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Self-governance

Self-governance refers to the capacity of individuals or communities to establish and adhere to their own rules, directing internal affairs through voluntary association and decision-making absent coercive external imposition.^[1] Rooted in classical philosophy, including Aristotle's ethical framework linking personal virtue to political order, the concept evolved through Enlightenment thinkers emphasizing individual rights to self-direction as foundational to liberty.^[2] In practice, it manifests in historical precedents like the American colonies' assertion of self-rule in the Declaration of Independence, which justified restructuring governance to secure unalienable rights against tyrannical overreach.^[3] Key characteristics include decentralized authority, where incentives align through mutual consent rather than top-down mandates, promoting accountability and adaptation to local conditions. Empirical studies of Indigenous nations demonstrate that devolving control from federal oversight to tribal institutions yields superior economic growth, resource management, and social stability, as self-governed groups leverage cultural knowledge and direct stakes in outcomes.^[4] Notable achievements encompass sustained voluntary communities, such as historical merchant guilds or modern co-operatives, which outperform rigidly centralized systems by harnessing dispersed knowledge and reducing agency costs. Controversies center on scalability challenges in diverse polities, where unchecked factionalism can undermine collective goods, prompting debates over minimal external safeguards versus pure autonomy; yet causal analysis reveals that external interventions often exacerbate dependency and inefficiency compared to endogenous rule-making.^[5]

Definition and Core Principles

Conceptual Definition

Self-governance denotes the principle by which individuals or groups exercise authority over their own actions and institutions through voluntary, internally derived mechanisms, independent of external coercion or dictation. This concept emphasizes the derivation of legitimate rule from the consent and rational capacities of the governed, rather than from hierarchical imposition by outsiders.^[1] At its core, self-governance presupposes a foundational capacity for self-regulation, where agents—whether persons or associations—formulate and enforce norms aligned with their ends, fostering accountability through direct participation rather than delegated or alien control.^[6] Individually, self-governance manifests as personal sovereignty, rooted in the ownership of one's body and labor, enabling autonomous decision-making free from arbitrary interference, as articulated in classical liberal thought where such rights preclude others from dictating self-directed conduct.^[7] This individual dimension extends to rational self-command, involving the independence of deliberation from manipulation and the ability to align actions with reasoned principles, distinguishing it from mere impulse or subjection to external wills.^[6] Collectively, it scales to communities capable of producing and sustaining rules that yield desired social and economic outcomes, provided those rules emerge from endogenous processes like consensus or emergent order, rather than top-down mandates.^[1] Empirical instances, such as voluntary associations or decentralized polities, illustrate how self-governance enhances coordination and resilience by aligning incentives with local knowledge, though it demands institutional safeguards against internal capture or factional dominance.^[5] Philosophically, self-governance contrasts with heteronomy by privileging endogenous legitimacy, where the governed bear responsibility for outcomes, promoting virtues like prudence and foresight over reliance on distant authorities.^[8] This framework underscores causal mechanisms wherein dispersed decision-making leverages dispersed information, yielding superior adaptation compared to centralized alternatives, as evidenced in historical analyses of self-reliant polities outperforming imposed regimes in stability and prosperity.^[9] Limitations arise when internal divisions undermine collective coherence, necessitating minimal external frameworks only to prevent aggression, but never to supplant the primary locus of authority in the self-governing unit itself.^[5]

First-Principles Foundations

Self-ownership constitutes the axiomatic basis for self-governance, positing that individuals inherently possess property in their own persons, bodies, and labor, independent of any external authority. This principle, articulated by John Locke in his Second Treatise of Government (1689), asserts that "every man has a property in his own person" and that no one has a right to this except the individual himself, forming the foundation for personal sovereignty and the moral limits on coercive governance.^[10] From this derives the natural right to liberty, whereby self-direction in actions and associations follows as a corollary, enabling governance structures only through voluntary consent rather than imposition. Empirical observation supports this, as violations of self-ownership—such as slavery or arbitrary conscription—historically correlate with reduced innovation and productivity, evidenced by economic data from coerced labor systems versus free markets.^[11]^[12] Extending self-ownership to external property through labor mixing with unowned resources further underpins self-governing orders, as Locke reasoned that appropriation from the common stock is legitimate provided it leaves "enough and as good" for others, preventing tragedy of the commons via private stewardship.^[11] This causal mechanism fosters sustainable resource use and cooperative exchange, contrasting with collective mandates that often lead to inefficiency, as seen in 20th-century collectivized agriculture failures yielding famines in the Soviet Union (1932–1933 Holodomor, affecting 3–5 million) and Maoist China (Great Leap Forward, 1958–1962, 15–55 million deaths).^[13] Self-governance thus emerges not from utopian design but from adherence to these principles, where natural rights to life, liberty, and property necessitate defensive institutions limited to protecting against aggression, aligning human action with reality's incentives rather than fiat decrees.^[14] The non-aggression principle reinforces these foundations by prohibiting the initiation of force, fraud, or coercion against persons or property, serving as an ethical boundary for self-governing interactions.^[15] Rooted in self-ownership, it permits only retaliatory force in defense, enabling spontaneous orders where coordination arises from decentralized decisions, as theorized by F.A. Hayek: complex social institutions like language and markets evolve through individual pursuits without central planning, outperforming top-down alternatives due to superior knowledge dispersion.^[16] Historical precedents, such as medieval trade guilds and early American townships (e.g., 17th-century Plymouth Colony's voluntary compacts), demonstrate viable self-governance under these axioms, yielding prosperity absent in analogous imposed systems.^[17] Critiques from empiricists note that while pure self-governance risks coordination failures in public goods, first-principles adherence—via voluntary covenants—mitigates this through reputation and reciprocity, as evidenced by blockchain-based decentralized autonomous organizations processing billions in value since 2015 without hierarchical enforcement.^[18] Self-governance differs from autonomy in that the latter primarily denotes the capacity for self-determination through rational reflection and endorsement of one's motives, whereas self-governance emphasizes the active implementation of self-imposed rules and regulatory functions over one's actions and life choices.^[19]^[6] Autonomy requires competencies like self-control and authenticity but does not necessarily entail the ongoing exercise of governance, such as allocating resources or enforcing personal principles; self-governance, by contrast, operationalizes these into practical self-rule, potentially including voluntary associations without external coercion.^[6] In distinction from self-regulation, which involves managing impulses and behaviors to align with short-term goals, self-governance extends to comprehensive decision-making authority, including reflective evaluation of long-term ends and the alignment of motives with an individual's authoritative standpoint.^[19] Self-regulation may suffice for basic behavioral control but falls short of the deeper rational governance that self-governance demands, as it lacks the requirement for endorsing desires from a higher-order perspective of personal sovereignty.^[19] Self-governance contrasts with self-government, often a collective or institutional concept involving structured authority over a group, such as in democratic assemblies or federal systems where decisions bind participants through majority mechanisms.^[6] While self-government implies dual viewpoints of governors and governed within a polity, self-governance centers on individual or consensual non-hierarchical arrangements, rejecting imposed collective rule in favor of personal sovereignty.^[19] It also diverges from anarchy, which rejects all external authority but risks disorder absent internalized order; self-governance incorporates voluntary self-imposed constraints compatible with endorsed external structures, provided they do not violate individual consent.^[6] Unlike democracy's reliance on majority aggregation that can override minority autonomy, self-governance prioritizes unanimous or individual consent to preserve personal rule.^[6] Finally, while aligned with libertarian self-ownership—entailing full control over one's body and labor—self-governance is not coterminous with libertarianism, as the latter encompasses broader ideological commitments to minimal or no state coercion, whereas self-governance can manifest in non-libertarian contexts emphasizing ordered personal liberty.^[20]

