal ...
Sep 6, 2025 · Rutledge taught high school and studied law in his youth, receiving his law degree from the University of Colorado in 1922.Missing: career | Show results with:career<|control11|><|separator|>
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The story of former Iowa Law dean and Supreme Court Justice ...
Mar 25, 2022 · During the fall of 1920, Rutledge enrolled at the University of Colorado Law School, at Boulder, where he obtained his LLB degree. After two ...Missing: education | Show results with:education
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[PDF] Wiley Rutledge, Jr., Papers - The Library of Congress
Rutledge was professor and dean of the University of Iowa College of Law in 1939 when appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to the United States Court of ...<|separator|>
[7]
Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge - Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center
Rutledge proved highly sympathetic to criminal defendants and in general to individuals bringing claims against the government. He believed in a robust ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
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"Mr. Justice Rutledge and the Roosevelt Court" by Alfred O. Canon
The career of Mr. Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge on the Supreme Court of the United States came to an end on September 10, 1949. His passing signified the end of ...
[9]
Wiley Blount Rutledge (IA) - US Supreme Court Associate Justice
Rutledge wrote one of his most famous and controversial opinions in dissent of In re Yamashita, 327 U.S. 1 (1946). He condemned the Japanese commander's ...
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[PDF] Wiley B. Rutledge, 1894-1949 - Digital Repository @ Maurer Law
Justic Rutledge's greatest opinion, even in the judgment of a posterity that cannot share the memory of its oral delivery, may well be his dissent in In re ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
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[PDF] Mr. Justice Rutledge and the Roosevelt Court
The career of Mr. Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge on the Supreme. Court of the United States came to an end on September 10, 1949. His passing signified the ...
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[PDF] Mr. Justice Rutledge - The Man - Digital Repository @ Maurer Law
In the Supreme Court, Justice Rutledge's view on administrative law made him one of a solid majority friendly to federal regulatory power, while his ...
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[PDF] wiley rutledge, executive detention, and judicial conscience at war
Pollak, Wiley B. Rutledge, 1943–1949, in THE SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, ILLUSTRATED BIOGRAPHIES, 1789–1993, 41. (Clare Cushman ed., ...
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Justice Wiley Rutledge Dies Of Brain Hemorrhage at 55
After receiving preliminary education at Maryville College, Tennessee, he received a B.A. degree in 1914 from the University of Wisconsin. Then came a year ...
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Wiley Blount Rutledge - Historical Society of the D.C. Circuit
Sep 30, 2024 · Professor of law, Washington University School of Law, 1926-1935 ... Professor of law and dean, State University of Iowa College of Law, 1935-1939 ...
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[PDF] Justice Wiley Rutledge: Court of Appeals Years – and After
Rutledge contributed significantly to development of our local common law. One pathbreaking opinion overturned a hospital's traditional charitable immunity ...
[18]
[PDF] Wiley Rutledge and Executive Detention: A Judicial Conscience for ...
U.S. 251 (1918). Rutledge was repeatedly thwarted in urging Missouri to ratify the Child Labor Amendment, but he did succeed in setting forth his commitment to ...<|separator|>
[19]
The Thinking Man's Justice - The Washington Post
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Previous Associate Justices: James F. Byrnes, 1941-1942
On June 12, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated Byrnes to the Supreme Court of the United States, and the Senate confirmed the appointment that same ...
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But on January 11, 1943, the White House announced that Wiley Rutledge of Iowa was the president's choice. Rutledge was twenty-two years younger than Hand, ...
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Wiley B. Rutledge - Oyez
Associate Justice Roosevelt appointed him to the federal appellate bench in 1939 where Rutledge demonstrated strong liberal credentials. Rutledge proved to be ...Missing: nominating | Show results with:nominating
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THE JUDICIARY: Death of a Scholar - Time Magazine
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Supreme Court Nominations (1789-Present) - Senate.gov
President Roosevelt, Franklin. Rutledge, Wiley, Byrnes, Jan 11, 1943, V, C, Feb 8, 1943. Jackson, Robert, Stone, Jun 12, 1941, V, C, Jul 7, 1941. Byrnes, James ...Missing: process | Show results with:process
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[PDF] Supreme Court Nominations, 1789-2009: Actions by the Senate, the ...
May 13, 2009 · To receive a lifetime appointment to the Court, a candidate must first be nominated by the President and then confirmed by the Senate. A key ...
[27]
[PDF] The Ties That Bind John Paul Stevens and Wiley B. Rutledge
in February 1943, Rutledge became a reliable vote for positions supporting ... When Stevens was asked at his confirmation hearing about his decision to end his ...
[28]
Fred M. Vinson Court (1946-1953) - Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center
The advocates of restraint included Justices Frankfurter, Jackson, Reed, and Burton, while the activists included Justices Black, Douglas, Murphy, and Rutledge.Missing: views | Show results with:views<|control11|><|separator|>
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Sep 28, 2024 · The Court of the 1940s had no stronger advocate for free speech and other First Amendment rights than Wiley Rutledge; no more thoughtful ...
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None
**Summary of Wiley Rutledge's Views:**
[31]
[PDF] Common Law Constitutionalism and the Protean First Amendment
Mar 3, 2023 · Writing in Thomas, Justice Wiley Rutledge explained that the First. Amendment's “priority gives these liberties a sanctity and a sanction not ...Missing: Key | Show results with:Key<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette - Oyez
Jackson. Compelling school children to salute the flag violates freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment.
[33]
COMPELLED SPEECH - UMKC School of Law
The Court reversed itself and ruled 6-3 that West Virginia's decision to expel students who refused to salute the flag violated the First Amendment.