Historical Development

Ancient and Pre-Modern Examples

In ancient Greece, self-governing city-states known as poleis exemplified early forms of citizen participation in collective decision-making, particularly in Athens following the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BCE, which established a popular assembly (ekklesia) where free adult male citizens could vote on laws and policies without monarchical oversight.^[21] This system relied on direct democracy, with citizens serving in councils and courts, though it excluded women, slaves, and foreigners, limiting its scope to approximately 10-20% of the population.^[21] Similar autonomous structures existed in other poleis like Sparta, where elders and ephors managed internal affairs through communal oversight rather than centralized kingship, emphasizing self-reliance in military and civic matters from the 8th century BCE onward.^[22] The Icelandic Commonwealth, established around 930 CE with the founding of the Althing—the world's oldest surviving parliament—operated without a king or central executive, relying instead on a network of chieftains (goðar) who enforced laws through private assemblies and voluntary arbitration.^[23] Laws were recited annually by a lawspeaker elected for three-year terms, with disputes resolved via communal courts and goðorð (chieftaincy offices) that could be transferred or shared, fostering a decentralized system sustained until Norwegian subjugation in 1262 CE amid internal feuds.^[24] This arrangement prioritized customary law and individual alliances over coercive state apparatus, though it devolved into clan violence by the 13th century due to power concentration among fewer chieftains.^[23] In medieval Switzerland, the Federal Charter of 1291 united the cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden in a defensive alliance that preserved local self-rule, exempting them from external feudal lords while allowing each community to manage internal taxation, justice, and militias autonomously.^[25] This pact evolved into the Old Swiss Confederacy by the 14th century, incorporating additional cantons through mutual oaths that emphasized collective security without subordinating local governance, as evidenced by victories in battles like Morgarten in 1315 that reinforced cantonal independence.^[26] Cantonal assemblies (Landsgemeinden) enabled direct participation by freemen in open-air votes on key decisions, a practice persisting in some areas into the 20th century.^[25] Among pre-colonial North American indigenous groups, the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy, formed under the Great Law of Peace around 1142 CE, structured governance as a voluntary union of five (later six) nations with authority distributed across clan mothers—who selected sachems (chiefs)—and a Grand Council of 50 representatives deliberating by consensus on inter-nation matters.^[27] Internal nation affairs remained self-managed through matrilineal clans, with no centralized enforcement but reliance on moral suasion and wampum belts to record agreements, enabling sustained peace among formerly warring tribes until European pressures in the 17th century.^[27] This model balanced autonomy with confederated coordination, influencing later democratic experiments through diplomatic interactions.^[27]

Enlightenment and Founding Era

John Locke's Two Treatises of Government, published in 1689, established key tenets of self-governance by asserting that political authority originates from the consent of individuals in a state of natural liberty, who form governments to secure their inherent rights to life, liberty, and property.^[11] Locke reasoned that such consent creates a fiduciary trust, where rulers hold power conditionally; violation of this trust, such as through arbitrary seizure of property or denial of due process, justifies dissolution of the government and resistance by the governed.^[11] This framework shifted legitimacy from divine right or conquest to rational agreement, emphasizing limited government as a bulwark against tyranny rooted in human self-interest.^[11] Building on these foundations, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), advanced structural mechanisms for self-governance through separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches, arguing that concentrated authority inevitably leads to despotism regardless of the regime's form.^[28] Montesquieu drew empirical observations from historical republics like England post-1688, contending that divided powers create mutual checks that preserve individual freedoms and enable moderated rule by law rather than whim.^[29] His analysis highlighted moderation as essential to liberty, influencing designs where self-governance emerges from institutional rivalry rather than unchecked majority will.^[28] In the American Founding Era, these Enlightenment principles materialized in revolutionary documents and institutions. The Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776, codified Lockean consent by stating that governments exist to secure unalienable rights and derive powers solely from the governed's approval, justifying separation from Britain when these conditions failed.^[30] The subsequent U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1788, operationalized Montesquieu's separations via enumerated powers, bicameral legislature, and federal division between national and state levels, as defended in the Federalist Papers (1787–1788) by James Madison, who argued in No. 51 that ambition must counteract ambition to protect self-governance from factional excesses inherent to human nature.^[31] Madison's framework in No. 10 further addressed self-governance by extending republican scale to refine public views through elected representatives, mitigating direct democracy's risks while preserving popular sovereignty.^[32] This era's innovations prioritized causal safeguards—such as vetoes and judicial review—against power consolidation, yielding a system where self-rule endures through deliberate constraints rather than utopian equality.^[31]

19th and 20th Century Shifts

The 19th century witnessed the expansion of liberal principles emphasizing limited government and individual rights, which bolstered self-governance in political spheres across Europe and the Americas. Reforms such as Britain's Reform Act of 1832, which extended voting rights to middle-class males, and subsequent acts in 1867 and 1884, gradually broadened democratic participation, reflecting a shift from aristocratic rule toward broader self-rule by enfranchised citizens.^[33] In the United States, Jacksonian democracy from the 1820s to 1840s promoted white male suffrage and reduced property qualifications for voting, enhancing popular sovereignty at the state level.^[34] These changes aligned with classical liberal thought prioritizing personal autonomy over centralized authority, though they coexisted with ongoing challenges like slavery's persistence until the U.S. Civil War's end in 1865, which ultimately affirmed self-governance for emancipated individuals through the 13th Amendment.^[35] Industrialization during this era, accelerating from the 1830s onward, profoundly altered individual self-governance by transitioning economies from agrarian self-sufficiency to urban wage labor. In Britain, the factory system displaced independent artisans, with skilled weavers' incomes plummeting as mechanization reduced bargaining power; by 1830, handloom weavers numbered over 240,000 but faced destitution.^[36] This fostered greater economic interdependence and prompted state interventions, such as Britain's Factory Act of 1833 limiting child labor hours, marking an early erosion of pure laissez-faire self-reliance in favor of regulatory oversight.^[37] Concurrently, the rise of socialist ideologies, exemplified by Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto in 1848, critiqued liberal self-governance as illusory under capitalism, advocating collective control that gained traction amid labor unrest, setting the stage for 20th-century collectivism.^[33] In the 20th century, the principle of national self-determination emerged as a cornerstone of international shifts, particularly after World War I, when U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points in 1918 articulated peoples' rights to self-governance, influencing the dissolution of empires and the creation of states like Poland and Czechoslovakia via the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.^[38] This evolved into a legal norm post-World War II, enshrined in the United Nations Charter's Article 1 in 1945, fueling decolonization; between 1945 and 1975, over 80 territories achieved independence, including India in 1947 and much of Africa in the 1960s, transforming global maps from imperial domains to sovereign nations exercising self-rule.^[39]^[40] The Atlantic Charter of 1941, jointly issued by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, further endorsed self-government for dependent peoples, accelerating this wave.^[40] Domestically, however, established democracies saw a countervailing centralization through the administrative and welfare states, diminishing individual self-governance. In the U.S., the New Deal from 1933 introduced programs like Social Security in 1935, establishing federal relief that diverged from prior emphases on private charity and self-reliance, with welfare spending rising from negligible pre-Depression levels to billions by mid-century.^[41]^[42] European welfare models, expanding from Bismarck's 1880s social insurance in Germany, proliferated post-1945, with Britain's National Health Service in 1948 exemplifying state provision supplanting familial and personal responsibility.^[43] Critics, including economists like Friedrich Hayek in The Road to Serfdom (1944), argued this trajectory eroded voluntary association and personal agency by fostering dependency, a view supported by data showing U.S. welfare rolls swelling from 1 million in 1960 to over 4 million single mothers by 1994 under Aid to Families with Dependent Children.^[44] Totalitarian regimes, such as the Soviet Union under Stalin from the 1920s and Nazi Germany from 1933, outright suppressed self-governance, with gulags and Gestapo enforcing state control over 20 million Soviet citizens by the 1930s purges and pervasive surveillance in Germany.^[39] These developments highlighted a tension: global advances in collective self-determination juxtaposed with domestic contractions in individual autonomy.

Philosophical Underpinnings

Individual Autonomy and Self-Ownership

Individual autonomy denotes the rational capacity of persons to direct their own conduct and pursue ends derived from personal deliberation, free from coercive interference by others. This principle serves as a foundational element of self-governance, positing that individuals, as ends in themselves, possess the competence to formulate and execute life plans without subjugation to arbitrary external authority. In political philosophy, autonomy contrasts with paternalism or collectivism by emphasizing personal responsibility for choices and their consequences, thereby enabling voluntary associations as the basis for larger social orders. Self-ownership complements autonomy by asserting exclusive moral jurisdiction over one's body, actions, and the products of labor, precluding rightful claims by third parties absent consent. John Locke formalized this in his Second Treatise of Government (1689), contending that "every man has a property in his own person" which extends to the labor of that person, justifying acquisition of unowned resources through productive use. This doctrine derives property rights from natural agency, where the causal origination of value-added goods traces back to the self-directing individual, thus underpinning self-governance as a system of reciprocal respect for these boundaries rather than imposed hierarchy.^[12] Twentieth-century libertarians refined self-ownership to critique expansive state power. Robert Nozick, in Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974), invoked it to defend entitlement theory, where holdings arise from self-owned labor and just transfers, rendering redistributive policies akin to forced labor violations. Murray Rothbard, in The Ethics of Liberty (1982), argued that partial communal ownership of persons equates to fractional slavery, logically inferior to full self-ownership as it severs control from agency; he extended this to children via parental guardianship until homesteading-like maturity around age 6-10, based on demonstrated self-support capability. These arguments frame self-governance not as anarchy but as non-aggressive order emerging from individuals enforcing their self-ownership through defensive institutions.^[45]^[46] Critics, including left-leaning academics, contend self-ownership entrenches inequality by prioritizing initial acquisitions over egalitarian redistribution, yet proponents counter that such objections presuppose unowned persons as divisible resources, contradicting observable human separateness and initiative. Empirical proxies, such as indices linking strong property protections to innovation rates—e.g., the 2023 International Property Rights Index correlating high scores with GDP per capita exceeding $40,000 in top jurisdictions—suggest self-ownership-aligned regimes foster productive self-direction, though isolating causality demands controlling for cultural confounders.

Ordered Liberty vs. Unrestrained Anarchy

Ordered liberty refers to a framework of self-governance in which individual freedoms are exercised within established rules of law and moral constraints that prevent arbitrary interference and promote mutual cooperation. This concept, rooted in classical liberal thought, posits that true liberty requires an underlying order to safeguard rights and enable societal flourishing, as unrestrained individual actions without such structure devolve into conflict. John Locke, in his Second Treatise of Government (1689), argued that while the state of nature grants natural liberty, its inconveniences—such as the lack of impartial arbiters for disputes—necessitate civil government to secure life, liberty, and property without descending into perpetual insecurity.^[11]^[10] In contrast, unrestrained anarchy envisions self-governance as the complete absence of coercive authority, relying solely on voluntary associations and individual enforcement of rights. Proponents, including some anarcho-capitalists, contend that markets can spontaneously provide law and defense, eliminating the risks of state monopoly on violence. However, classical liberals critique this as untenable, asserting that without a minimal, impartial framework, power vacuums invite domination by the strong, undermining the very self-ownership anarchy seeks to protect. F.A. Hayek emphasized that liberty thrives under the "rule of law," where general, predictable rules evolve spontaneously but require institutional enforcement to curb knowledge limits and opportunistic behavior that erode trust and exchange.^[47]^[48] From first-principles reasoning, human coordination demands reciprocity and enforcement mechanisms, as empirical observations of ungoverned spaces—such as failed states or frontier lawlessness—reveal heightened violence and transaction costs that stifle innovation and prosperity. Locke's analysis highlights causal realism: self-interest in a rule-void environment prompts preemptive aggression, as individuals cannot reliably predict others' compliance, leading to a tragedy of the commons in security. Ordered liberty resolves this by devolving governance to the lowest viable level—personal virtue, community norms, and limited state—while anarchy's rejection of any sovereign authority ignores these coordination failures, fostering instability over sustainable self-rule.^[49]^[50] Classical liberal thinkers like Hayek further distinguish ordered liberty by its emphasis on evolved traditions and decentralized decision-making, which anarchy overlooks in favor of rationalist blueprints prone to error. While anarchy appeals to absolute autonomy, it conflates liberty with license, neglecting that genuine self-governance entails internal discipline and external accountability to preserve the conditions for voluntary interaction. Thus, ordered liberty aligns self-governance with human nature's blend of rationality and frailty, averting the chaos that pure anarchy invites.^[51]^[52]

Critiques from Classical Liberal Thinkers

John Locke, in his Second Treatise of Government (1689), contended that self-governance in the state of nature, while grounded in natural law and individual rights to life, liberty, and property, is undermined by practical "inconveniences" such as the lack of settled, known laws; the absence of impartial judges to resolve disputes; and the difficulty of individuals executing justice themselves, often leading to bias, feuds, and insecurity that necessitate civil government to provide these functions impartially.^[53]^[54] Locke emphasized that these deficiencies arise because, though reason governs the state of nature, human partiality and power imbalances prevent reliable enforcement, prompting rational individuals to consent to government solely for protecting natural rights without surrendering them.^[11] John Stuart Mill, building on utilitarian principles in Considerations on Representative Government (1861), critiqued unchecked self-governance by arguing that while individual autonomy fosters progress, societies require governmental structures to elevate citizens' virtue, intelligence, and capacities, as pure individualism risks stagnation or harm without institutional mechanisms to promote education, deliberation, and protection against exploitation.^[55]^[56] Mill warned that without representative government enforcing general rules and countering tendencies toward conformity or despotism, self-governance devolves into inefficiency or vulnerability to demagogues, insisting on constitutional limits to harness individuality for collective improvement rather than isolated anarchy.^[57] Friedrich Hayek, in works like Law, Legislation and Liberty (1973–1979), distinguished spontaneous orders—such as markets emerging from individual actions under abstract rules—from anarchy, critiquing the latter as incapable of sustaining complex coordination because it lacks a minimal coercive framework to enforce predictable general laws, prevent arbitrary violence, and resolve disputes over scarce resources impartially.^[58] Hayek argued that classical liberalism demands a limited state monopoly on force not to impose ends but to uphold evolved rules of conduct, viewing anarcho-libertarian alternatives as prone to factional breakdown or private tyrannies that undermine the extended order essential for liberty and prosperity.^[47]^[51] Ludwig von Mises, in Liberalism (1927), rejected anarchist self-governance as illusory, asserting that even minimal societies require a state apparatus for defense, contract enforcement, and monopoly prevention, as decentralized alternatives invite endless conflicts over adjudication and devolve into de facto hierarchies without the liberal commitment to universal legal equality under a neutral authority.^[59] These thinkers collectively maintained that while self-governance aligns with human agency, its radical forms ignore empirical realities of conflict and coordination, favoring ordered liberty through constrained institutions over presumptions of flawless voluntary harmony.^[60]

Mechanisms and Forms

Personal and Familial Self-Governance

Personal self-governance refers to the capacity of individuals to direct their own lives through rational decision-making, impulse control, and adherence to personal standards, free from coercive external interference. This concept, rooted in classical liberal thought, emphasizes self-ownership and the moral responsibility to govern one's actions, as articulated in discussions of individual liberty where persons forge their destinies via voluntary choices.^[8] Psychologically, it manifests as self-regulation, involving effortful management of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to align with long-term goals, with studies showing that higher self-regulatory capacity correlates with improved health outcomes and goal attainment in adults.^[61] ^[62] In practice, personal self-governance encompasses domains such as financial independence, where individuals budget and invest without reliance on state welfare; health management through disciplined habits rather than mandated interventions; and voluntary associations for mutual aid, avoiding dependency on centralized authority. Empirical evidence from longitudinal studies indicates that strong self-regulation predicts better time management and professional success, as individuals dynamically adjust behaviors to overcome obstacles like procrastination.^[63] Disruptions, such as overreliance on external regulations, can undermine this by eroding personal agency, leading to reduced motivation and resilience, as observed in behavioral economics research on autonomy's role in sustained effort.^[64] Familial self-governance extends this principle to the household unit, where parents exercise authority over child-rearing, education, and resource allocation without undue state intrusion, preserving the family's role as the primary sphere of socialization and moral formation. U.S. constitutional precedents affirm parents' fundamental liberty interest in the care, custody, and control of their children, protecting decisions on upbringing from arbitrary governmental override.^[65] This autonomy enables families to instill values, enforce discipline, and manage internal conflicts through private norms, contrasting with state-centric models that may impose uniform standards ill-suited to diverse households. Key mechanisms include homeschooling, where parents tailor education to individual needs, yielding superior academic and social outcomes; data from national research institutes show homeschooled students scoring 15-30 percentile points above public school averages on standardized tests, with enhanced self-esteem and family cohesion.^[66] In family businesses, self-governance structures like councils and succession protocols foster longevity and innovation, with empirical analyses revealing that formalized family governance practices boost social capital and firm performance by aligning generational interests.^[67] Such systems reduce external dependencies, as families handle disputes via arbitration or custom rather than litigation, promoting stability; however, failures arise from poor internal dynamics, underscoring the need for voluntary hierarchies grounded in mutual consent.^[68] Overall, familial self-governance correlates with lower conflict and higher prosperity when insulated from egalitarian mandates that prioritize uniformity over organic authority.^[69]