[34]
Mr. Justice Rutledge's Mark upon the Bill of Rights - jstor
In Murdock v. Pennsylvania5 the denial of tax immunity for vendors of religious "literature" was reversed. Equality of tax treatment in such cases was ...
[35]
Jamison v. Texas (1943) | The First Amendment Encyclopedia
Jan 1, 2009 · In Jamison v. Texas, the Court, on First Amendment grounds, overturned the conviction of a Jehovah's Witness who distributed handbills on ...
[36]
Musser v. Utah (1948) | The First Amendment Encyclopedia
Sep 28, 2024 · Rutledge believed that the conviction also raised free speech issues under the First and 14th Amendments. Noting that the state court had ...
[37]
Wiley Blount Rutledge, Jr. (1894–1949)
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[40]
Adamson v. California | 332 U.S. 46 (1947)
Held: The provisions of the California law, as applied in the circumstances of this case, do not violate the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Pp.
[41]
None
Summary of each segment:
[42]
[PDF] Wiley Rutledge, Executive Detention, and Judicial Conscience at War
In 1935, Rutledge left St. Louis to become dean at the University of. Iowa. Though the move owed mainly to disputes among other Washington. University ...
[43]
Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona | 325 U.S. 761 (1945)
A Commerce Clause analysis is based on balancing the nature and extent of the burden on interstate commerce created by the state law against the benefits and ...
[44]
ASSOCIATE JUSTICE WILEY BLOUNT RUTLEDGE Showing 1-12 ...
Oct 7, 2012 · Wiley Rutledge was President Franklin Delano Roovelt's eighth and last appointment to the Supreme Court. Rutledge had spoken out in support of ...<|separator|>
[45]
Wiley Blount Rutledge Jr. (1894-1949) | WikiTree FREE Family Tree
Nov 6, 2017 · He taught law at the University of Colorado (1924–26) and at Washington University in St. Louis 1926–30 and was Dean 1930–35, where the Wiley ...
[46]
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[47]
JUSTICE RUTLEDGE ILL IN A MAINE HOSPITAL
Rutledge, suffering from a circulatory ailment, was reported tonig to be in a serious condition, but improving in the York Hospital, where he has been a patient ...Missing: decline death cause
[48]
THE JUDICIARY: Death of a Scholar - Videos Index on TIME.com
And there, last week, in a tiny hospital at York Village where he had lain for eight days in a periodic coma, Wiley Blount Rutledge, 55, died of cerebral ...Missing: symptoms | Show results with:symptoms
[49]
Wiley B. Rutledge, Jr | Research Starters - EBSCO
His most famous ruling at this time was to vote to convict the American Medical Association for violating the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). In 1939 Rutledge ...Missing: notable opinions
[50]
[PDF] Rutledge: A DECLARATION OF LEGAL FAITH
A DECLARATION OF LEGAL FAITH. -By Wiley Rutledge. Lawrence,. Kansas: University of Kansas Press. 1947. Pp. 82. $2. Inaugurating the Stephens Lectureship at ...Missing: judicial | Show results with:judicial
[51]
A Declaration of Legal Faith: Rutledge Jr, Wiley - Books - Amazon.com
A Declaration of Legal Faith [Rutledge Jr, Wiley] on Amazon.com. *FREE ... The Judicial Philosophy of Justice Rutledge In the first part of this book ...
[52]
Thomas v. Collins (1945) | The First Amendment Encyclopedia
1 янв. 2009 г. · In his majority opinion, Justice Wiley B. Rutledge explained that First Amendment freedoms, including freedom of speech and assembly, had a ...
[53]
Thomas v. Collins | 323 U.S. 516 (1945)
MR. JUSTICE RUTLEDGE delivered the opinion of the Court. The appeal is from a decision of the Supreme Court of Texas which denied appellant's petition for a ...Не найдено: Wiley | Нужно включить:Wiley
[54]
Everson v. Board of Education of the Township of Ewing | Oyez
It was rather enacted to assist parents of all religions with getting their children to school. Justices Jackson, Frankfurter, Rutledge, and Burton dissented.
[55]
Everson v. Board of Education | 330 U.S. 1 (1947)
[Footnote 7] And all of these dissenters were compelled to pay tithes and taxes [Footnote 8] to support government-sponsored churches whose ministers preached ...
[56]
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Julius A. Wolf, Charles H. Fulton, and Betty Fulton were charged with conspiracy to perform an abortion. At trial, Wolf objected to evidence material and ...
[57]
https://repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3787&context=ilj
[58]
Korematsu v. United States | 323 U.S. 214 (1944)
Wiley Blount Rutledge. Black and the Justices who joined his opinion ... Ex parte Endo (post, p. 323 U. S. 283) demonstrate, he was illegally held in ...
[59]
In re Yamashita | 327 U.S. 1 (1946) | Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center
These are the reasons that lead me to dissent in these terms. MR. JUSTICE RUTLEDGE, dissenting. Not with ease does one find his views at odds with the ...Missing: Wiley | Show results with:Wiley
[60]
YAMASHITA APPEAL DENIED, SIX TO TWO, BY SUPREME COURT
Justice Rutledge, in his thirty-two-page dissent, attacked the legal basis and procedure of the military commission. He criticized the admission of improper ...
[61]
Wiley Rutledge, Executive Detention, and Judicial Conscience at War
May 30, 2006 · This Article divides executive detention jurisprudence into three phases: jurisdiction, uncharged detentions, and trials by military commission.
[62]
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/320/81/
[63]
[PDF] Rutledge and Civil Liberties - Digital Repository @ Maurer Law
Rutledge as a member of the United States Court of Appeals first judici- ally expressed his concern over religious freedom in Busey v. District of. Columbia. 3.