Local and Community-Based Systems

Local self-governance manifests in systems where communities exercise direct control over internal affairs, such as resource allocation, dispute resolution, and norm enforcement, often with minimal external oversight. These arrangements emphasize voluntary association, customary rules, and participatory decision-making, contrasting with top-down state administration by prioritizing local knowledge and accountability. Historical precedents include the New England town meeting system, established in the 1630s in Massachusetts Bay Colony, where adult male inhabitants gathered periodically to deliberate and vote on budgets, land use, and bylaws, embodying direct democracy and preserving autonomy from colonial authorities.^[70] ^[71] This model persisted into the modern era in select rural New England towns, such as Concord, Massachusetts, where registered voters convene in open assemblies to approve expenditures and ordinances, maintaining traditions dating to 1635 and enabling rapid adaptation to local needs without intermediary bureaucracies.^[72] In these forums, decisions require majority approval among attendees, fostering civic engagement but occasionally yielding inefficiencies from low turnout or factional disputes. Empirical analyses indicate that such participatory local structures correlate with higher resident satisfaction and effective service delivery compared to appointed councils, as proximity reduces agency problems and aligns incentives with community preferences.^[73] Community-based systems extend self-governance to non-territorial or culturally distinct groups, relying on internal hierarchies and social sanctions rather than formal statutes. Among Old Order Amish settlements, governance occurs through autonomous church districts comprising 20 to 40 households, each led by elected bishops, ministers, and deacons who interpret and enforce the Ordnung—a set of unwritten behavioral guidelines covering technology use, dress, and family roles—via consensus and mechanisms like avoidance (social shunning) for violations.^[74] ^[75] Established from 1693 schisms in European Anabaptism and expanded in North America since the 18th century, these districts operate with geographic boundaries defined by natural features, minimizing state intervention by forgoing most subsidies and emphasizing mutual aid for welfare, education, and conflict mediation. Amish communities demonstrate low incarceration rates—near zero for internal offenses—and self-sufficiency, with over 350,000 members across 2,000 districts as of 2020 sustaining agricultural economies amid broader societal modernization.^[75] Such localized systems yield measurable benefits in stability and resource efficiency, as decentralized authority facilitates tailored solutions that enhance economic vitality and social cohesion; for instance, studies of U.S. municipalities find that competent local competencies in planning and enforcement boost regional growth by 10-15% through improved infrastructure and business climates.^[76] However, scalability limits apply, with larger populations risking coordination failures absent strong norms, as evidenced by occasional Amish district splits over Ordnung interpretations since the 19th century.^[74] Overall, these forms underscore causal links between proximity in governance and reduced opportunism, supporting prosperity via emergent order rather than imposed uniformity.^[73]

Institutional and Federal Arrangements

Federal arrangements for self-governance typically involve the division of authority between a central government and semi-autonomous subunits, such as states or cantons, allowing local entities to manage internal affairs while coordinating on shared matters like defense.^[77] This structure preserves subunit sovereignty, fostering experimentation and responsiveness to diverse populations, as seen in systems where powers are explicitly reserved to lower levels.^[78] In the United States, the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791, reserves to the states or the people those powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states, forming the cornerstone of American federalism.^[79] This arrangement enables states to enact policies tailored to local conditions, such as varying regulatory approaches to education and law enforcement, thereby enhancing self-governance by limiting centralized overreach.^[78] Federal intrusions, however, have periodically tested this balance, with Supreme Court rulings like Printz v. United States (1997) reaffirming limits on commandeering state officials for federal programs.^[80] The Swiss Confederation exemplifies federal self-governance through its 1848 constitution, which allocates significant autonomy to 26 cantons in domains including taxation, education, and police powers, while the federal level handles foreign policy, currency, and national defense.^[81] Cantons exercise direct democracy via referenda on cantonal laws, reinforcing local accountability; for instance, Zurich Canton manages its own fiscal policies independently of federal mandates.^[82] This multilayered system, evolving from medieval alliances in 1291, has sustained stability across linguistic and cultural divides without eroding national unity.^[26] Modern territorial autonomies also illustrate federal-like institutional self-governance. Greenland's Self-Government Act, effective June 21, 2009, transferred authority over resources, education, and health from Denmark to Greenlandic institutions, recognizing the Inuit population's right to self-determination under international law while Denmark retains defense and foreign affairs.^[83] This arrangement includes a block grant of 3.9 billion Danish kroner annually (as of 2023 data), funding self-governed operations and enabling policies like resource extraction decisions independent of Copenhagen.^[84] Such pacts demonstrate how asymmetric federalism can accommodate indigenous self-rule within larger realms, though fiscal dependencies persist.^[85]

Empirical Evidence of Outcomes

Correlations with Prosperity and Innovation

Empirical studies consistently demonstrate a positive correlation between measures of economic freedom—encompassing elements of self-governance such as decentralized decision-making, secure property rights, and limited central intervention—and higher GDP per capita. According to the Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom, nations scoring higher on economic freedom metrics achieve sustained higher growth rates in per capita GDP, with data from successive editions showing this pattern across time periods up to 2023.^[86] A 2023 analysis by the Atlantic Council further establishes causality, estimating that a 17-point increase in economic freedom (on a 100-point scale) boosts GDP per capita by approximately 32 percent, drawing on panel data from multiple countries.^[87] Similarly, a 2024 peer-reviewed study in Humanities and Social Sciences Communications confirms that higher economic freedom levels predict elevated GDP growth rates and per capita GDP across diverse economies.^[88] Decentralized governance structures, akin to self-governance at local or federal levels, amplify prosperity by enabling policy experimentation and competition among jurisdictions. Research on Swiss cantons indicates that competitive federalism—where subnational units vie for residents and investment—enhances economic performance more effectively than cooperative centralization, based on fiscal data from 1990 to 2018.^[89] A 2025 study in Lex localis journal links greater fiscal, administrative, and political autonomy in local governments to improved economic growth and human development indices, analyzing cross-country variations in self-rule metrics.^[90] These findings underscore how self-governance reduces bureaucratic inefficiencies and aligns incentives with local knowledge, fostering resource allocation closer to productive uses. On innovation, decentralization correlates with increased technological output and firm-level creativity by promoting diverse trials and reducing top-down constraints. A Philadelphia Fed analysis synthesizes empirical evidence showing that decentralized systems outperform centralized ones in generating innovations, as sub-units adapt rapidly to local conditions, evidenced by patent and R&D data from U.S. states and firms.^[91] Fiscal decentralization has been linked to higher technological innovation in global samples, particularly when moderated by globalization and R&D investment, per a 2021 Technological Forecasting and Social Change study using panel regressions on OECD and emerging economies.^[92] In China, a natural experiment delegating export authority to local levels resulted in measurable upticks in firm patents and exports, highlighting decentralization's role in spurring innovative behavior from 2001 onward.^[93] Such mechanisms align with self-governance principles, where autonomous agents pursue novel solutions unhindered by uniform mandates, yielding higher aggregate inventive capacity.

Case Studies of Successful Implementations

The Icelandic Commonwealth, established in 930 AD, exemplified decentralized self-governance through a system of chieftains (goðar) who managed local affairs without a central executive or monarch, relying instead on the Althing assembly for legislative and judicial functions. This structure, derived from Norse traditions, allowed freeholders to select chieftains voluntarily and enforced laws via private prosecution and outlawry, fostering a society that sustained itself for over three centuries amid harsh environmental conditions. Empirical accounts indicate relative stability, with the population growing from settler levels to around 50,000-80,000 by the 12th century, supported by communal dispute resolution that minimized large-scale warfare until internal power consolidations in the Sturlung Age.^[23]^[94] The system's success in maintaining order without coercive state apparatus is evidenced by the development of a comprehensive legal code (Grágás) by the early 11th century, which prioritized restitution over punishment and enabled economic specialization in fishing and farming.^[95] Switzerland's cantonal federalism, originating in the 1291 pact among Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, demonstrates long-term viability through autonomous local governance layered with confederal coordination, evolving into a modern federation in 1848 that preserves extensive cantonal fiscal and policy sovereignty. Cantons control taxation, education, and welfare, with inter-cantonal competition driving efficiency; empirical panel data from 1980-2008 across 26 cantons show fiscal decentralization correlates with 1-2% higher GDP per capita growth, attributed to tailored policies reducing public spending inefficiencies.^[96] This model has sustained political stability, with no civil war since 1847 and direct democracy mechanisms like referenda enabling local vetoes on federal overreach, contributing to Switzerland's top rankings in global prosperity indices, including a 2023 GDP per capita of approximately $92,000 USD.^[97] Studies confirm that cantonal tax autonomy fosters innovation, as evidenced by lower unemployment (around 2.5% in 2022) and higher patent rates per capita compared to unitary states.^[98] In the United States, early colonial townships in New England, such as those in Massachusetts from the 1630s, implemented town meetings for direct local self-governance, where freemen voted on budgets, militias, and bylaws without higher oversight until state codification. This Puritan-derived system managed infrastructure and poor relief effectively, with records showing Plymouth Colony's townships sustaining population growth to over 100,000 by 1700 through voluntary associations and minimal debt. Historical analyses link this to lower conflict levels, as town-level experimentation in land allocation and education preceded national prosperity, informing federalism's subsidiarity principle in the 1787 Constitution.^[99] Modern extensions, like Native American tribal self-governance under the 1988 Indian Self-Determination Act amendments, have yielded economic gains; tribes exercising compacting authority saw per capita incomes rise 20-30% in self-administered programs by 2020, with reduced federal dependency and improved service delivery in health and education.^[100]^[4]

Metrics of Stability and Conflict Reduction

Empirical assessments of stability in self-governing systems often employ metrics such as political stability indices from the World Bank, which measure perceptions of the likelihood of destabilizing violence or terrorism on a scale from -2.5 (weak) to 2.5 (strong). Switzerland, exemplifying federal self-governance through its cantonal autonomy established in 1848, consistently ranks high, with a 2023 score of 1.07 and an 88.63 percentile rank among global peers, reflecting low incidence of internal upheaval attributable to decentralized decision-making that accommodates linguistic and cultural diversity.^[101]^[102] This contrasts with more unitary states prone to centralized tensions, though causal attribution requires controlling for confounders like economic prosperity. Cross-national studies link federal structures, a form of self-governance, to reduced civil war onset, particularly in ethnically heterogeneous societies, where devolution of authority mitigates grievances by enabling regional self-rule and lowering secessionist incentives. One analysis of global data finds ethnic federalism decreases civil conflict probability by placating marginalized groups through enhanced local control, with evidence from post-colonial federations showing fewer escalations compared to unitary counterparts.^[103]^[104] However, such arrangements can intensify localized violence if autonomy entrenches rival power centers, as seen in some cases where federalism shortened but bloodied civil wars by facilitating independent declarations.^[105] In polycentric self-governing systems, stability metrics include the endurance of institutions and conflict resolution efficacy, as theorized by Elinor Ostrom, whose empirical work on common-pool resources documents long-term sustainability in self-organized communities without top-down coercion. Successful cases, such as irrigation associations in Nepal and fisheries in Maine, exhibit metrics like sustained resource yields over decades—contrasting with centralized failures leading to depletion—due to nested rules that adapt locally and resolve disputes via overlapping jurisdictions.^[106]^[107] These systems foster stability by internalizing externalities through voluntary compliance, evidenced by lower breakdown rates in polycentric versus monolithic governance. Social metrics further indicate conflict reduction, with experimental data revealing higher cooperation norms in regions with historical self-governance; for instance, residents of medieval self-governing Swiss-style municipalities contribute more in public goods games, correlating with reduced defection and interpersonal conflict potential in modern settings.^[108] Fiscal decentralization studies corroborate this, showing improved political risk profiles in resource-dependent economies, though outcomes vary by institutional quality.^[109] Overall, while not universally pacifying— as poorly implemented decentralization can exacerbate local rivalries—these metrics underscore self-governance's capacity to enhance resilience against large-scale instability through adaptive, bottom-up mechanisms.^[110]

Criticisms and Counterarguments

Challenges from Centralized Authority Advocates

Advocates of centralized authority, drawing from Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651), contend that decentralized self-governance risks descending into anarchy akin to the "state of nature," where individuals pursue self-interest without a unifying sovereign, leading to perpetual conflict and instability. Hobbes argued that fragmented authority, as seen in pre-Civil War England, fosters civil war by enabling factionalism and undermining collective security, necessitating an absolute central power to enforce peace and contracts. This view posits self-governance at local levels as insufficient for overriding parochial interests, potentially resulting in violence as groups compete without higher arbitration.^[111] In historical contexts, such as the United States under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789), proponents of centralization highlight how weak decentralized structures failed to coordinate national defense, manage debts from the Revolutionary War (totaling about $40 million), or regulate interstate commerce, prompting the 1787 Constitutional Convention to establish a stronger federal government.^[112] Similarly, Russia's post-Soviet decentralization in the 1990s contributed to economic collapse, regional separatism, and institutional weakness, with GDP contracting by 40% between 1990 and 1998, justifying Vladimir Putin's recentralization reforms from 2000 onward to restore stability.^[113] Empirical studies on crisis response underscore centralization's advantages in rapid decision-making and resource allocation. During the COVID-19 pandemic, centralized systems in countries like China enabled swift lockdowns and vaccine distribution, correlating with lower initial per capita death rates (e.g., 3 per million by mid-2020 versus higher in decentralized federations like the U.S. at 400 per million), though at the cost of individual liberties.^[114] Research on organizational resilience finds centralized IT governance enhances crisis recovery by 20–30% through unified command, reducing coordination failures inherent in dispersed self-governing units.^[115] Critics of self-governance further argue that excessive decentralization exacerbates inequality and inefficiency, as local entities lack scale for public goods like infrastructure or defense, leading to uneven service provision—evident in EU debates where centralized fiscal transfers mitigated disparities, with peripheral regions receiving €300 billion in cohesion funds from 2007–2013 to counter market-driven fragmentation.^[116] While acknowledging potential for local innovation, centralists maintain that national-scale challenges, such as climate adaptation or pandemics, demand hierarchical authority to enforce uniform standards and prevent free-riding by autonomous communities.^[117] These challenges emphasize causal links between diffused power and systemic vulnerabilities, prioritizing order over autonomy.^[118]

Empirical Failures and Pathologies

Decentralized self-governance systems have demonstrated vulnerabilities to elite capture, where local power structures enable entrenched interests to monopolize decision-making and resources, often exacerbating corruption and inefficiency. In analyses of fiscal decentralization, local governments frequently prioritize short-term gains for dominant groups over broader welfare, as seen in empirical studies of developing economies where decentralization correlated with higher localized corruption indices without corresponding improvements in service delivery.^[119] This pathology arises from reduced oversight and information asymmetries, allowing rent-seeking behaviors that undermine accountability.^[120] Coordination failures represent another core pathology, particularly in addressing externalities requiring collective action, such as national defense or public health crises. Decentralized arrangements often suffer from free-rider problems, where sub-units underinvest in shared goods, leading to suboptimal outcomes; for instance, fragmented local responses during pandemics have delayed containment efforts compared to centralized directives.^[121] Historical evidence from federal systems illustrates this, as in Russia's post-Soviet federalism, where asymmetric autonomy empowered regional elites to withhold fiscal contributions, contributing to macroeconomic instability and uneven development in the 1990s.^[122] Ethnic and sectarian conflicts have intensified under self-governing frameworks that devolve power along identity lines, fostering zero-sum competitions. In Lebanon, the confessional power-sharing system established by the 1943 National Pact allocated parliamentary seats proportionally to religious sects (e.g., 6:5 Christian-Muslim ratio), but demographic shifts and veto powers led to governance paralysis, culminating in the 1975–1990 civil war that claimed over 150,000 lives and displaced 1 million people.^[123] Similarly, Yugoslavia's 1974 constitution granted republics veto rights and economic autonomy, which amplified inter-republican rivalries amid debt crises, precipitating the federation's dissolution and wars from 1991–1999 that resulted in approximately 140,000 deaths.^[124] In Somalia, the collapse of central authority in 1991 devolved control to clan-based militias, enabling warlord dominance and cycles of violence; by 1992, factional fighting had caused famine affecting 4.5 million people and over 300,000 deaths, with piracy and terrorism persisting due to absent supralocal enforcement.^[125]^[126] These cases highlight how self-governance can entrench parochialism, impeding scale-appropriate responses to systemic shocks. Empirical reviews of decentralization initiatives in Africa and Latin America show that while initial participation may rise, long-term stability erodes without countervailing institutions, with failure rates exceeding 50% in promoting equitable development.^[127]^[128] Pathologies persist even in ostensibly stable federations, where local autonomy enables regulatory arbitrage, as corporations exploit jurisdictional differences to evade standards, complicating uniform policy enforcement.^[129]

Responses to Egalitarian Objections

Proponents of self-governance contend that egalitarian objections, which prioritize outcome equality over opportunity and merit, fail to account for the inefficiencies of centralized redistribution, which often distort incentives and reduce overall prosperity.^[130] Central authorities lack the dispersed knowledge necessary to allocate resources equitably without suppressing individual initiative, leading to outcomes where coerced equality harms productivity and innovation more than it alleviates disparities.^[131] This perspective, rooted in analyses of planning failures, emphasizes that self-governing units foster competition and adaptation, enabling tailored solutions that elevate absolute living standards across groups, even if relative gaps persist.^[132] Empirical analyses of fiscal decentralization in OECD countries from 1971 to 2000 reveal a negative association with household income inequality, as local decision-making aligns policies more closely with regional needs, mitigating disparities through efficient resource use rather than uniform mandates.^[133] Similarly, cross-country studies indicate that decentralization correlates with lower poverty headcount ratios, suggesting that devolved governance promotes growth-oriented policies benefiting lower-income populations without the leveling-down effects of egalitarian centralism.^[134] These findings counter claims of entrenched local inequalities by highlighting how inter-jurisdictional rivalry encourages responsiveness, with exit options for dissatisfied groups pressuring elites toward accountability—dynamics absent in unitary systems prone to capture by national bureaucracies.^[135] Critics of egalitarian centralization further argue that forcing outcome parity ignores innate variations in ability and effort, which self-governance respects through voluntary associations and market signals, yielding higher social mobility than rigid hierarchies.^[136] For instance, decentralized systems demonstrate reduced income inequality in developing economies where local experimentation outperforms top-down egalitarianism, which historical cases like Soviet planning show amplifies shortages disproportionately affecting the vulnerable.^[137] While academic sources favoring centralization may reflect institutional preferences for control, rigorous econometric evidence underscores that self-governance enhances opportunity equality by decentralizing power, allowing diverse paths to prosperity unbound by one-size-fits-all interventions.^[134]

Modern Applications and Developments

Decentralized Technologies and DAOs

Decentralized technologies, primarily blockchain protocols, facilitate self-governance by enabling peer-to-peer coordination through immutable smart contracts and consensus mechanisms, bypassing traditional hierarchical intermediaries. These systems operate on distributed ledgers where rules are encoded in code, executed automatically upon predefined conditions, and verified by network participants via mechanisms like proof-of-stake or proof-of-work. In practice, this allows communities to manage resources, enforce agreements, and make collective decisions without centralized enforcement, as seen in applications like decentralized finance (DeFi) protocols that automate lending, trading, and asset management.^[138]^[139] Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs) represent a key evolution of these technologies, functioning as blockchain-based entities governed by member-held tokens rather than appointed leaders. Participants propose and vote on initiatives using token-weighted systems, with outcomes executed via smart contracts, theoretically aligning incentives through economic stakes. The concept gained prominence with the launch of "The DAO" on Ethereum in April 2016, which raised over $150 million in ether to fund decentralized venture investments but suffered a $50 million exploit due to a smart contract vulnerability, prompting a controversial network hard fork.^[140]^[141] Prominent DAOs include MakerDAO, which governs the DAI stablecoin and has maintained over $5 billion in collateralized assets through community-voted risk parameters, and Uniswap DAO, overseeing a decentralized exchange that processed over $1 trillion in trading volume by 2025. Collectively, DAOs and associated DeFi protocols locked approximately $123.6 billion in total value (TVL) across chains as of mid-2025, demonstrating scalable resource coordination. Empirical analyses indicate that token-based voting can enhance value creation in some cases, with governance proposals correlating to protocol fee revenue and user growth.^[142]^[143] However, DAO governance often exhibits practical limitations undermining pure decentralization. Voter participation remains low, typically below 10% of token holders in major DAOs, leading to decisions dominated by large "whale" holders who control disproportionate influence. Studies through 2025 reveal tendencies toward informal centralization, where core teams or delegates handle execution despite on-chain voting, exacerbated by high transaction costs and coordination failures. Legal ambiguities persist, with DAOs facing regulatory scrutiny; for instance, U.S. authorities have pursued actions against DAO operators for unregistered securities, highlighting vulnerabilities to off-chain enforcement. Despite these, DAOs have enabled novel self-governance in niche domains, such as treasury management exceeding $28 billion across protocols by July 2025, though sustained effectiveness requires addressing plutocratic biases and scalability hurdles.^[144]^[145]^[146]

Tribal and Indigenous Contexts

In the United States, tribal sovereignty has enabled Native American nations to exercise self-governance over internal affairs, including economic development, law enforcement, and resource management, leading to measurable improvements in prosperity since the 1990s.^[147] Tribes that strengthen institutions of governance, such as stable leadership and separation of powers, exhibit higher economic performance, with per capita income growth outpacing non-sovereign communities.^[148] For instance, sovereign tribes have generated over 1.1 million jobs and more than $7 billion in annual economic activity prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, often through enterprises like gaming and natural resource extraction under federal recognition of their authority.^[149] These outcomes stem from reduced external interference, allowing tribes to adapt policies causally linked to local needs, though persistent challenges like federal funding dependencies and jurisdictional disputes limit full autonomy.^[150] ![Nuuk and Katuaq Culture Centre, Greenland][float-right] In Arctic regions, Inuit self-governance models demonstrate varied applications of indigenous authority within larger state frameworks. Greenland's 2009 Self-Government Act granted the Inuit-majority population control over domestic policies, including education, health, and fisheries, while recognizing their right to self-determination under international law, building on Home Rule established in 1979.^[85] This has facilitated resource management decisions, such as mineral exploitation, contributing to fiscal independence from Denmark, though economic reliance on subsidies—amounting to about 60% of GDP—and debates over full independence reveal path-dependent constraints from colonial legacies.^[151] Public support for independence fluctuated, dropping from 61% in 2002 to 44% in 2017, reflecting trade-offs between autonomy and economic stability.^[152] Canada's Nunavut Territory, created in 1999 through the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, represents a public government model of Inuit self-governance, returning control over approximately 350,000 square kilometers of land and resources to Inuit organizations while integrating majority-Inuit representation in territorial legislature.^[153] Outcomes include Inuit-led policies on wildlife management and education in Inuktitut, yet empirical indicators show elevated food insecurity rates—exceeding 40% in some communities—and high unemployment, attributed to incomplete devolution of powers and external economic pressures rather than inherent flaws in self-rule structures.^[154] Recent federal investments, such as $1.3 billion for Inuit Nunangat housing from 2022-2024, aim to bolster self-determined infrastructure, underscoring causal links between enhanced fiscal tools and governance efficacy.^[155] Across these cases, empirical evidence correlates stronger self-governance with adaptive decision-making, though success hinges on institutional capacity and resource endowments, countering narratives of uniform failure by highlighting context-specific causal mechanisms.^[4]

Recent Political Movements

In the United States, the Convention of States project has gained traction as a grassroots effort to invoke Article V of the Constitution, aiming to propose amendments that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit its jurisdiction, and enhance state sovereignty. By December 2024, 19 states had passed resolutions calling for such a convention, with advocates arguing it restores self-governance by curbing centralized overreach.^[156] Critics, including legal scholars, warn of risks like a runaway convention altering foundational structures, though proponents counter that state-driven processes inherently protect against such outcomes.^[157]^[158] Tribal self-governance among Native American nations has advanced through expanded use of self-determination contracts and compacts under the 1975 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, with recent federal support emphasizing autonomy in service delivery and resource management. In September 2025, U.S. Senator Lisa Murkowski highlighted successful self-determination outcomes for Alaska Native corporations, attributing economic resilience to tribal control over programs traditionally managed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.^[159] As of 2025, over 400 tribes participate in self-governance, demonstrating measurable improvements in health, education, and infrastructure via localized decision-making.^[160]^[161] The localism movement, advocating devolution of authority to communities over national or supranational entities, has seen renewed advocacy in the 2020s amid critiques of centralized inefficiency. A July 2025 manifesto outlined localism's core tenet: prioritizing local power hierarchies to foster responsive governance and economic resilience, with examples including municipal innovations in zoning and procurement that bypass state-level barriers.^[162] Proponents cite empirical benefits like reduced bureaucratic delays, though implementation varies by jurisdiction and faces resistance from entrenched federal interests.^[163] In Europe, self-determination movements persist, exemplified by Scotland's independence campaign, where pro-secession parties maintained parliamentary influence despite fragmentation over strategy and economics as of September 2025.^[164] Catalonia's separatist drive, while waning after 2017's failed referendum, saw residual mobilization into 2025, with parties securing regional seats but lacking majority support for renewed bids.^[165] These efforts underscore tensions between regional autonomy aspirations and EU integration, often justified by cultural preservation and fiscal equity claims.^[166]

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Quite the contrary, what Mises means by "liberalism" is classical liberalism -- the system of limited constitutional government, politically unhampered markets, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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The State and Freedom—Are Classical Liberals Anarchists? | Blog
Dec 16, 2021 · Classical liberalism was never “anarchist” by nature and therefore never simply advocated individual freedom alone. For it did not hold that ...
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The Structure of Self-Regulation and Its Psychological and Physical ...
Self-regulation refers to effortful control over one's thoughts, emotions, choices, impulses, and behaviors, and has implications for older adults' health.Missing: governance | Show results with:governance
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What is Self-Regulation? (+9 Skills and Strategies)
Self-regulation involves managing emotions, thoughts & behaviors to achieve long-term goals, enhancing personal & professional success.Missing: governance | Show results with:governance
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Dynamic Self-Regulation: A Key to Effective Time Management
Aug 18, 2025 · This study investigates the mechanisms through which dynamic self-regulation enhances one's ability to manage time effectively.
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Motivation and self‐regulation: The role of want‐to ... - Compass Hub
Dec 11, 2018 · Research on self-regulation has largely focused on the idea of effortful self-control, which assumes that exerting willpower will lead to ...
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Amdt14.S1.6.3.4 Family Autonomy and Substantive Due Process
The Court has reiterated parents' fundamental liberty interest in the care, custody, and management of their children.
[66]
Fast Facts on Homeschooling | National Home Education Research ...
Jan 27, 2025 · Research facts on homeschooling show that the home-educated are doing well, typically above average, on measures of social, emotional, and ...Missing: governance | Show results with:governance
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Enhancing Enterprise Family Social Capital Through Family ...
Jul 28, 2022 · We find empirical support for the notion that family governance practices can enhance family social capital. Furthermore, our empirical results ...
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(PDF) Governance in Family Businesses: Evidence and Implications
Dec 6, 2019 · This report examines the literature on corporate governance, family governance, as well as reviewing codes of governance for family firms.
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[PDF] Equality and Family Autonomy
Apr 2, 2022 · Those most at risk of losing the benefits of the values family autonomy protects are those whose intimate lives do not look familiar to judges.
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[PDF] The New England Town Meeting: A Founding Myth of American ...
We should note that, in town meetings, what we now call deliberation was seen less as an end in itself than as a means for settlers to be self-governing. While ...
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New England or 'Open' Town Meetings - Participedia
[5] Town Meetings were thus developed to preserve local autonomy and self-government over issues such as religious freedom and tax laws. Town meetings have been ...
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Town Meeting: Concord's Living Wonder
Jun 15, 2022 · First and foremost, the Concord town meeting is a direct democracy. Those in attendance of town meeting, which is open to any voter registered ...
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Does good local governance improve subjective well-being?
The goal of this research is to examine the effects of good management of local governments on individual subjective well-being (SWB).
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Organization – Amish Studies - Elizabethtown College Groups
Amish society is organized into self-governing local church districts with geographic boundaries such as roads and streams. Twenty to forty households live ...
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Government – Amish Studies - Elizabethtown College Groups
The Amish emphasize the separation of church and state. They prefer not to receive subsidies from government programs. They will typically not serve in ...
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Examining the Impact of Local Government Competencies on ...
The results demonstrate that local government competencies positively impact regional economic vitality within local communities, with high levels of social ...
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What is federalism? - State Policy Network
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Federalism in Crisis: Urgent Action Required to Preserve Self ...
Nov 30, 2021 · The federal government's excessive intrusion into states' affairs undermines political accountability, policy innovation, and civic participation.
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Interpretation: The Tenth Amendment | Constitution Center
The Tenth Amendment warns against using a list of rights to infer powers in the national government that were not granted.
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Fair-Weather Federalism: Strategic Uses of the 10th Amendment
Jul 5, 2022 · This doctrine says the federal government cannot issue commands to the states, for example by requiring them to administer federal laws.
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Political system - About Switzerland
Switzerland is governed under a federal system at three levels: the Confederation, the cantons and the communes. Thanks to direct democracy, citizens can have ...
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[PDF] Switzerland Self-rule INSTITUTIONAL DEPTH AND POLICY SCOPE
INSTITUTIONAL DEPTH AND POLICY SCOPE. The Swiss confederation was founded in 1848 after civil war between the protestant and catholic.
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Greenland - Statsministeriet
In the preamble to the Self-Government Act, it is recognised that the people of Greenland are a people with right to self-determination under international law.
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Political system - Greenland
Greenland, an autonomous part of the Kingdom of Denmark, has a unique status under the Self-Government Act, which came into effect on June 21, 2009.
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Full article: The development of Greenland's self-government and ...
Apr 21, 2024 · The article investigates whether the development of Greenland's autonomy over the past 40 years can be fruitfully understood as a case of path dependency.
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Index of Economic Freedom: Read the Report
... economic freedom tend to achieve higher growth rates of per capita GDP over time. Throughout all the time periods considered in successive editions of the ...
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The causal relationship between economic freedom and prosperity
Sep 18, 2023 · A 17-point increase in economic freedom would increase a country's GDP per capita by 17 × 1.9 percent, or approximately 32 percent. This is an ...
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The impact of economic freedom on economic growth in countries ...
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Fiscal federalism and economic performance new evidence from ...
The paper suggests that instruments of competitive federalism rather improve economic performance of the cantons, while the effects of cooperative elements are ...
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Lex localis - Journal of Local Self-Government
Jun 8, 2025 · This study examines how fiscal, administrative, and political autonomy influence economic growth, human development, and fiscal sustainability ...
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Let a Hundred Flowers Bloom! Decentralization and Innovation
Decentralization and Innovation ... Leonard Nakamura looks at the case for both sides using economic analysis, empirical studies, and anecdotal evidence.
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Is centralization killing innovation? The success story of ...
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Decentralization and firm innovation: Evidence from a natural ...
This paper examines the impact of decentralization on firm innovations based on a unique setting in China, the delegation of approval authority for export tax ...
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[PDF] Governmental Order in - Jesse Byock
In this environment the Icelanders refined their own social and governmental order. Rather than evolving from less structured forms, the Icelandic government ...
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Medieval Iceland and the Absence of Government - Mises Institute
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[PDF] Fiscal federalism and economic performance: evidence from Swiss ...
In this paper, we empirically study the impact of different instruments of fiscal federalism on economic performance measured by GDP per capita using panel data ...
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2.2 Findings of empirical research into federalism. Determining what effect federalism actually has on. Swiss competitiveness requires an empirical examina-.
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local self-government in the United States - USInfo.org
School districts are a good example of the tension between local and state forces. Historically, state law simply empowered (and sometimes required) local ...
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[PDF] The History, Status, and Future of Tribal Self-Governance Under the ...
The earliest models of self-government and self-determination were found in the restoration bills of previously terminated tribes,107 as well as through ...
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Switzerland Political stability - data, chart | TheGlobalEconomy.com
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Political Stability And Absence Of Violence/Terrorism: Percentile Rank
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Federalism and Civil War Onset: Evaluating the Link between ...
Aug 1, 2011 · Past scholars argue that ethnic federal structures reduce the probability of civil war by helping placate grievance through granting aggravated groups more ...Missing: conflict evidence
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[PDF] Federalism and Civil War Onset
Past scholars argue that ethnic federal structures reduce the probability of civil war by helping placate grievance through granting aggravated groups more self ...
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Federal Institutions, Declarations of Independence and Civil War
Nov 7, 2013 · We argue that federal systems put in place the mechanisms to make civil wars shorter but bloodier because they often allow for independent ...Missing: reduction evidence
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[PDF] Prize Lecture by Elinor Ostrom
Without a hierarchical government to induce compliance, self- seeking citizens and officials would fail to generate efficient levels of public goods, such as ...
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[PDF] The Danger of Self-Evident Truths Author(s): Elinor Ostrom Source: PS
empirical research on metropolitan governance. The research demonstrated that order and high performance were most likely to be achieved in local public ...
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[PDF] historical self-governance and norms of cooperation devesh rustagi
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Fiscal decentralization, political stability and resources curse ...
Based on the empirical findings from quantile regression, this study suggests promoting fiscal decentralization and further improving the political risk ...
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Empirical research and a number of country examples show that decentralisation can be conducive to public sector efficiency, democratisation and political ...
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Leviathan Models of Government - SpringerLink
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Arguments related to federalism - Ballotpedia
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Russia's Costly Decentralization - Schumacher Center for a New ...
The failures associated with decentralization set the stage not only for Putin's recentralization campaign, but also the dismantling of the feeble institutions ...
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Centralizing and decentralizing governance in the COVID-19 ...
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The Value of Centralized IT in Building Resilience During Crises ...
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When do crises centralise decision-making? The core executive in ...
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Corruption and Decentralized Public Governance
Where development fails, countries are at high risk of becoming caught in a conflict trap in which war wrecks the economy and increases the risk of further war.
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[PDF] An Introduction to Decentralization Failure, by Albert Breton ...
I have looked at four cases of decentralization failure. In each case, I have pointed, nothing more, to remedies that could deal with the failures while ...
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Decentralization and Governance - ScienceDirect.com
The most important theoretical argument concerning decentralization is that it can make government more accountable and responsive to the governed.
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[PDF] Pathologies of Federalism, Russian Style: Political Institutions and ...
Put simply, design problems with federalism,. Russian Style, produce standard federal pathologies rather than foster economic growth. Although officials at the ...
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Where to Start? A QCA Analysis of Lebanon, Somalia and the former ...
Putting Failed States Back Together: Where to Start? A QCA Analysis of Lebanon, Somalia and the former Yugoslavia.
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[PDF] Varieties of State-Building in the Balkans: A Case for Shifting Focus
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[PDF] Somalia – A Very Special Case
Philipp, Case Study – Somalia. 523 treaty in 1977 after the unsuccessful invasion of Ethiopia, and Soviet help for the Ethiopian government.24. Various ...
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[PDF] Democratization and Failed States: The Challenge of Ungovernability
Jun 1, 1996 · To this point the argument has been that factors accounting for failing states grow out of the colonial and post-colonial heritage, systemic ...
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[PDF] Decentralization of Governance and Development
Some case studies also exist on the effects of decentralization in different parts of the world, which provide some descriptive and suggestive correlations ...
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Unpacking decentralization failures in promoting popular ...
Aug 3, 2023 · This study revealed that the Ketu South Municipal Assembly failed to promote citizens' participation in local governance affairs of the ...
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The Democratic Drawbacks of Federalism | Second Rate Democracy
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Beyond Hayek: A Critique of Central Planning - FEE.org
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Friedrich Hayek, a staunch critic of central planning, argued that such approaches inherently fail due to the. "knowledge problem," the inability of any ...
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Hayek's Failure of Government Planning | American Compass
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The Effects of Fiscal Decentralization on Household Income Inequality
We investigate the effects of fiscal decentralization on income inequality using a sample of 23 OECD countries over the period 1971–2000. We utilize novel and ...
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(PDF) The Consequences of Fiscal Decentralization on Poverty and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We find that fiscal decentralization may have significant effects on poverty and inequality. In particular, fiscal decentralization appears to lead to ...
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[PDF] Regional Inequality and Decentralization – An Empirical Analysis
This paper analyzes the impact of political and fiscal decentralization on regional inequalities using a unique data set which covers 56 countries at ...
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Differential effects of decentralization on income inequality
We find that decentralization reduces income inequality, but the effect diminishes and eventually reverses as economic development increases.<|separator|>
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Empirical evidence on the effects of decentralisation on income sorting is scarce and the results are mixed. Schaltegger et al. (2011) find evidence of ...
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Blockchain and the emergence of Decentralized Autonomous ...
“A DAO is a blockchain-based system that enables people to coordinate and govern themselves mediated by a set of self-executing rules deployed on a public ...
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A system-based view of blockchain governance - ScienceDirect
Blockchain technology facilitates on-chain governance (referred to also as automated self-governance): governance decisions can be automatized by technical ...
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Understanding the Basics of a Decentralized Autonomous… | Hedera
A decentralized autonomous organization or DAO is a member-owned group that operates without centralized leadership using blockchain technology. Decentralized ...
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Understanding DAOs: An Empirical Study on Governance Dynamics
Feb 17, 2025 · A famous historical example caused by contract pitfalls is the huge failure of The DAO hack due to a severe bug in its smart contract code [41].
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Voting governance and value creation in decentralized autonomous ...
First, we contribute to the emerging DAO literature by providing empirical evidence on the valuation effects of different DAO governance design choices and ...Missing: failures | Show results with:failures
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Decentralized Finance Market Statistics 2025: TVL, Token Caps
Jul 18, 2025 · The Total Value Locked (TVL) across all DeFi protocols reached $123.6 billion in 2025, up 41% year-over-year.
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The Decline of Traditional Corporations: What Does Leadership ...
Sep 2, 2025 · Total value under management: DAOs collectively controlled over $28 billion in treasury assets as of July 2025, according to DeepDAO data.
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Understanding DAOs: An Empirical Study on Governance Dynamics
Oct 7, 2025 · As of May 2023, DAO has impacted over $24.3B market caps. However, there are limited studies focused on this emerging field. To fill the gap, we ...
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Sovereignty and improved economic outcomes for American Indians
Jan 14, 2021 · The exercise of American Indian tribal sovereignty over the past 30 years resulted in more economic growth and improved well-being for American Indians.
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[PDF] What Determines Indian Economic Success? Evidence from Tribal ...
Before identifying the determinants of success, it is important to take ac- count of variation in the data that results from factors beyond tribal control.
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Native American Influence on U.S. Business Success
Feb 5, 2024 · Tribal nations provided over 1.1 million jobs before the COVID-19 pandemic and generate more than $7 billion in economic activity each year.
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The power of self-determination in building sustainable economies ...
Jun 15, 2022 · Tribal sovereignty is the foundation of enduring social and economic development. The sovereign authority of American Indian tribes as a ...
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Self-rule in Greenland towards the world's first independent Inuit state?
Mar 21, 2008 · Greenlanders, who became the first population of Inuit origin to achieve a degree of self-government when Denmark granted them Home Rule in 1979 ...
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Referendums in Greenland - From Home Rule to Self-Government
In 2002, 61 per cent was in favor of independence, while in 2017 it had dropped to 44 per cent. However, these opinion polls should be taken with a pinch of ...
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4 Nunavut: Enacting Public Government as Indigenous Self ...
This chapter has sought to explain why Inuit adopted a public government model of Indigenous self-government over an Indigenous form of government.
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Hungry Days in Nunavut: The Façade of Inuit Self-Determination
May 17, 2022 · On the surface, Inuit in Nunavut look like they have achieved self-determination through a public government model that serves the majority of ...
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2024-2025 Highlight report: Inuit
Jun 3, 2025 · These investments support immediate-term housing gaps, as well as long-term, self-determined housing strategies aligned with Inuit governance.
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Article V Convention (Convention of States) - KLRD
Dec 18, 2024 · Article V of the US Constitution gives states the power to call a convention to propose and discuss amendments that impose fiscal restraints on the federal ...Missing: developments | Show results with:developments
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Jul 16, 2025 · 3 Having frequent constitutional amendment pro- cesses, like those used by many democratic countries globally,4 is generally assumed to be a ...
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Rewriting America: The Constitution under siege
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Lisa Murkowski: 'Self-Determination And Self-Governance Work ...
Sep 23, 2025 · During a Senate Indian Affairs Committee hearing last week, Sen. Lisa Murkowski (R-AK) spoke about self-determination for Native American ...
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Tribal Self-Governance: Home
An original docuseries that takes you on a journey across Indian Country – sharing stories that demonstrate the success and innovation of Tribal governments.Tribal Nations with Self... · Events · Advisory Committees · Contact Us
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Office of Self Governance | Indian Affairs
The OSG operates as a one-stop-shop that provides financial management, budgeting, accounting and contracting services for self governance tribes.
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A Localism Manifesto - The Main Street Journal
Jul 11, 2025 · Localists insist that power be held primarily at the local level, with states holding less power, countries less still, and global institutions ...
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The New Localism | Bruce Katz & Jeremy Nowak
The New Localism provides a roadmap for change that starts in the communities where most people live and work. Urban experts Bruce Katz and Jeremy Nowak ...Bruce Katz · Events · Jeremy Nowak · Newsletters<|separator|>
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One Cause, Many Voices: Scotland's Divided Independence ...
Sep 4, 2025 · Despite record public support for independence, Scotland's nationalist movement is increasingly fragmented over key issues like currency, ...
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EU's biggest secessionist movement is losing momentum - Politico.eu
Jan 21, 2025 · While secessionist parties no longer have a majority in the regional parliament, the Socialist leader knows well that independence remains ...
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Separatism Remains A Challenge From Western To Eastern Europe
Aug 20, 2024 · Most separatist movements in Europe lack the infrastructure to become independent states without external support but persist in their pursuit ...<|control11|><|separator|>